The relationship between transgender people and religion varies widely around the world. Religions range from condemning any gender variance
to honoring transgender people as religious leaders. Views within a
single religion can vary considerably, as can views between different
faiths.
Abrahamic religions
There are many different interpretations of creation stories in Abrahamic religions in which God creates people "male and female". This is sometimes interpreted as a divine mandate against challenging the gender binary and also for challenging the gender binary.
Baha'i Faith
In the Baha'i Faith,
transgender people can gain recognition in their gender if they have
medically transitioned under the direction of medical professionals and
if they have sex reassignment surgery (SRS). After SRS, they are considered transitioned and may have a Baha'i marriage.
Christianity
The New Testament presents eunuchs (Greek eunochos, similar to Hebrew saris) as acceptable candidates for evangelism and baptism, as demonstrated in the account of the conversion of an Ethiopian eunuch.
While answering questions about marriage and divorce, Jesus says that
"there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs
who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have
made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven."
Discussion has occurred about the significance of the selection of the
Ethiopian eunuch as being an early gentile convert to Christianity: the
inclusion of a eunuch, representing a sexual minority, in the context
of the time.
Some Christian denominations accept transgender people as members and clergy:
- In 2003, the United Church of Christ General Synod called for full inclusion of transgender persons.
- In 2005, Sarah Jones became the first openly transgender person to be ordained by the Church of England as a priest: the first transperson to minister in the Church of England was Carol Stone, who had been ordained in 1978 and transitioned in 2000.
- In 2008, the United Methodist Church Judicial Council ruled that openly transgender pastor Drew Phoenix could keep his position. At the UMC General Conference the same year, several petitions that would have forbidden transgender clergy and added anti-transgender language to the Book of Discipline were rejected. In 2017, the United Methodist Church commissioned its first non-binary clergy member, a transgender non-binary deacon named M Barclay. Also, Joy Everingham was the Methodist Church in Great Britain's first openly transgender minister.
- In 2012, the Episcopal Church in the United States approved a change to their nondiscrimination canons to include gender identity and expression.
- In 2013, Shannon Kearns became the first openly transgender person ordained by the North American Old Catholic Church. He was ordained in Minneapolis.
- In 2014, Megan Rohrer became the first openly transgender leader of a Lutheran congregation (specifically, Grace Evangelical Lutheran Church of San Francisco.)
- In 2017, the General Synod of the Church of England passed a motion stating, "That this Synod, recognising the need for transgender people to be welcomed and affirmed in their parish church, call on the House of Bishops to consider whether some nationally commended liturgical materials might be prepared to mark a person's gender transition."
In contrast, a 2000 document from the Catholic Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith
concludes that the sex-change procedures do not change a person's
gender in the eyes of the Church. "The key point", that document states,
"is that the transsexual surgical operation is so superficial and
external that it does not change the personality. If the person was a
male, he remains male. If she was female, she remains female."
The document also concludes that a "sex-change" operation could be
morally acceptable in certain extreme cases, but that in any case
transgender people cannot validly marry. Pope Benedict XVI denounced gender studies, warning that it blurs the distinction between male and female and could thus lead to the "self-destruction" of the human race.
He warned against the manipulation that takes place in national and
international forums when the term "gender" is altered. "What is often
expressed and understood by the term 'gender,' is definitively resolved
in the self-emancipation of the human being from creation and the
Creator", he warned. "Man wants to create himself, and to decide always
and exclusively on his own about what concerns him." The Pontiff said
this is humanity living "against truth, against the creating Spirit".
As well, in 2015, the Vatican declared that transgender Catholics
cannot become godparents, stating in response to a transgender man's
query that transgender status "reveals in a public way an attitude
opposite to the moral imperative of solving the problem of sexual
identity according to the truth of one's own sexuality" and that,
"[t]herefore it is evident that this person does not possess the
requirement of leading a life according to the faith and in the position
of godfather and is therefore unable to be admitted to the position of
godfather or godmother."
Catholics, nevertheless, have held a range of positions regarding
transgender issues. Theologian James Whitehead, for instance, has said,
“The kind of transition that trans people are talking about is very
similar to the journey of faith through darkness and desert that people
have been making for thousands of years.” The Roman Catholic Church
has been involved in the outreach to LBGT community for several years
and continues doing so in a variety of ways such as through Franciscan
urban outreach centers, namely, the "Open Hearts" outreach in Hartford, CT.
