A test written by a four-year-old child in 1972, in the former Soviet Union. The lines are not ideal, but the teacher (all red writing) gave the best grade (5) anyway.
"Gift" developed by Friedrich FroebelMaGeography in Montessori Early Childhood at QAIS
Early childhood education (ECE), also known as nursery education, is a branch of education theory that relates to the teaching of children (formally and informally) from birth up to the age of eight. Traditionally, this is up to the equivalent of third grade. ECE is described as an important period in child development.
ECE emerged as a field of study during the Enlightenment, particularly in European countries with high literacy rates.
It continued to grow through the nineteenth century as universal
primary education became a norm in the Western world. In recent years,
early childhood education has become a prevalent public policy issue, as funding for preschool and pre-K is debated by municipal, state, and federal lawmakers. Governing entities are also debating the central focus of early
childhood education with debate on developmental appropriate play versus
strong academic preparation curriculum in reading, writing, and math. The global priority placed on early childhood education is underscored with targets of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4. As of 2023, however, "only around 4 in 10 children aged 3 and 4 attend early childhood education" around the world.
Furthermore, levels of participation vary by widely by region with,
"around 2 in 3 children in Latin American and the Caribbean attending
ECE compared to just under half of children in South Asia and only 1 in 4
in sub-Saharan Africa".
ECE is also a professional designation earned through a post-secondary education program. For example, in Ontario,
Canada, the designations ECE (Early Childhood Educator) and RECE
(Registered Early Childhood Educator) may only be used by registered
members of the College of Early Childhood Educators, which is made up of
accredited child care professionals who are held accountable to the College's standards of practice.
Research shows that early-childhood education has substantial
positive short- and long-term effects on the children who attend such
education, and that the costs are dwarfed by societal gains of the
education programs.
The Developmental Interaction Approach is based on the theories of Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, John Dewey, and Lucy Sprague Mitchell. The approach focuses on learning through discovery.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
recommended that teachers should exploit individual children's
interests to make sure each child obtains the information most essential
to his personal and individual development. The five developmental domains of childhood development include:
To meet those developmental domains, a child has a set of needs that
must be met for learning. Maslow's hierarchy of needs showcases the
different levels of needs that must be met the chart to the right
showcases these needs.
Physical: the way in which a child develops biological and physical functions, including eyesight and motor skills
Social: the way in which a child interacts with others
Children develop an understanding of their responsibilities and rights
as members of families and communities, as well as an ability to relate
to and work with others.
Maslow's Hierarchy of NeedsEmotional:
the way in which a child creates emotional connections and develops
self-confidence. Emotional connections develop when children relate to
other people and share feelings.
Language: the way in which a child communicates, including how they
present their feelings and emotions, both to other people and to
themselves. At 3 months, children employ different cries for different
needs. At 6 months they can recognize and imitate the basic sounds of
spoken language. In the first 3 years, children need to be exposed to
communication with others in order to pick up language. "Normal"
language development is measured by the rate of vocabulary acquisition.
Cognitive skills: the way in which a child organizes information.
Cognitive skills include problem solving, creativity, imagination and
memory.
They embody the way in which children make sense of the world. Piaget
believed that children exhibit prominent differences in their thought
patterns as they move through the stages of cognitive development:
sensorimotor period, the pre-operational period, and the operational
period.
Froebel's play theory
Friedrich Froebel was a German Educator that believed in the idea of children learning through play.
Specifically, he said, "play is the highest expression of human
development in childhood, for it alone is the free expression of what is
in the child’s soul." Froebel believed that teachers should act as a
facilitators and supporters for the students's play, rather than an
authoritative, disciplinary figure. He created educational open-ended
toys that he called "gifts" and "occupations" that were designed to
encourage self expression and initiation.
Maria Montessori's theory
Maria
Montessori was an Italian physician that, based on her observations of
young children in classrooms, developed a method of education that
focused on independence. In Montessori education, a typical classroom is
made up of students of different ages and curriculum is based on the
students' developmental stage, which Montessori called the four planes
of development.
