Heterosexism is a system of attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships. It can include the presumption that other people are heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the only norm and therefore superior.
Although heterosexism is defined in the online editions of the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language and the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary as anti-gay discrimination or prejudice "by heterosexual people" and "by heterosexuals", respectively, people of any sexual orientation can hold such attitudes and bias, and can form a part of internalised hatred of one's sexual orientation.
Heterosexism as discrimination ranks gay men, lesbians, bisexuals and other sexual minorities as second-class citizens with regard to various legal and civil rights, economic opportunities, and social equality in many of the world's jurisdictions and societies. It is often related to homophobia.
Although heterosexism is defined in the online editions of the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language and the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary as anti-gay discrimination or prejudice "by heterosexual people" and "by heterosexuals", respectively, people of any sexual orientation can hold such attitudes and bias, and can form a part of internalised hatred of one's sexual orientation.
Heterosexism as discrimination ranks gay men, lesbians, bisexuals and other sexual minorities as second-class citizens with regard to various legal and civil rights, economic opportunities, and social equality in many of the world's jurisdictions and societies. It is often related to homophobia.
Background
While the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary notes first use of the term heterosexism as having occurred in 1972, the term was first published in 1971 by gay rights activist, Craig Rodwell.
Etymology and usage
Similar terms include "heterocentrism" and "heterosexualism". Although the well-established term heterosexism is often explained as a coinage modeled on sexism, the derivation of its meaning points more to (1.) heterosex(ual) + -ism than (2.) hetero- + sexism. In fact, the word heterosexualism has been used as an equivalent to sexism and racism.
Given this lack of semantic transparency, researchers, outreach workers, critical theorists and LGBT activists have proposed and use terms such as institutionalized homophobia, state(-sponsored) homophobia, sexual prejudice, anti-gay bigotry, straight privilege, The Straight Mind (a collection of essays by French writer Monique Wittig), heterosexual bias, compulsory heterosexuality or the much lesser known terms heterocentrism, homonegativity, and from gender theory and queer theory, heteronormativity. However, not all of these descriptors are synonymous to heterosexism.
Contrast to homophobia
Homophobia, a form of heterosexism, refers both to "unreasoning fear of or antipathy towards homosexuals and homosexuality" and to "behavior based on such a feeling". Heterosexism,
however, more broadly denotes the "system of ideological thought that
makes heterosexuality the sole norm to follow for sexual practices".
As a bias favoring heterosexuals and heterosexuality, heterosexism has
been described as being "encoded into and characteristic of the major
social, cultural, and economic institutions of our society" and stems from the essentialist cultural notion that maleness-masculinity and femaleness-femininity are complementary.
Researcher, author, and psychology professor Gregory M. Herek
states that "[Heterosexism] operates through a dual process of
invisibility and attack. Homosexuality usually remains culturally
invisible; when people who engage in homosexual behavior or who are
identified as homosexual become visible, they are subject to attack by
society." Furthermore, in interviews with perpetrators of anti-gay violence, forensic psychologist Karen Franklin points out that "heterosexism is not just a personal value system, [rather] it is a tool in the maintenance of gender dichotomy." She continues by saying that "assaults on homosexuals and other individuals who deviate from sex role norms are viewed as a learned form of social control of deviance rather than a defensive response to personal threat."
Parallels and intersections
| “ | Using the term heterosexism highlights the parallels between antigay sentiment and other forms of prejudice, such as racism, antisemitism, and sexism. | ” |
| — Gregory M. Herek, researcher, author, and professor of psychology at UC Davis. | ||
It has been argued that the concept of heterosexism is similar to the concept of racism
in that both ideas promote privilege for dominant groups within a given
society. For example, borrowing from the racial concept of white privilege, the concept of heterosexual privilege
has been applied to benefits of (presumed) heterosexuality within
society that heterosexuals take for granted. The analogy is that just as
racism against non-white people places white people as superior to people of color, heterosexism places heterosexual people or relationships as superior to non-heterosexual ones. In trying to rebut this premise, some commentators point to differences
between the categories of race and sexual orientation, claiming they
are too complex to support any generalizations. For example, "trainer on diversity"
and consultant Jamie Washington has commented, although heterosexism
and racism are "woven from the same fabric" they are "not the same
thing". Some American Conservative leaders such as Rev. Irene Monroe comment that those who suggest or state "gay is the new black", as in a cover story of The Advocate magazine, exploit black people's suffering and experiences to legitimize their own. Nonetheless, a study presented at the British Psychological Society's Division of Occupational Psychology 2009 Conference shows that heterosexist prejudice is more pervasive than racism.