In 2006, Albert Mohler, then president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary,
said "Only God has the right to determine gender", adding, "any attempt
to alter that creation is an act of rebellion against God."
He also stated, "Christians are obligated to find our definitions … in
the Bible. What the activists want to call 'sex-reassignment surgery'
must be seen as a form of bodily mutilation rather than gender
correction. The chromosomes will continue to tell the story...Gender is
not under our control after all. When a nation's moral rebellion comes
down to this level of confusion, we are already in big trouble. A
society that can't distinguish between men and women is not likely to
find moral clarity in any other area of life." In 2014, the Southern Baptist Convention
approved a resolution at its annual meeting stating that "God's design
was the creation of two distinct and complementary sexes, male and
female" and that "gender identity is determined by biological sex, not
by one's self-perception".
Furthermore, the resolution opposes hormone therapy, transition-related
care, and anything else that would "alter one's bodily identity", as
well as opposing government efforts to "validate transgender identity as
morally praiseworthy". Instead, the resolution asks transgender people to "trust in Christ and to experience renewal in the Gospel".
Unitarian Universalism
Unitarian Universalism, a liberal religion
with roots in liberal Christianity, became the first denomination to
accept openly transgender people as full members with eligibility to
become clergy (in 1979), and the first to open an Office of Bisexual, Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Concerns (in 1973). In 1988 the first openly transgender person was ordained by the Unitarian Universalist Association.
In 2002 Rev. Sean Dennison became the first openly transgender person
in the Unitarian Universalist ministry called to serve a congregation;
he was called to South Valley UU Society, Salt Lake City, UT.
Also in 2017, the Unitarian Universalist Association's General Assembly
voted to create inclusive wordings for non-binary, genderqueer, gender
fluid, agender, intersex, two-spirit and polygender people, replacing
the words "men and women" with the word "people." Of the six sources of
the living tradition, the second source of faith, as documented in the
bylaws of the denomination, now includes “Words and deeds of prophetic
people which challenge us to confront powers and structures of evil with
justice, compassion, and the transforming power of love.”
Roman Catholicism
The Roman Catholic Church's catechism, or teaching, has no comprehensive or specific doctrine on transgender people. However, the church does traditionally equate the anatomy given at birth with gender, stating that going though processes to medically change one's body is self mutilation and sinful, "dishonoring" God's creation of that body.
The church says that gender dysphoria and same sex attraction are a
consequence of original sin, and that it is sinful if individuals act
upon these things. Pope Francis has said "biological sex and the socio-cultural role of sex (gender) can be distinguished but not separated", furthering the belief that the sex an individual was born with is their assigned gender.
Islam
In Islamic literature, the word mukhannathun is used to describe "effeminate men". The term has sometimes been equated to transgender women, gay men, members of a third gender, or intersex individuals, though it does not neatly fit into any of those categories.
The treatment of mukhannathun varied throughout early
Islamic history, and the meaning of the term took on new dimensions over
time. In some eras, men deemed mukhannathun were persecuted and castrated, while in others they were celebrated as musicians and entertainers. In later years, the term came to be associated with the receptive partner in gay sexual practices, as homosexuality was seen as an extension of effeminacy. In the late medieval era, several Islamic scholars held that mukhannathun
who had innate feminine mannerisms were not blameworthy as long as they
did not violate religious laws concerning sexual morality.
Due to Ayatollah Khomeini issuing a fatwa allowing sex reassignment surgery for intersex and transgender individuals, Iran carries out more sex change operations than any other nation in the world except for Thailand.
It is sanctioned as a supposed "cure" for homosexuality, which is
punishable by death under Iranian law. The government even provides up
to half the cost for those needing financial assistance and a sex change
is recognised on the birth certificate.
Judaism
The term saris, (סָרִיס) generally translated to English as "eunuch" or "chamberlain", appears 45 times in the TaNaKh. It frequently refers to a trusted but gender-variant person who was delegated authority by a powerful person. It is unclear whether most were in fact castrated.
