The Directive is divided into the following five chapters:
Patentability (Chapter I)
Scope of Protection (Chapter II)
Compulsory cross-licensing (Chapter III)
Deposit, access and re-deposit of biological material (Chapter IV)
Final Provisions (entering into force) (Chapter V)
Timeline
The original proposal was adopted by the European Commission in 1988. The procedure for its adoption was slowed down by primarily ethical issues regarding the patentability of living matter. The European Parliament eventually rejected the joint text from the final Conciliation meeting at 3rd reading on 1 March 1995 so the first directive process did not yield a directive.
On 13 December 1995, the Commission adopted a new proposal was
nearly identical to the rejected version, was changed again, but the
Parliament put aside its ethical concerns on patenting of human genes in
on 12 July 1998 in its second reading and adopted the Common Position
of the Council, so in the second legislative process, the directive was adopted.
The drafts person of the Parliament for this second procedure was Willi
Rothley and the vote with the most yes votes was Amendment 9 from the
Greens which got 221 against 294 votes out of 532 members voting
with 17 abstentions but 314 yes votes would have been required to reach
the required an absolute majority to adopt it.
On 6 July 1998, a final version was adopted. Its code is 98/44/EC.
Nevertheless, the ECJ decision does not preclude a further test
of the validity of the directive on the ground that it is inconsistent
with the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights (TRIPS).
Art. 27.1 TRIPS provides that patents are only to be granted with
respect to 'inventions'. The directive, however, provides that
"biological material which is isolated from its natural environment ...
may be the subject of an invention even if it previously occurred in
nature." It is clearly arguable that merely isolating a human gene or
protein from its natural environment is not an activity that can come
within the meaning of the word 'invention'. The Danish Council of
Bioethics in its Patenting Human Genes and Stem Cells Report
noted that "In the members' view, it cannot be said with any
reasonableness that a sequence or partial sequence of a gene ceases to
be part of the human body merely because an identical copy of the
sequence is isolated from or produced outside of the human body." TRIPS
applies to the European Community as it is a member of the World Trade
Organization (WTO) in its own right and accordingly must ensure "the
conformity of its laws, regulations and administrative procedures with
obligations as provided" by the WTO.
On 14 January 2002, the Commission submitted an assessment of the
implications for basic genetic engineering research of failure to
publish, or late publication of, papers on subjects which could be
patentable as required under Article 16(b) of this directive.
Campaigning and lobbying
According to SmithKline Beecham lobbyist Simon Gentry, the company allocated 30 million ECU for a pro-Directive campaign.
Part of this campaign was direct support of patient charities and
organisations. On the day of the July 1997 vote, a number of people in
wheelchairs from these groups demonstrated outside the main hall in Strasbourg,
chanting the pharmaceutical industry's slogan, "No Patents, No Cure" in
an emotional appeal to Parliamentarians to vote for the Directive.
Implementation
As of 15 January 2007, all of the 27 EU member states had implemented the Directive.
'BUILD YOUR OWN TELEVISION RECEIVER.' Science and Invention magazine cover, November 1928
An invention is a unique or noveldevice,
method, composition, idea or process. An invention may be an
improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing
efficiency or lowering cost. It may also be an entirely new concept. If
an idea is unique enough either as a stand-alone invention or as a
significant improvement over the work of others, it can be patented. A
patent, if granted, gives the inventor a proprietary interest in the
patent over a specific period of time, which can be licensed for
financial gain.
An inventor creates or discovers an invention. The word inventor comes from the Latin verb invenire, invent-, to find. Although inventing is closely associated with science and engineering, inventors are not necessarily engineers or scientists. Due to advances in artificial intelligence, the term "inventor" no longer exclusively applies to an occupation (see human computers).
Some inventions can be patented. The system of patents was established to encourage inventors by granting limited-term, limited monopoly on inventions determined to be sufficiently novel, non-obvious, and useful.
A patent legally protects the intellectual property rights of the
inventor and legally recognizes that a claimed invention is actually an
invention. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary by
country and the process of obtaining a patent is often expensive.