Montessori's Four Planes of Development:
The first plane (birth to age 6): During this stage, children
soak up information about the world around them quickly, which is why
Montessori refers to it as the "absorbent mind". Physical independence,
such as completing tasks independently, is a main focus of the child at
this time and children's individual personalities begin to form and
develop.
The second plane (Ages 6–12): During this stage, children also focus on independence, but intellectual rather than physical.
Montessori classrooms use what is called "cosmic education" during this
stage, which emphasizes children building on their understanding of the
world, their place in it, and how everything is interdependent. Children in this plane also begin to develop abstract and moral thinking.
The third plane (Ages 12–18): During this stage, adolescents shift
to focus on emotional independence and on the self. Moral values,
critical thinking, and self-identity are explored and strengthened.
The fourth plane (Ages 18–24): During this last stage, focus shifts
to financial independence. Young adults in this plane begin to solidify
their personal beliefs, identity, and role in the world.
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural learning theory
Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky
proposed a "socio-cultural learning theory" that emphasized the impact
of social and cultural experiences on individual thinking and the
development of mental processes.
Vygotsky's theory emerged in the 1930s and is still discussed today as a
means of improving and reforming educational practices.
In Vygotsky's theories of learning, he also postulated the theory of the
zone of proximal development. This theory ties in with children
building off prior knowledge and gaining new knowledge related to skills
they already have. In the theory it describes how new knowledge or
skills are taken in if they are not fully learned but are starting to
emerge. A teacher or older friend lends support to a child learning a
skill, be it building a block castle, tying a shoe, or writing one's
name. As the child becomes more capable of the steps of the activity,
the adult or older child withdraws supports gradually, until the child
is competent completing the process on his/her own. This is done within
that activity's zone—the distance between where the child is, and where
he potentially will be.
In each zone of proximal development, they build on skills and grow by
learning more skills in their proximal development range. They build on
the skills by being guided by teachers and parents. They must build
from where they are in their zone of proximal development.
Vygotsky argued that since cognition occurs within a social
context, our social experiences shape our ways of thinking about and
interpreting the world.
People such as parents, grandparents, and teachers play the roles of
what Vygotsky described as knowledgeable and competent adults. Although
Vygotsky predated social constructivists, he is commonly classified as
one. Social constructivists believe that an individual's cognitive
system is a resditional learning time. Vygotsky advocated that teachers
facilitate rather than direct student learning.
Teachers should provide a learning environment where students can
explore and develop their learning without direct instruction. His
approach calls for teachers to incorporate students’ needs and
interests. It is important to do this because students' levels of
interest and abilities will vary and there needs to be differentiation.
However, teachers can enhance understandings and learning for
students. Vygotsky states that by sharing meanings that are relevant to
the children's environment, adults promote cognitive development as
well. Their teachings can influence thought processes and perspectives
of students when they are in new and similar environments. Since
Vygotsky promotes more facilitation in children's learning, he suggests
that knowledgeable people (and adults in particular), can also enhance
knowledges through cooperative meaning-making with students in their
learning, this can be done through the zone of proximal development by
guiding children's learning or thinking skills .
Vygotsky's approach encourages guided participation and student
exploration with support. Teachers can help students achieve their
cognitive development levels through consistent and regular interactions
of collaborative knowledge-making learning processes.
Piaget’s constructivist theory
Jean Piaget's constructivist theory gained influence in the 1970s and '80s. Although Piaget himself was primarily interested in a descriptive psychology of cognitive development, he also laid the groundwork for a constructivist theory of learning.
Piaget believed that learning comes from within: children construct
their own knowledge of the world through experience and subsequent
reflection. He said that "if logic itself is created rather than being
inborn, it follows that the first task of education is to form
reasoning." Within Piaget's framework, teachers should guide children in
acquiring their own knowledge rather than simply transferring
knowledge.
According to Piaget's theory, when young children encounter new
information, they attempt to accommodate and assimilate it into their
existing understanding of the world. Accommodation involves adapting
mental schemas
and representations to make them consistent with reality. Assimilation
involves fitting new information into their pre-existing schemas.
Through these two processes, young children learn by equilibrating their
mental representations with reality. They also learn from mistakes.