In Isaiah 56 God promises eunuchs who keep the Sabbath and hold fast
to his covenant that he will build an especially good monument in heaven
for them, to make up for their childlessness.
Tumtum
(טומטום in Hebrew, meaning "hidden") is a term that appears in Jewish
Rabbinic literature and usually refers to a person whose sex is unknown,
because their genitalia are covered or "hidden". A tumtum is not defined as a separate gender, but rather a state of doubt.
Androgynos
(אנדרוגינוס in Hebrew, translation "intersex") refers to someone who
possesses both male and female sexual characteristics. The nature of the
individual's gender is ambiguous.
Orthodox Judaism
Orthodox Judaism asserts that sex/gender is an innate and eternal category based on verses in the Book of Genesis about Adam and Eve and the creation of maleness and femaleness.
Sex-change operations involving the removal of genital organs are
forbidden on the basis of the prohibition against “anything which is
mauled, crushed, torn or cut” (Lev. 22:24). A further prohibition in
Deut. 22:5, proscribes not only cross-dressing but any action uniquely
identified with the opposite sex, and this would also apply to an
operation to transform sexual characteristics. There are, nevertheless, Orthodox authorities who recognize the efficacy of sex reassignment surgery (SRS) in changing halachic sex designation. In 2007 Joy Ladin became the first openly transgender professor at an Orthodox institution (Stern College for Women in Manhattan).
Hasidic Judaism
Hasidic Judaism currently makes no place for trans people, as everything in the community is determined by gender roles. Most Hasidic Jews are barely aware of trans people, and the topic is never discussed altogether. The first person to come out as trans in a Hasidic community was trans activist and writer Abby Stein, who is also a direct descendant of Hasidic Judaism's founder the Baal Shem Tov. When Stein came out she was shunned by her family, and received much scorn from the Hasidic community.
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Judaism has mixed views on transgender people. In 2003 the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards approved a rabbinic ruling that concluded that sex reassignment surgery (SRS) is permissible as a treatment of gender dysphoria, and that a transgender person's sex status under Jewish law is changed by SRS.
There have not yet been any openly transgender rabbis or rabbinical
students affiliated with Conservative Judaism. But the Jewish
Theological Seminary, one of three Conservative movement schools, openly
admits students of all sexual orientations and gender identities for
rabbinical training and ordination. Also, Emily Aviva Kapor, who had been ordained privately by a "Conservadox" rabbi in 2005, came out in 2012, thus becoming the first openly transgender female rabbi in all of Judaism. In 2016 the Rabbinical Assembly,
which is the international association of Conservative rabbis, passed a
"Resolution Affirming the Rights of Transgender and Gender
Non-Conforming People".
Reform Judaism
Reform Judaism has expressed positive views on transgender people. Reform Judaism's Central Conference of American Rabbis
first addressed the issue of transgender Jews in 1978, when they deemed
it permissible for a person who has undergone sex reassignment surgery
(SRS) to be married according to Jewish tradition. In 1990, the Central Conference of American Rabbis declared that people who have undergone sex reassignment surgery (SRS) may convert to Judaism. In 2002 at the Reform seminary Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion in New York, Rabbi Margaret Wenig
organized the first school-wide seminar at any rabbinical school which
addressed the psychological, legal, and religious issues affecting
people who are transsexual or intersex. In 2003 Reuben Zellman became the first openly transgender person accepted to Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion; he was ordained there in 2010. Also in 2003, the Union for Reform Judaism
retroactively applied its pro-rights policy on gays and lesbians to the
transgender and bisexual communities, issuing a resolution titled,
"Support for the Inclusion and Acceptance of the Transgender and
Bisexual Communities." Also in 2003, Women of Reform Judaism
issued a statement describing their support for human and civil rights
and the struggles of the transgender and bisexual communities, and
saying, "Women of Reform Judaism accordingly: Calls for civil rights
protections from all forms of discrimination against bisexual and
transgender individuals; Urges that such legislation allows transgender
individuals to be seen under the law as the gender by which they
identify; and
Calls upon sisterhoods to hold informative programs about the
transgender and bisexual communities." In 2006 Elliot Kukla,
who had come out as transgender six months before his ordination,
became the first openly transgender person to be ordained by the Hebrew
Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion. In 2007 the Union for Reform Judaism issued a new edition of Kulanu,
their resource manual for gay, lesbian, bisexual and transgender
inclusion, which for the first time included a blessing sanctifying the
sex-change process. It was written by Elliot Kukla at the request of a
friend of his who was transgender. Also in 2007, David Saperstein of the Religious Action Center called for a trans-inclusive Employment Non-Discrimination Act. In 2015 the Union for Reform Judaism
passed a "Resolution on the Rights of Transgender and Gender
Non-Conforming People" with 9 points calling for securing and defending
the rights of transgender and gender non-confirming people to respectful
and equitable treatment and affirming its own commitment to continued
pursuit of same.