Another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines and books. Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of human knowledge, experience or capability.
Types
Inventions
are of three kinds: scientific-technological (including medicine),
sociopolitical (including economics and law), and humanistic, or
cultural.
Scientific-technological inventions include railroads, aviation, vaccination, hybridization, antibiotics, astronautics, holography, the atomic bomb, computing, the Internet, and the smartphone.
Humanistic inventions encompass culture in its entirety and are
as transformative and important as any in the sciences, although people
tend to take them for granted. In the domain of linguistics, for
example, many alphabets have been inventions, as are all neologisms (Shakespeare invented about 1,700 words). Literary inventions include the epic, tragedy, comedy, the novel, the sonnet, the Renaissance, neoclassicism, Romanticism, Symbolism, Aestheticism, Socialist Realism, Surrealism, postmodernism, and (according to Freud) psychoanalysis. Among the inventions of artists and musicians are oil painting, printmaking, photography, cinema, musical tonality, atonality, jazz, rock, opera, and the symphony orchestra. Philosophers have invented logic (several times), dialectics, idealism, materialism, utopia, anarchism, semiotics, phenomenology, behaviorism, positivism, pragmatism, and deconstruction. Religious thinkers are responsible for such inventions as monotheism, pantheism, Methodism, Mormonism, iconoclasm, puritanism, deism, secularism, ecumenism, and the Baháʼí Faith.
Some of these disciplines, genres, and trends may seem to have existed
eternally or to have emerged spontaneously of their own accord, but most
of them have had inventors.
Ideas for an invention may be developed on paper or on a computer, by writing or drawing, by trial and error, by making models, by experimenting, by testing and/or by making the invention in its whole form. Brainstorming
also can spark new ideas for an invention. Collaborative creative
processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and
scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents.
In the process of developing an invention, the initial idea may
change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand,
or it may even morph into something totally different. Working on one invention can lead to others too.
History shows that turning the concept of an invention into a
working device is not always swift or direct. Inventions may also become
more useful after time passes and other changes occur. For example, the
parachute became more useful once powered flight was a reality.
Invention is often a creative process.
An open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is
known. Seeing a new possibility, connection or relationship can spark an
invention. Inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or
elements from different realms that would not normally be put together.
Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly
separate territories or fields. Several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention.
Play may lead to invention. Childhood curiosity, experimentation, and
imagination can develop one's play instinct. Inventors feel the need to
play with things that interest them, and to explore, and this internal
drive brings about novel creations.
Sometimes inventions and ideas may seem to arise spontaneously while daydreaming, especially when the mind is free from its usual concerns. For example, both J. K. Rowling (the creator of Harry Potter) and Frank Hornby (the inventor of Meccano) first had their ideas while on train journeys.
In contrast, the successful aerospace engineer Max Munk advocated "aimful thinking".
Re-envisioning
To invent is to see anew. Inventors often envision a new idea, seeing it in their mind's eye.
New ideas can arise when the conscious mind turns away from the subject
or problem when the inventor's focus is on something else, or while
relaxing or sleeping. A novel idea may come in a flash—a Eureka!
moment. For example, after years of working to figure out the general
theory of relativity, the solution came to Einstein suddenly in a dream
"like a giant die making an indelible impress, a huge map of the
universe outlined itself in one clear vision". Inventions can also be accidental, such as in the case of polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon).
Insight
Insight can also be a vital element of invention. Such inventive insight may begin with questions, doubt or a hunch.
It may begin by recognizing that something unusual or accidental may be
useful or that it could open a new avenue for exploration. For example,
the odd metallic color of plastic made by accidentally adding a
thousand times too much catalyst led scientists to explore its
metal-like properties, inventing electrically conductive plastic and
light emitting plastic-—an invention that won the Nobel Prize in 2000
and has led to innovative lighting, display screens, wallpaper and much
more (see conductive polymer, and organic light-emitting diode or OLED).
Exploration
A rare 1884 photo showing the experimental recording of voice patterns by a photographic process at the Alexander Graham Bell Laboratory in Washington, D.C. Many of their experimental designs panned out in failure.Eric M. C. Tigerstedt (1887–1925) was known as a pioneer of sound-on-film technology. Tigerstedt in 1915.