A Piagetian approach emphasizes experiential education; in
school, experiences become more hands-on and concrete as students
explore through trial and error.
Thus, crucial components of early childhood education include
exploration, manipulating objects, and experiencing new environments.
Subsequent reflection on these experiences is equally important.
Piaget's concept of reflective abstraction was particularly influential in mathematical education.
Through reflective abstraction, children construct more advanced
cognitive structures out of the simpler ones they already possess. This
allows children to develop mathematical constructs that cannot be
learned through equilibration – making sense of experiences through
assimilation and accommodation – alone.
According to Piagetian theory, language and symbolic
representation is preceded by the development of corresponding mental
representations. Research shows that the level of reflective abstraction
achieved by young children was found to limit the degree to which they
could represent physical quantities with written numerals. Piaget held
that children can invent their own procedures for the four arithmetical
operations, without being taught any conventional rules.
Piaget's theory implies that computers can be a great educational
tool for young children when used to support the design and
construction of their projects. McCarrick and Xiaoming found that
computer play is consistent with this theory.
However, Plowman and Stephen found that the effectiveness of computers
is limited in the preschool environment; their results indicate that
computers are only effective when directed by the teacher.
This suggests, according to the constructivist theory, that the role of
preschool teachers is critical in successfully adopting computers as
they existed in 2003.
David Kolb's experiential learning theory, which was influenced by John Dewey, Kurt Lewin
and Jean Piaget, argues that children need to experience things to
learn: "The process whereby knowledge is created through the
transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combinations of
grasping and transforming experience." The experimental learning theory
is distinctive in that children are seen and taught as individuals. As a
child explores and observes, teachers ask the child probing questions.
The child can then adapt prior knowledge to learning new information.
Kolb breaks down this learning cycle into four stages: concrete
experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and
active experimentation. Children observe new situations, think about the
situation, make meaning of the situation, then test that meaning in the
world around them.
Practical implications of early childhood education
In
recent decades, studies have shown that early childhood education is
critical in preparing children to enter and succeed in the (grade
school) classroom, diminishing their risk of social-emotional mental
health problems and increasing their self-sufficiency later in their
lives.
In other words, the child needs to be taught to rationalize everything
and to be open to interpretations and critical thinking. There is no
subject to be considered taboo, starting with the most basic knowledge
of the world that they live in, and ending with deeper areas, such as
morality, religion and science. Visual stimulus and response time as
early as 3 months can be an indicator of verbal and performance IQ at
age 4 years.
When parents value ECE and its importance their children generally have
a higher rate of attendance. This allows children the opportunity to
build and nurture trusting relationships with educators and social
relationships with peers.
By providing education in a child's most formative years, ECE also has the capacity to pre-emptively begin closing the educational achievement gap between low and high-income students before formal schooling begins. Children of low socioeconomic status
(SES) often begin school already behind their higher SES peers; on
average, by the time they are three, children with high SES have three
times the number of words in their vocabularies as children with low
SES.
Participation in ECE, however, has been proven to increase high school
graduation rates, improve performance on standardized tests, and reduce
both grade repetition and the number of children placed in special
education.
A study was conducted by the Aga Khan Development Network's
Madrasa Early Childhood Programme on the impact that early childhood
education had on students’ performance in grade school. Looking
specifically at students who attended the Madrasa Early Childhood
schools (virtually all of whom came from economically disadvantaged
backgrounds), the study found that they had consistently ranked in the
top 20% in grade 1 classes. The study also concluded that any formal
early childhood education contributed to higher levels of cognitive
development in language, mathematics, and non-verbal reasoning skills.
Especially since the first wave of results from the Perry Preschool Project
were published, there has been widespread consensus that the quality of
early childhood education programs correlate with gains in low-income
children's IQs and test scores, decreased grade retention, and lower
special education rates.
Several studies have reported that children enrolled in ECE
increase their IQ scores by 4–11 points by age five, while a Milwaukee
study reported a 25-point gain. In addition, students who had been enrolled in the Abecedarian Project,
an often-cited ECE study, scored significantly higher on reading and
math tests by age fifteen than comparable students who had not
participated in early childhood programs.