Heterosexism can also intersect with racism by further emphasizing differences among arbitrary groups of people. For example, heterosexism can compound the effects of racism by:
- promoting injustices towards a person already facing injustices because of their race
- establishing social hierarchies that allow one group more privilege than other groups.
Likewise, racism can allow LGBT people to be subjected to additional
discrimination or violence if they belong to or are considered a part of
a socially devalued racial category.
Some of the privileges afforded to people falling into the categories
of white people and (perceived) heterosexuals include, but are not
limited to, social acceptance, prestige, freedom from negative stereotypes, and the comfort of being within the social norm and thereby not being marginalized or viewed as different.
As a set of beliefs and attitudes
Individual and group level
Heterosexism as a set of beliefs and attitudes relies on a core tenet according to which homosexuality and bisexuality do not normally exist and, as such, constitute mental illnesses or deviant behaviors. Within a heterosexist ideology or mindset, the concept of sexual orientation is rejected or deemed irrelevant. A set of more nuanced heterosexist views, which some may consider faith, dogma, universal truths, natural law, appeals to authority, or popular beliefs, but others consider to be conventional wisdom or sociobiological knowledge can include, among others, the following:
Brochure used by Save Our Children in 1977
- Non-heterosexual persons should keep their sexual orientations private (i.e., they should remain "closeted").
- The attitude that gay men aren't "real" men or lesbians aren't "real" women because of the socially pervasive view that heterosexual attractions or activities are the "norm" and therefore superior.
- "God created Adam and Eve, not Adam and Steve (or Madame and Eve)" and similar essentialist cultural notions that maleness-masculinity and femaleness-femininity are complementary;
- Homosexuality being wrong, ungodly, and against nature, it is therefore a sin, evil or subhuman.
- Views identical or akin to Anita Bryant's statement during her Save Our Children campaign in the U.S. (See campaign brochure image at right):
- "As a mother, I know that homosexuals cannot biologically reproduce children; therefore, they must recruit our children."
- Because of their lifestyle, homosexuals do not have families with children, so they undermine the survival of the human race (natalism).
- Homosexuality is an affectional or mental disorder or simply a social ill, therefore, it can be cured or stamped out. If it is not eradicated, it will lead to social disintegration and societal collapse.
- Homosexuals can be converted to heterosexuality.
In an attempt to bring awareness to people who exhibit heterosexist
views but are possibly not aware of it, Mark Rochlin constructed a set
of questions in 1977 which are questions that non-heterosexual people
are often exposed to, but not heterosexuals, such as "What do you think caused your sexuality?"
This heterosexuality questionnaire is often distributed around college
campuses to bring awareness of heterosexist sexual prejudice against
LGBT persons.
Institutional level
As
well as comprising attitudes held by an individual or a social group,
heterosexism can also exist as the expression of attitudes within an
institution. As a result, schools, hospitals, and correctional
facilities can act as a showcase for heterosexist attitudes in various
ways. First, schools may implement these attitudes and ideas through
unequal and inconsistent disciplinary actions. One such example is
meting out harsher punishment to a same-sex couple violating the school
ground rules while allowing a heterosexual couple to pass with an easier
and more subtle disciplinary action for an equal or identical
violation. Also, hospitals may limit patient visiting only to immediate
family, i.e., relatives, and exclude same sex partners.
Heterosexism affects the family in several ways. For example, in
many countries around the world, same-sex marriage is not allowed, so
non-heterosexual persons must remain unmarried or enter into
heterosexual marriage.
Many countries also deny rights and benefits to same-sex couples,
including custodial and adoption rights for children, Social Security
benefits, and automatic durable power of attorney and hospital spousal
rights.
Research and measurements
Measurements
Psychologists have aimed to measure heterosexism using various methods. One particular method involves the use of a Likert scale.