Invention is often an exploratory process with an uncertain or
unknown outcome. There are failures as well as successes. Inspiration
can start the process, but no matter how complete the initial idea,
inventions typically must be developed.
Improvement
Inventors
may, for example, try to improve something by making it more effective,
healthier, faster, more efficient, easier to use, serve more purposes,
longer lasting, cheaper, more ecologically friendly, or aesthetically different, lighter weight, more ergonomic, structurally different, with new light or color properties, etc.
In economic theory, inventions are one of the chief examples of "positive externalities",
a beneficial side effect that falls on those outside a transaction or
activity. One of the central concepts of economics is that externalities
should be internalized—unless some of the benefits of this positive
externality can be captured by the parties, the parties are
under-rewarded for their inventions, and systematic under-rewarding
leads to under-investment in activities that lead to inventions. The patent system captures those positive externalities
for the inventor or other patent owner so that the economy as a whole
invests an optimum amount of resources in the invention process.
In contrast to invention, innovation is the implementation of a creative
idea that specifically leads to greater value or usefulness. That is,
while an invention may be useless or have no value yet still be an
invention, an innovation must have some sort of value, typically
economic.
The term invention is also an important legal concept and
central to patent law systems worldwide. As is often the case for legal
concepts, its legal meaning is slightly different from common usage of
the word. Additionally, the legal concept of invention is quite different in American and European patent law.
In Europe, the first test a patent application must pass is, "Is
this an invention?" If it is, subsequent questions are whether it is new
and sufficiently inventive. The implication—counter-intuitively—is that
a legal invention is not inherently novel. Whether a patent application
relates to an invention is governed by Article 52 of the European
Patent Convention, that excludes, e.g., discoveries as such and software as such.
The EPO Boards of Appeal decided that the technical character of an
application is decisive for it to represent an invention, following an
age-old Italian and German tradition. British courts do not agree with
this interpretation. Following a 1959 Australian decision ("NRDC"), they
believe that it is not possible to grasp the invention concept in a
single rule. A British court once stated that the technical character
test implies a "restatement of the problem in more imprecise
terminology."
In the United States, all patent applications are considered
inventions. The statute explicitly says that the American invention
concept includes discoveries (35 USC § 100(a)), contrary to the European
invention concept. The European invention concept corresponds to the
American "patentable subject matter" concept: the first test a patent
application is submitted to. While the statute (35 USC § 101)
virtually poses no limits to patenting whatsoever, courts have decided
in binding precedents that abstract ideas, natural phenomena and laws of
nature are not patentable. Various attempts have been made to
substantiate the "abstract idea" test, which suffers from abstractness
itself, but none have succeeded. The last attempt so far was the
"machine or transformation" test, but the U.S. Supreme Court decided in
2010 that it is merely an indication at best.
In India, invention means a new product or process that involves
an inventive step, and capable of being made or used in an industry.
Whereas, "new invention" means any invention that has not been
anticipated in any prior art or used in the country or anywhere in the
world.
In the arts
Invention has a long and important history in the arts. Inventive thinking has always played a vital role in the creative process. While some inventions in the arts are patentable, others are not because they cannot fulfill the strict requirements governments have established for granting them. (see patent).
Likewise, Jackson Pollock
invented an entirely new form of painting and a new kind of abstraction
by dripping, pouring, splashing and splattering paint onto un-stretched
canvas lying on the floor.
Inventive tools of the artist's trade also produced advances in creativity. Impressionist
painting became possible because of newly invented collapsible,
resealable metal paint tubes that facilitated spontaneous painting
outdoors.
Inventions originally created in the form of artwork can also develop
other uses, e.g. Alexander Calder's mobile, which is now commonly used
over babies' cribs. Funds generated from patents on inventions in art,
design and architecture can support the realization of the invention or
other creative work. Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi's 1879 design patent on the Statue of Liberty helped fund the famous statue because it covered small replicas, including those sold as souvenirs.