Reconstructionist Judaism
Reconstructionist Judaism has expressed positive views on transgender people. In 2003 the Reform rabbi Margaret Wenig organized the first school-wide seminar at the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College which addressed the psychological, legal and religious issues affecting people who are transsexual or intersex. In 2013 the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association
issued a resolution stating in part, "Therefore be it resolved that the
RRA [Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association] directs its executive
director and board to move forward, in cooperation with the RRC
[Reconstructionist Rabbinical College] and all relevant associated
entities, in educating RRA members about issues of gender identity, to
urge the Reconstructionist movement to similarly educate its
constituency and to adopt policies that will do all that is possible to
provide full employment opportunities for transgender and gender
nonconforming rabbis, and to explore how the Reconstructionist movement
can best influence the wider Jewish and non-Jewish world to [be]
welcoming and inclusive of all people, regardless of gender identity." In 2017, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association approved a
resolution committing themselves to work for "full inclusion,
acceptance, appreciation, celebration and welcome of people of all
gender identities in Jewish life and in society at large"; the
resolution also "strongly advocates for the full equality of
transgender, non-binary, and gender non-conforming people and for equal
protections for people of all gender identities under the law, at all
levels of government, in North America and Israel."
Other
In 1998, after she won the Eurovision song competition, a serious religious debate was held as to whether, and how, Dana International (a transgender woman) should pray in a synagogue. One rabbinical authority concluded that Dana should be counted in a minyan
as a man, but could not sing in front of the community since she was
also a woman, according to the rabbi, and that would violate the
Orthodox rule of kol isha.
In January 2015 a transgender Jewish woman, Kay Long, was denied access to the Western Wall, first by the women's section and then by the men's section.
Long's presence was prevented by "modesty police" at women’s section
who are not associated with the rabbi of the Western Wall or the site
administration. They are a group of female volunteers who guard the
entrance to the women’s section preventing entry to visitors who are not
dressed to their idea of Orthodox modesty standards for women. The
director of Jerusalem’s Open House, a community center for the lesbian,
gay, bisexual and transgender community, noted that Long’s experience
was not unique. "Gender separation at the Western Wall is harmful for
transgender people. This is not the first story that we know of with
transgender religious people that wanted to go to the Western Wall and
pray and couldn’t," said Elinor Sidi, who expected that the battle for
access to the Western Wall for the LGBTQ community would be a long and
difficult one.
It was later asserted that Kay Long would have been permitted in the
women's section except for her clothing. "It was not an issue of her
gender, but the way she was dressed."
Several non-denominational Jewish groups provide resources for transgender people. Hillel: The Foundation for Jewish Campus Life published an LGBTQ Resource Guide in 2007. Jewish Mosaic has published interpretations of Jewish texts that affirm transgender identities. Keshet, an LGBT Jewish advocacy group, has assisted American Jewish day schools with properly accommodating transgender students.
African religious beliefs
The Akan people of Ghana have a pantheon of gods that includes personifications of celestial bodies. These personification manifest as androgynous and transgender deities, and include Abrao (Jupiter), Aku (Mercury), and Awo (Moon).
According to the creation myth of the Dogon people
the first 8 people on the earth, 4 men and 4 women, started the 8 Dogon
families through a special arrangement with Amman where they could
fertilize themselves, being dual and bisexual.
The mythology of the Shona people of Zimbabwe is ruled over by an androgynous creator god called Mwari, who occasionally splits into separate male and female aspects.