However, since heterosexism is perceived as something that is unseen
it is difficult to determine if someone is heterosexist based on a self-report method. Researchers, thus, have constructed implicit measurements of heterosexism. An example of this would be an Implicit Association Test. A popular implicit association test measuring heterosexism that is open to the public is a virtual laboratory called Project Implicit.
One limitation present in research on heterosexism is that there
often isn’t a distinction between homophobia and heterosexism.
Individuals are more likely to be aware of homophobic tendencies rather
than heterosexist views, thus, researchers often measure homophobia
instead of heterosexism.
Research
Research
on heterosexism has focused on variables that may affect views of
heterosexism. For instance, in a study by psychologist, Gregory M. Herek, it was found that there was a gender difference between heterosexual attitudes toward lesbians and gay men.
Specifically, the study reveals that heterosexual individuals all seem
to have some heterosexist tendency, however, heterosexual males have a
greater tendency than heterosexual females to exhibit negative attitudes
towards non-heterosexual individuals (this includes gay men, lesbians,
and bisexuals). Another notable finding of Herek's study was that
heterosexual males showed a greater tendency to demonstrate hostility
towards gay men rather than lesbians.
Other factors that Herek acknowledges to contribute to heterosexism
include individual differences, religiosity, conforming to social norms,
right-wing authoritarianism, customs and beliefs regarding cultural tradition, and personal experience with non-heterosexual individuals. Research has also recognized the effects of level of education on views of heterosexism.
Wright et al. revealed that higher levels of education, or having more
years of education, is related to less homophobic tendencies.
As discrimination
Explicit or open
This type of heterosexism includes anti-gay laws, policies, and institutional practices, harassment based on sexual orientation or perceived sexual orientation; stereotyping, discriminatory language and discourse, and other forms of discrimination against LGBT persons such as:
- Hate speech, terms of disparagement, hate mail, death threats, "murder music"
- Scapegoating, mobbing, witch-hunts, moral panic; using gay men and homosexuality as a folk devil for the AIDS pandemic.
- Negative portrayals or stereotypes of gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals solely as villains, suicide or murder victims
- Using the gay panic defense in assault or murder cases.
- Sodomy laws when enforced almost exclusively against consenting, adult, same-sex partners.
- In some countries where homosexuality is criminalized, such as Sudan, Mauritania, Saudi Arabia, and the Islamic Republic of Iran, offenders may receive the maximum sentence of capital punishment.
- Discrepancies in age of consent laws in which legal sexual activity between members of the same sex is set at a higher age than that for opposite-sex partners. Most such laws apply explicitly (or have historically applied) only to male homosexual sexual activity.
- Prohibiting youth from bringing a same-sex date to high school prom.
- Adoption bans against either same-sex couples or gay, lesbian, or bisexual individuals.
- Legislation that prevents legal and social equality, i.e., laws that prohibit protection against discrimination based on sexual orientation or perceived sexual orientation, particularly with regard to health care, housing, and employment.
- The institution of opposite-sex marriage and reserving the right to marry strictly for opposite-sex couples via explicit definitions or through bans on same-sex marriage such as "marriage protection acts" (such as DOMA in the United States);[1] pp. 145–151
- Also, the above restriction even when same-sex couples have access to civil unions that are either analogous to or not on a par with marriage;
- Reserving civil unions strictly for opposite-sex couples;
- Barring gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals from serving in the armed forces or from working in the education field; this can include policies such as the American military's "Don't ask, don't tell" policy or Lech Kaczyński and other conservative Polish politicians’ stance to exclude gay men and lesbians from entering the teaching profession. See also: LGBT rights in Poland
- Organized opposition to gay rights; labeling such rights and privileges as "special rights" or the "Gay Agenda";
- Referring to a suspected criminal's homosexuality or bisexuality
when in analogous situations there is no mention of a suspect's
heterosexuality.