Historically, women in many regions have been unrecognised for their inventive contributions (except Russia and France), despite being the sole inventor or co-inventor in inventions, including highly notable inventions. Notable examples include Margaret Knight who faced significant challenges in receiving credit for her inventions; Elizabeth Magie who was not credited for her invention of the game of Monopoly; and among other such examples, Chien-Shiung Wu whose male colleagues alone were awarded the Nobel Prize for their joint contributions to physics.
Societal prejudice, institutional, educational and often legal patent
barriers have both played a role in the gender invention gap. For
example, although there could be found female patenters in US patent
Office who also are likely to be helpful in their experience, still a
patent applications made to the US Patent Office for inventions are less
likely to succeed where the applicant have a "feminine" name, and additionally women could lose their independent legal patent rights to their husbands once married. See also the gender gap in patents.
Applied science is the application of the scientific method and scientific knowledge to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines, such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena.
Applied
research is the use of empirical methods to collect data for practical
purposes. It accesses and uses accumulated theories, knowledge, methods,
and techniques for a specific state, business, or client-driven
purpose. In contrast to engineering, applied research does not include
analyses or optimization of business, economics, and costs. Applied
research can be better understood in any area when contrasting it with
basic or pure research. Basic geographical research strives to create
new theories and methods that aid in explaining the processes that shape
the spatial structure of physical or human environments. Instead,
applied research utilizes existing geographical theories and methods to
comprehend and address particular empirical issues. Applied research usually has specific commercial objectives related to products, procedures, or services. The comparison of pure research and applied research provides a basic framework and direction for businesses to follow.
Applied research deals with solving practical problems and generally employs empirical
methodologies. Because applied research resides in the messy real
world, strict research protocols may need to be relaxed. For example, it
may be impossible to use a random sample. Thus, transparency in the methodology
is crucial. Implications for the interpretation of results brought
about by relaxing an otherwise strict canon of methodology should also
be considered.
Moreover, this type of research method applies natural sciences to human conditions:
Action Research: aids firms in identifying workable solutions to issues influencing them.
Evaluation Research: researchers examine available data to assist clients in making wise judgments.
Industrial Research: create new goods/services that will satisfy the
demands of a target market. (Industrial development would be scaling up
production of the new goods/services for mass consumption to satisfy
the economic demand of the customers while maximizing the ratio of the
good/service output rate to resource input rate, the ratio of
good/service revenue to material & energy costs, and the
good/service quality. Industrial development would be considered
engineering. Industrial development would fall outside the scope of
applied research.)
Since applied research has a provisional close-to-the-problem and
close-to-the-data orientation, it may also use a more provisional conceptual framework, such as working hypotheses or pillar questions. The OECD's Frascati Manual describes applied research as one of the three forms of research, along with basic research & experimental development.
Due to its practical focus, applied research information will be found in the literature associated with individual disciplines.
Applied research is a method of problem-solving and is also practical
in areas of science, such as its presence in applied psychology.
Applied psychology uses human behavior to grab information to locate a
main focus in an area that can contribute to finding a resolution.
More specifically, this study is applied in the area of criminal
psychology. With the knowledge obtained from applied research, studies
are conducted on criminals alongside their behavior to apprehend them.
Moreover, the research extends to criminal investigations. Under this
category, research methods demonstrate an understanding of the
scientific method and social research designs used in criminological
research. These reach more branches along the procedure towards the
investigations, alongside laws, policy, and criminological theory.
In Canada, the Netherlands, and other places, the Bachelor of Applied Science (BASc) is sometimes equivalent to the Bachelor of Engineering
and is classified as a professional degree. This is based on the age of
the school where applied science used to include boiler making,
surveying, and engineering. There are also Bachelor of Applied Science
degrees in Child Studies. The BASc tends to focus more on the
application of the engineering sciences. In Australia and New Zealand,
this degree is awarded in various fields of study and is considered a
highly specialized professional degree.
In the United Kingdom's educational system, Applied Science refers to a suite of "vocational" science qualifications that run alongside "traditional" General Certificate of Secondary Education or A-Level Sciences.