Australian Aboriginal
The Rainbow Serpent Ungud
has been described as androgynous. Shaman identify their erect penises
with Ungud, and his androgyny inspires some to undergo ceremonial penile subincision. Angamunggi is another Rainbow Serpent, worshipped as a "giver of life".
Other Australian mythological beings include Labarindja, blue-skinned wild women or "demon women" with hair the colour of smoke.
Stories about them show them to be completely uninterested in romance
or sex with men, and any man forcing his attention upon them could die,
due the "evil magic in their vaginas". They are sometimes depicted as
gynandrous or intersex, having both a penis and a vagina. Ths is
represented in ritual by having their part played by men in women's
clothes.
Chinese religions
Eunuchs, male-bodied people castrated for royal services, existed in China from 1700 BC until 1924 AD.
This social role had a long history, with a continuous community, and a
highly public role. Before being castrated a Chinese eunuch would be
asked if he "would ever regret being castrated" and if the answer was
"no" then surgery would take place. It's an open question as to who
would answer this way and why. The historical status of Chinese eunuchs
was a curious mixture of extreme weakness and great power. The allure of
power and influence were sometimes offered as excuses for the decision
to become a eunuch. It has been speculated that Chinese monarchs trusted
their eunuchs because the inability to have children left them with no
motivation to seek power or riches.
It is not clear to what extent eunuchs were transgender or otherwise
gender-variant, but the history of eunuchs in Chinese culture is
important to its views on transgender people.
Classical myth
The patron god is Dionysus, a god gestated in the thigh of his father Zeus, after his mother died from being overwhelmed by Zeus's true form. Aphroditus was an androgynous Aphrodite from Cyprus with a religious cult in which worshipers cross-dressed, in later mythology became known as Hermaphroditus, the son of Hermes and Aphrodite who merged bodies with the water nymph Salmacis, transforming him into an androgynous being. In Phrygia there was Agdistis, a hermaphroditic being created when Zeus unwittingly impregnated Gaia. The gods feared Agdistis and Dionysus castrated her; she then became the goddess Cybele.
In addition, Norse gods were capable of changing gender at will, for example Loki,
frequently disguised himself as a woman and gave birth to a foal while
in the form of a white mare, after a sexual encounter with the stallion Svaðilfari.
Comparison of a man to a child-bearing woman was a common insult in
Scandinavia, and the implication that Loki may be bisexual was
considered an insult.
Human fertility was a major aspect of Egyptian mythology, and was
often entwined with the crop fertility provided by annual flooding of
the river Nile. This connection was shown in iconography of Nile-gods, such as Hapi, god of the Nile, and Wadj-wer, god of the Nile Delta,
who although male were depicted with female attributes such as
pendulous breasts, symbolizing the fertility the river provides.
Confucianism
One issue that Confucianism is quite clear on is the importance of filial piety with an accompanying tradition of veneration of the dead.
People are supposed to respect and obey their parents, get married, and
then have children to extend their family lines. Gender variant people
who are physically capable of living up to this standard would be
generally encouraged to enter a marital relationship, have children, and
be discreet about any additional relationships (for example homosexual
partners) on the side, if absolutely necessary.
Indian religions
Buddhism
In Thai Buddhism, being kathoey
(an umbrella term that roughly maps to a range of things from MtF
transsexualism to male homosexuality) is seen as being part of one's karma
if it should be the case for a person. The response is one of "pity"
rather than "blame". Kathoey are generally seen as not likely to form
lasting relationships with men, and the lay explanation of their karma
is that they are working out debts from adulterous behavior in past
lives. In the past they disrupted marriages, and now they are doomed to
never marry.
In Thailand, kathoey are still not allowed to legally become
female or marry a man. Same-sex marriage is not possible in Thailand.
Transgender women however can marry their European partners, if that is
legislatively possible in their partner's country, and leave Thailand.
Hinduism
Hindu philosophy has the concept of a third sex or third gender (tritiya-prakriti – literally, "third nature"). The people in this category of sex/gender are called Hijras in Hinduism.
This category includes a wide range of people with mixed male and
female natures such as homosexuals, transsexuals, bisexuals, the
intersexed, and so on.