This form of heterosexism operates through invisibility, under-representation, and erasure. It includes:
- Lack or under-representation of homosexual or bisexual people in advertising to the general public;
- Censorship of homosexual or bisexual characters, themes, and issues in works of art, literature, entertainment;
- Exclusion of historical and political figures’ and celebrities’ homosexuality or bisexuality; their portrayal as heterosexuals;
- Complete avoidance of mentioning these people and their positive contributions particularly in news media;
- In the context of sex education or professional advice, referring only to opposite-sex partners when discussing female or male sexual attraction and activity;
- Silence on issues affecting homosexual and bisexual people at school or work or absence of their discussion in a positive light;
- Implementation and use of content-control software (censorware) to filter out information and websites that focus on homosexuality or bisexuality;
- Postal censorship and border control or customs seizure of publications deemed obscene solely on the basis of them containing material related to homosexuality even when they contain no erotic or pornographic material.
- Work environments that tacitly require gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals not to reveal their sexual orientation via discussion of their relationship status while heterosexuals can discuss their relationships and marital status freely;
- At public libraries or bookstores: rejection, removal or destruction of books (e.g. Jenny lives with Eric and Martin), films, and posters with homosexual themes;
- Refusal to include families headed by same-sex parents at school events or to represent such family diversity in school curricula.
- Coercive or forced sex reassignment surgery on gay men, lesbian women, and bisexuals – an issue addressed in Tanaz Eshaghian's 2008 documentary, Be Like Others.
- Forced disappearance, damnatio memoriae, ostracism, shunning, and other forms of social rejection geared towards making homosexual or bisexual people personae non gratae.
Effects
Heterosexism
causes a range of effects on people of any sexual orientation. However,
the main effects of heterosexism are marginalization, and anti-LGBT
violence and abuse.
Marginalization
The main effect of heterosexism is the marginalization of gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals within society. Heterosexism has led to stigmatization and persecution of not only these people but also those of other sexual diversity such as transgender, and transsexual people. Along with homophobia, lesbophobia, and internalized homophobia,
heterosexism continues to be a significant social reality that compels
people to conceal their homosexual or bisexual orientation, or
metaphorically, to remain in the closet in an effort to pass for heterosexual.
Marginalization also occurs when marriage rights are
heterosexist. More specifically, when marriage rights are exclusive to
opposite-sex couples, all same-sex couples, be they gay, lesbian,
straight or mixed, are prevented from enjoying marriage’s corresponding
legal privileges, especially those regarding property rights, health
benefits, and child custody. Moreover, such limitation prevents same-sex
couples from receiving the inherent social respect of marriage and its
cultural symbolism.
Anti-LGBT violence and abuse
Yolanda Dreyer, professor of practical theology at University of Pretoria, has stated that "Heterosexism leads to prejudice, discrimination, harassment, and violence. It is driven by fear and hatred (Dreyer 5)."
Along the same lines, forensic psychologist Karen Franklin explains
violence caused by heterosexism toward both men and women, regardless of
their sexual orientations:
[T]hrough heterosexism, any male who refuses to accept the dominant culture's assignment of appropriate masculine behavior is labeled early on as a "sissy" or "fag" and then subjected to bullying. Similarly, any woman who opposes male dominance and control can be labeled a lesbian and attacked. The potential of being ostracized as homosexual, regardless of actual sexual attractions and behaviors, puts pressure on all people to conform to a narrow standard of appropriate gender behavior, thereby maintaining and reinforcing our society's hierarchical gender structure.
Another form of heterosexist violence as social control that most often targets lesbian women is corrective rape: a gang rape
of a lesbian to "cure" her of her same-sex attractions. A notorious
example from South Africa is the corrective rape and murder of Eudy Simelane, LGBT-rights activist and member of the women's national football team.
According to a Frontline article titled Inside the Mind of People
Who Hate Gays, bias-related violence against homosexuals is believed to
be widespread in the United States, with perpetrators typically
described by victims as young men in groups who assault targets of
convenience. Victims accounts suggest that assailants possess tremendous
rage and hatred; indeed, documentation of horrific levels of brutality
has led gay activists to characterize the violence as political
terrorism aimed at all gay men and lesbians. Other motives for antigay
violence suggested in the literature include male bonding, proving
heterosexuality, and purging secret homosexual desires.
Responses
According
to an article in the Howard Journal of Communications, some LGBT
individuals have responded to heterosexism through direct confrontation
and communication, or through the removal of self from the hostile
environment.