Applied Science courses generally contain more coursework (also known
as portfolio or internally assessed work) compared to their traditional
counterparts. These are an evolution of the GNVQ qualifications offered
up to 2005. These courses regularly come under scrutiny and are due for
review following the Wolf Report 2011; however, their merits are argued elsewhere.
In the United States, The College of William & Mary offers an undergraduate minor as well as Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees in "applied science". Courses and research cover varied fields, including neuroscience, optics, materials science and engineering, nondestructive testing, and nuclear magnetic resonance. University of Nebraska–Lincoln
offers a Bachelor of Science in applied science, an online completion
Bachelor of Science in applied science, and a Master of Applied Science.
Coursework is centered on science, agriculture, and natural resources
with a wide range of options, including ecology, food genetics,
entrepreneurship, economics, policy, animal science, and plant science.
In New York City, the Bloomberg administration awarded the consortium
of Cornell-Technion $100 million in City capital to construct the
universities' proposed Applied Sciences campus on Roosevelt Island.
The 19th century in science saw the birth of science as a profession; the term scientist was coined in 1833 by William Whewell, which soon replaced the older term of (natural) philosopher.
The discovery of new types of radiation and the simultaneous
revelation of the nature of atomic structure and matter are two
additional highlights. In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered.
In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to
a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of hypercomplex numbers. Karl Weierstrass and others carried out the arithmetization of analysis for functions of real and complex variables. It also saw rise to new progress in geometry
beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two
thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had
revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation.
But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas
formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the
face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about such
as electric power, electrical telegraphy, the telephone, and radio.
Behavior of lines with a common perpendicular in each of the three types of geometry
This century saw the development of the two forms of non-Euclidean geometry, where the parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry no longer holds.
The Russian mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky and his rival, the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai, independently defined and studied hyperbolic geometry, where uniqueness of parallels no longer holds. In this geometry the sum of angles in a triangle add up to less than 180°. Elliptic geometry was developed later in the 19th century by the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann; here no parallel can be found and the angles in a triangle add up to more than 180°. Riemann also developed Riemannian geometry, which unifies and vastly generalizes the three types of geometry.
Also, for the first time, the limits of mathematics were explored. Niels Henrik Abel, a Norwegian, and Évariste Galois, a Frenchman, proved that there is no general algebraic method for solving polynomial equations of degree greater than four (Abel–Ruffini theorem). Other 19th-century mathematicians utilized this in their proofs that straightedge and compass alone are not sufficient to trisect an arbitrary angle,
to construct the side of a cube twice the volume of a given cube, nor
to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. Mathematicians
had vainly attempted to solve all of these problems since the time of
the ancient Greeks. On the other hand, the limitation of three dimensions in geometry was surpassed in the 19th century through considerations of parameter space and hypercomplex numbers.
In 1800, Alessandro Volta invented the electric battery (known as the voltaic pile) and thus improved the way electric currents could also be studied. A year later, Thomas Young demonstrated the wave nature of light—which received strong experimental support from the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel—and the principle of interference. In 1813, Peter Ewart supported the idea of the conservation of energy in his paper On the measure of moving force. In 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted
found that a current-carrying conductor gives rise to a magnetic force
surrounding it, and within a week after Ørsted's discovery reached
France, André-Marie Ampère discovered that two parallel electric currents will exert forces on each other. In 1821, William Hamilton began his analysis of Hamilton's characteristic function. In 1821, Michael Faraday built an electricity-powered motor, while Georg Ohm
stated his law of electrical resistance in 1826, expressing the
relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electric
circuit. A year later, botanist Robert Brown discovered Brownian motion:
pollen grains in water undergoing movement resulting from their
bombardment by the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the liquid. In 1829, Gaspard Coriolis introduced the terms of work (force times distance) and kinetic energy with the meanings they have today.