Such persons were not considered fully male or female in traditional
Hinduism, being a combination of both. They are mentioned as third sex
by nature (birth)
and were not expected to behave like ordinary men and women. Hijras
identify themselves as incomplete men, that they do not have the desires
(for women) that other men do. This lack of desire they attribute to a
"defective organ." If a Hijra is not born with a "defective" organ (and
most are not), he must make it so by emasculation.
They often kept their own societies or town quarters, performed
specific occupations (such as masseurs, hairdressers, flower-sellers,
domestic servants, etc.) and were generally attributed a semi-divine
status. Their participation in religious ceremonies, especially as
crossdressing dancers and devotees of certain temple gods/goddesses, is
considered auspicious in traditional Hinduism. Some Hindus believe that
third-sex people have special powers allowing them to bless or curse
others. However, these beliefs are not upheld in all divisions of
Hinduism. In Hinduism, the universal creation is honored as unlimitedly
diverse and the recognition of a third sex is simply one more aspect of
this understanding.
Transgender people in ancient Hindu society
Within the Hindu context, Hijras have always been considered a part
of the third gender diaspora, and hence the term Hijra, Transgender or
Third gender will be used interchangeably.
Due to their classification as third gender and being sexually
neutral, Transgender people, especially the devotees of Lord Krishna,
have been historically shown to bestow blessings. Being sexually neutral
was considered especially auspicious in Vedic culture because the
attraction between a man and woman was thought to create further
attachments such as children due to procreation, and a home in terms of
property, which would result in the living entities being entangled in samsara, the cycle of repeated birth and death.
The people of the third sex have had a prominent role in the arts
and entertainment. Historically referred to as Nartaka, at the birth of
a baby Nartaka dancers would arrive, dance and sing the name of
the God Krishna and bless the baby. As per custom, they were given
precious jewellery and silks by the family of the baby for their
contribution.
One more example of Transgender people being portrayed in Hindu
history is that of Lord Arjuna being depicted as Brihannala in the
Mahabharata, who was a person of third gender. Brihanalla was shown to
be an instructor singing and dancing in King Virata’s court. But Lord
Arjuna/ Brihanalla was first tested for his third-sex nature by assuring
he had no lust for females, and would have been examined for testicles
if he had been a eunuch. This is not the first example of the presence
of a person of third gender in Hindu texts, but this example most
pertains to the topic of third gender people and their auspiciousness.
Transgender people in contemporary Indian society
In
October 2013, "India's Supreme court stated that transgenders have
remained untouchable in society with restricted access to education,
health care and jobs. The justices criticized the government for such
discrimination during a hearing of public interest litigation filed by
the National Legal Services Authority".
This problem for Hijras first began during the British rule (1757-1947)
with the introduction of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code in 1860
which declared homosexuality as a crime, and had an extended listing
which has declared "Transgenders as criminal elements in society".
Transgender people have been treated as outcasts within Indian
society and thus have been "deprived of social and cultural prticipation
for nearly two centuries." Many biologically male Hijras undergo a
ritualized castration called nirva (sex reassignments).
They have limited access to education, health care and public
facilities and are treated as nonentities legally, which is in violation
of the Constitution of India.
Despite being recognized as legal citizens, only an estimated 25% of
transgender people have obtained the national identification (Aadhar
card). Transgender people are unable to "exercise their democratic
rights in marriage, adopting/raising children and utilizing financial
support system such as free and subsidized health care, surgeries and
medical treatments".
There has been some support for transgender people as "The
Supreme Court has directed the central government to place transgendered
people in the other backward classes (OBCs) to classify their castes
denoting their socially and economically disadvantaged status in
society"
as they fall within the classification of people as defined in Article
15 (4) of the Constitution of India. The Supreme Court of India has
directed all Indian states to build separate restrooms for transgender
people, and "to establish welfare agencies to enhance their health and
medical needs."
Neopagan religion
In most branches of Wicca,
a person's status as trans- or cisgender is not considered an issue.
Transgender people are generally magickal people, according to Karla
McLaren in her Energetic Boundaries study guide. Transgender people are almost always welcomed in individual communities, covens, study groups, and circles. Many transgender people were initially attracted to Modern Paganism because of this inclusion.