In addition, 36% of students in the Abecedarian Preschool Study
treatment group would later enroll in four-year colleges compared to 14%
of those in the control group.
In 2017, researchers reported that children who participate in
ECE graduate high school at significantly greater rates than those who
do not. Additionally, those who participate in ECE require special
education and must repeat a grade at significantly lower rates than
their peers who did not receive ECE.
The NIH asserts that ECE leads to higher test scores for students from
preschool through age 21, improved grades in math and reading, and
stronger odds that students will keep going to school and attend
college.
Nathaniel Hendren and Ben Sprung-Keyser, two Harvard economists,
found high Marginal Values of Public Funds (MVPFs) for investments in
programs supporting the health and early education of children,
particularly those that reach children from low-income families. The
average MVPF for these types of initiatives is over 5, while the MVPFs
for programs for adults generally range from 0.5 to 2.
Beyond benefitting societal good, ECE also significantly impacts
the socioeconomic outcomes of individuals. For example, by age 26,
students who had been enrolled in Chicago Child-Parent Centers were less
likely to be arrested, abuse drugs, and receive food stamps; they were
more likely to have high school diplomas, health insurance and full-time
employment.
Studies also show that ECE heightens social engagement, bolsters
lifelong health, reduces the incidence of teen pregnancy, supports
mental health, decreases the risk of heart disease, and lengthens
lifespans.
The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on The Changing Nature of Work
identifies early childhood development programs as one of the most
effective ways governments can equip children with the skills they will
need to succeed in future labor markets.
According to a 2020 study in the Journal of Political Economy by Clemson University economist Jorge Luis García, Nobel laureate James J. Heckman
and University of Southern California economists Duncan Ermini Leaf and
María José Prados, every dollar spent on a high-quality early-childhood
programs led to a return of $7.3 over the long-term.
The Perry Preschool Project, which was conducted in the 1960s in Ypsilanti, Michigan,
is the oldest social experiment in the field of early childhood
education and has heavily influenced policy in the United States and
across the globe.
The experiment enrolled 128 three- and four-year-old African-American
children with cognitive disadvantage from low-income families, who were
then randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. The intervention
for children in the treatment group included active learning preschool
sessions on weekdays for 2.5 hours per day. The intervention also
included weekly visits by the teachers to the homes of the children for
about 1.5 hours per visit to improve parent-child interactions at home.
Initial evaluations of the Perry intervention showed that the
preschool program failed to significantly boost an IQ measure. However,
later evaluations that followed up the participants for more than fifty
years have demonstrated the long-term economic benefits of the program,
even after accounting for the small sample size of the experiment, flaws
in its randomization procedure, and sample attrition.
There is substantial evidence of large treatment effects on the
criminal convictions of male participants, especially for violent crime,
and their earnings in middle adulthood. Research points to improvements
in non-cognitive skills, executive functioning, childhood home
environment, and parental attachment as potential sources of the
observed long-term impacts of the program. The intervention's many
benefits also include improvements in late-midlife health for both male
and female participants.
Perry promoted educational attainment through two avenues: total years
of education attained and rates of progression to a given level of
education. This pattern is particularly evident for females. Treated
females received less special education, progressed more quickly through
grades, earned higher GPAs, and attained higher levels of education
than their control group counterparts.
Research also demonstrates spillover effects of the Perry program on the children and siblings of the original participants.
A study concludes, "The children of treated participants have fewer
school suspensions, higher levels of education and employment, and lower
levels of participation in crime, compared with the children of
untreated participants. Impacts are especially pronounced for the
children of male participants. These treatment effects are associated
with improved childhood home environments."
The study also documents beneficial impacts on the male siblings of the
original participants. Evidence from the Perry Preschool Project is
noteworthy because it advocates for public spending on early childhood
programs as an economic investment in a society's future, rather than in
the interest of social justice.