In 1831, Faraday (and independently Joseph Henry) discovered the reverse effect, the production of an electric potential or current through magnetism – known as electromagnetic induction; these two discoveries are the basis of the electric motor and the electric generator, respectively. In 1834, Carl Jacobi discovered his uniformly rotating self-gravitating ellipsoids (the Jacobi ellipsoid). In 1834, John Russell observed a nondecaying solitary water wave (soliton) in the Union Canal near Edinburgh and used a water tank to study the dependence of solitary water wave velocities on wave amplitude and water depth.[30] In 1835, William Hamilton stated Hamilton's canonical equations of motion. In the same year, Gaspard Coriolis examined theoretically the mechanical efficiency of waterwheels, and deduced the Coriolis effect. In 1841, Julius Robert von Mayer, an amateur scientist, wrote a paper on the conservation of energy but his lack of academic training led to its rejection. In 1842, Christian Doppler proposed the Doppler effect. In 1847, Hermann von Helmholtz formally stated the law of conservation of energy. In 1851, Léon Foucault showed the Earth's rotation with a huge pendulum (Foucault pendulum).
In the 19th century, the connection between heat and mechanical energy was established quantitatively by Julius Robert von Mayer and James Prescott Joule, who measured the mechanical equivalent of heat in the 1840s.
In 1849, Joule published results from his series of experiments
(including the paddlewheel experiment) which show that heat is a form of
energy, a fact that was accepted in the 1850s. The relation between
heat and energy was important for the development of steam engines, and
in 1824 the experimental and theoretical work of Sadi Carnot was published.
Carnot captured some of the ideas of thermodynamics in his discussion
of the efficiency of an idealized engine. Sadi Carnot's work provided a
basis for the formulation of the first law of thermodynamics—a restatement of the law of conservation of energy—which was stated around 1850 by William Thomson, later known as Lord Kelvin, and Rudolf Clausius.
Lord Kelvin, who had extended the concept of absolute zero from gases
to all substances in 1848, drew upon the engineering theory of Lazare Carnot, Sadi Carnot, and Émile Clapeyron–as
well as the experimentation of James Prescott Joule on the
interchangeability of mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical
forms of work—to formulate the first law.
Kelvin and Clausius also stated the second law of thermodynamics,
which was originally formulated in terms of the fact that heat does not
spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter. Other formulations
followed quickly (for example, the second law was expounded in Thomson
and Peter Guthrie Tait's influential work Treatise on Natural Philosophy) and Kelvin in particular understood some of the law's general implications. The second Law was the idea that gases consist of molecules in motion had been discussed in some detail by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738, but had fallen out of favor, and was revived by Clausius in 1857. In 1850, Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault measured the speed of light in water and find that it is slower than in air, in support of the wave model of light. In 1852, Joule and Thomson demonstrated that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the Joule–Thomson effect or Joule–Kelvin effect. Hermann von Helmholtz puts forward the idea of the heat death of the universe in 1854, the same year that Clausius established the importance of dQ/T (Clausius's theorem) (though he did not yet name the quantity).
In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell discovered the distribution law of molecular velocities.
Maxwell showed that electric and magnetic fields are propagated outward
from their source at a speed equal to that of light and that light is
one of several kinds of electromagnetic radiation, differing only in
frequency and wavelength from the others. In 1859, Maxwell worked out
the mathematics of the distribution of velocities of the molecules of a
gas.
The wave theory of light was widely accepted by the time of Maxwell's
work on the electromagnetic field, and afterward the study of light and
that of electricity and magnetism were closely related. In 1864 James
Maxwell published his papers on a dynamical theory of the
electromagnetic field, and stated that light is an electromagnetic
phenomenon in the 1873 publication of Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. This work drew upon theoretical work by German theoreticians such as Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber.
The encapsulation of heat in particulate motion, and the addition of
electromagnetic forces to Newtonian dynamics established an enormously
robust theoretical underpinning to physical observations.
The prediction that light represented a transmission of energy in wave form through a "luminiferous ether", and the seeming confirmation of that prediction with Helmholtz student Heinrich Hertz's 1888 detection of electromagnetic radiation,
was a major triumph for physical theory and raised the possibility that
even more fundamental theories based on the field could soon be
developed. Experimental confirmation of Maxwell's theory was provided by
Hertz, who generated and detected electric waves in 1886 and verified
their properties, at the same time foreshadowing their application in
radio, television, and other devices. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect.