However, there are some Neopagan groups that do not welcome
transgender people. In some cases, this is because of the emphasis on
the union of male and female, and the exclusion of transgender
individuals from such practices. Also, some gender separatist
groups exclude transgender people, often on the basis that
non-transgender individuals share certain spiritual qualities derived
from genetic or biological sex. Dianic Wicca is an example of such a separatist group.
Pacific Islands
Third gender, or gender variant, spiritual intermediaries are found in many pacific island cultures, including the bajasa of the eastern Toradja people of Sulawesi, the bantut of the Tausūg people of the south Philippines, and the bayoguin
of the pre-Christian Philippines. These shamans are typically
biologically male but display feminine behaviours and appearance, and
are often homoerotically inclined. The pre-Christian Philippines had a polytheistic religion, which included the hermaphroditic gods Bathala and Malyari, whose names means "Man and Woman in One" and "Powerful One" respectively; these gods are worshipped by the Bayagoin.
The Big Nambas speakers of Vanuatu
have the concept of divinely approved-of homoerotic relationships
between men, with the older partner called the "dubut". This name is
derived from the word for shark, referring to the patronage of the
shark-human hybrid creator god Qat.
Among their pantheon of deities, the Ngaju people of Borneo worship Mahatala-Jata, an androgynous god. The male part of this god is Mahatala, who rules the Upper World, and is depicted as a hornbill
living above the clouds on a mountain-top; the female part is Jata, who
rules the Underworld from under the sea in the form of a water-snake.
These two manifestations are linked via a jewel-encrusted bridge that is
seen in the physical world as a rainbow. Mahatala-Jata is served by "balian", female hierodules, and basir", transgender shamans metaphorically described as "water snakes which are at the same time hornbills".
Similar transgender shamans, the manang bali (which literally means a transformed shaman from a male into a woman), are found in the Iban people in Borneo such as in Sarawak. Manang bali is the third and highest degree of shamanism after accomplishing the second degree of manang mansau "cooked shaman" and the first degree of manang mataq
"uncooked shaman". The initiation ceremony for becoming a manang bali
is called "Manang bangun manang enjun" which can be literally translated
as the Awakened shaman, shaken shaman.
After this ceremony, a manang bali dresses and acts like women and have
homoerotic relationships. This makes them both the target of ridicule
and respected as a spiritual intermediary. Boys fated to become manang
bali may first dream of becoming a woman and also of being summoned by
the god of medicine Menjaya Raja Manang or the goddess Ini Inee or Ini Andan, who is regarded the natural-born healer and the god of justice.
Menjaya Raja Manang began existence as a malegod, until their brother
Sengalang Burong's wife became extremely sick. This prompted Menjaya
into becoming the world's first healer, allowing him to cure his sister-in-law, but this treatment also resulted in Menjaya changing into a woman or androgynous being.
Menjaya was consecrated as the first manang bali by his own sister, Ini
Inee Ini Andan in the first ever awakening-shaking ceremony and the
first healing by a name-changing "belian" curing rite.
Shinto
Shinto kami associated with same-sex love or gender variance include: shirabyōshi,
female or transgender kami represented as half-human, half-snake. They
are linked to Shinto priests of the same name, who are usually female
(or occasionally transgender) and perform ceremonial dances in traditional men's clothing; Ōyamakui no kami, a transgender mountain spirit that protects industry and childbearing (notably enshrined in Hie Shrine); and Inari Ōkami,
the kami of agriculture and rice, who is depicted as various genders,
the most common representations being a young female food goddess, an
old man carrying rice, and an androgynous bodhisattva. Inari is further associated with foxes and Kitsune,
shapeshifting fox trickster spirits. Kitsune sometimes disguise
themselves as women, independent of their true gender, in order to trick
human men into sexual relations with them. Common belief in medieval Japan was that any woman encountered alone, especially at dusk or night, could be a fox.
Further reading
Dzmura, Noach (2014). Balancing on the Mechitza: Transgender in Jewish Community. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-58394-971-9.
Gender Identity In Halakhic Discourse by Charlotte Fonrobert, part of Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia
Transitional Belief: Christianity as Viewed through the Lens of a Transgender Believer by Mr. Ashley Ford (Jul 12, 2013)