International agreements
The
first World Conference on Early Childhood Care and Education took place
in Moscow from 27 to 29 September 2010, jointly organized by UNESCO and the city of Moscow. The overarching goals of the conference are to:
Reaffirm ECCE as a right of all children and as the basis for development
Take stock of the progress of Member States towards achieving the EFA Goal 1
Identify binding constraints toward making the intended equitable expansion of access to quality ECCE services
Establish, more concretely, benchmarks and targets for the EFA Goal 1 toward 2015 and beyond
Identify key enablers that should facilitate Member States to reach the established targets
Promote global exchange of good practices
Under Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals,
which the UN General Assembly unanimously approved in 2015, countries
committed to "ensure inclusive and equitable quality education’
including early childhood."
Two targets related to goal 4 are "by 2030, ensure that all girls and
boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and
pre-primary education so that they are ready for primary education." The
‘Framework for Action’ adopted by UNESCO member states later in 2015
outlines how to translate this last target into practice, and encourages
states to provide "at least one year of free and compulsory pre-primary
education of good quality." The Sustainable Development Goals, however, are not binding international law.
In 2022, Human Rights Watch
adopted a policy calling on states to make at least one year of free
and compulsory, inclusive, quality pre-primary education available and
accessible for all children.
In doing so they advocated making one year of pre-primary education to
be included as part of the minimum core of the right to education.
They further called on all states to adopt a detailed plan of action
for the progressive implementation of further years of pre-primary
education, within a reasonable number of years to be fixed in the plan.
According to UNESCO, a preschool curriculum is one that
delivers educational content through daily activities and furthers a
child's physical, cognitive, and social development. Generally,
preschool curricula are only recognized by governments if they are based
on academic research and reviewed by peers.
Preschool for Child Rights have pioneered into preschool
curricular areas and is contributing into child rights through their
preschool curriculum.
Percentage of children aged 36 to 59 months who are developmentally on track, 2009–2017
Curricula in early childhood care and education (ECCE) is the driving
force behind any ECCE programme. It is ‘an integral part of the engine
that, together with the energy and motivation of staff, provides the
momentum that makes programmes live’.
It follows therefore that the quality of a programme is greatly
influenced by the quality of its curriculum. In early childhood, these
may be programs for children or parents, including health and nutrition
interventions and prenatal programs, as well as center-based programs for children.
Barriers and challenges
Children's learning potential and outcomes are negatively affected by exposure to violence, abuse and child labour.
Thus, protecting young children from violence and exploitation is part
of broad educational concerns. Due to difficulties and sensitivities
around the issue of measuring and monitoring child protection violations
and gaps in defining, collecting and analysing appropriate indicators,
data coverage in this area is scant. However, proxy indicators can be
used to assess the situation. For example, ratification of relevant
international conventions indicates countries’ commitment to child protection. By April 2014, 194 countries had ratified the CRC3; and 179 had ratified the 1999 International Labour Organization's
Convention (No. 182) concerning the elimination of the worst forms of
child labour. However, many of these ratifications are yet to be given
full effect through actual implementation of concrete measures.
Globally, 150 million children aged 5–14 are estimated to be engaged in
child labour.
In conflict-affected poor countries, children are twice as likely to
die before their fifth birthday compared to those in other poor
countries.
In industrialized countries, 4 per cent of children are physically
abused each year and 10 per cent are neglected or psychologically
abused.
In both developed and developing countries,
children of the poor and the disadvantaged remain the least served.
This exclusion persists against the evidence that the added value of
early childhood care and education services are higher for them than for
their more affluent counterparts, even when such services are of modest
quality. While the problem is more intractable in developing countries,
the developed world still does not equitably provide quality early
childhood care and education services for all its children. In many European countries, children, mostly from low-income and immigrant families, do not have access to good quality early childhood care and education.
Orphan education
A lack of education during the early childhood years for orphans
is a worldwide concern. Orphans are at higher risk of "missing out on
schooling, living in households with less food security, and suffering
from anxiety and depression."
Education during these years has the potential to improve a child's
"food and nutrition, health care, social welfare, and protection." This crisis is especially prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa which has been heavily impacted by the aids epidemic. UNICEF
reports that "13.3 million children (0–17 years) worldwide have lost
one or both parents to AIDS. Nearly 12 million of these children live in
sub-Saharan Africa."
Government policies such as the Free Basic Education Policy have worked
to provide education for orphan children in this area, but the quality
and inclusiveness of this policy has brought criticism.