Research on the electromagnetic waves began soon after, with many
scientists and inventors conducting experiments on their properties. In
the mid to late 1890s Guglielmo Marconi developed a radio wave based wireless telegraphy system (see invention of radio).
The atomic theory of matter had been proposed again in the early 19th century by the chemist John Dalton
and became one of the hypotheses of the kinetic-molecular theory of
gases developed by Clausius and James Clerk Maxwell to explain the laws
of thermodynamics. The kinetic theory in turn led to the statistical mechanics of Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906) and Josiah Willard Gibbs
(1839–1903), which held that energy (including heat) was a measure of
the speed of particles. Interrelating the statistical likelihood of
certain states of organization of these particles with the energy of
those states, Clausius reinterpreted the dissipation of energy to be the
statistical tendency of molecular configurations to pass toward
increasingly likely, increasingly disorganized states (coining the term "entropy" to describe the disorganization of a state).
The statistical versus absolute interpretations of the second law of
thermodynamics set up a dispute that would last for several decades
(producing arguments such as "Maxwell's demon"),
and that would not be held to be definitively resolved until the
behavior of atoms was firmly established in the early 20th century. In 1902, James Jeans found the length scale required for gravitational perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium.
In 1828, Friedrich Wöhler
synthesized urea from certain inorganic compounds. He synthesized urea
by slowly evaporating a water solution of ammonium cyanate, which he had
prepared by adding silver cyanate to ammonium chloride. It has been
previously believed that, the substances produced by plants and animals
(by generally all living beings or organisms) can not be produced in lab
and can only be produced by "life force". But this synthesize of urea
had changed that concept. Which has led to many discoveries later.
John
Dalton was an English chemist, physicist and meteorologist. He is best
known for introducing the atomic theory into chemistry.
In 19th century, John Dalton
proposed the idea of atoms as small indivisible particles which
together can form compounds. Although the concept of the atom dates back
to the ideas of Democritus, John Dalton formulated the first modern
description of it as the fundamental building block of chemical
structures. Dalton developed the law of multiple proportions (first
presented in 1803) by studying and expanding upon the works of Antoine
Lavoisier and Joseph Proust.
The main points of Dalton's atomic theory, as it eventually developed, are:
Elements are made of extremely small particles called atoms.
Atoms of a given element are identical in size, mass and other
properties; atoms of different elements differ in size, mass and other
properties.
Atoms cannot be subdivided, created or destroyed.
Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical compounds.
In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev created the framework that
became the modern periodic table, leaving gaps for elements that were
yet to be discovered. While arranging the elements according to their
atomic weight, if he found that they did not fit into the group he would
rearrange them. Mendeleev predicted the properties of some undiscovered
elements and gave them names such as "eka-aluminium" for an element
with properties similar to aluminium. Later eka-aluminium was discovered
as gallium. Some discrepancies remained; the position of certain
elements, such as iodine and tellurium, could not be explained.
Engineering and technology
Thomas Edison
was an American inventor and businessman whose companies developed many
devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, a motion picture camera, and a long-lasting, practical electric light bulb.First motor bus in history: the Benz Omnibus, built in 1895 for the Netphener bus company
1844: First publicly funded telegraph
line in the world—between Baltimore and Washington—sends demonstration
message on 24 May, ushering in the age of the telegraph. This message
read "What hath God wrought?" (Bible, Numbers 23:23)
Oscar Hertwig
publishes his findings in reproductive and developmental biology. In
1875 he published his first work, being the first to correctly describe
animal conception. In his later work in 1885, he described that the nucleus contained nuclein (now called nucleic acid) and that these nuclein were responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics.
In 1871, William Stanley Jevons and Carl Menger, working independently, solved Adam Smith's paradox of value with the insight that people valued each additional unit of a good less than the previous unit. In 1874, Léon Walras independently came to a similar insight. Menger's student Friedrich von Wieser coined the term "marginal utility" to describe the new theory. Modern microeconomics is built on the insights of the Marginal Revolution.
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