Automobile dependency or car dependency is the concept that some city layouts cause automobiles to be favoured over alternate forms of transportation, such as bicycles, public transit, and walking.
Overview
In many modern cities automobiles are convenient and sometimes necessary to move easily.
When it comes to automobile use, there is a spiralling effect where traffic congestion produces the 'demand' for more and bigger roads and removal of 'impediments' to traffic flow, such as pedestrians, signalised crossings, traffic lights, cyclists, and various forms of street-based public transit, such as streetcars (trams).
These measures make automobile use more pleasurable and
advantageous at the expense of other modes of transport, so greater
traffic volumes are induced. Additionally, the urban design
of cities adjusts to the needs of automobiles in terms of movement and
space. Buildings are replaced by parking lots. Open air shopping streets
are replaced by enclosed shopping malls.
Walk-in banks and fast-food stores are replaced by drive-in versions of
themselves that are inconveniently located for pedestrians. Town
centres with a mixture of commercial, retail and entertainment functions are replaced by single-function business parks, 'category-killer' retail boxes and 'multiplex' entertainment complexes, each surrounded by large tracts of parking.
These kinds of environments require automobiles to access them,
thus inducing even more traffic onto the increased roadspace. This
results in congestion, and the cycle above continues. Roads get ever
bigger, consuming ever greater tracts of land previously used for
housing, manufacturing and other socially and economically useful
purposes. Public transit becomes less and less viable and socially
stigmatised, eventually becoming a minority form of transportation.
People's choices and freedoms to live functional lives without the use
of the car are greatly reduced. Such cities are automobile dependent.
Automobile dependency is seen primarily as an issue of environmental sustainability due to the consumption of non-renewable resources and production of greenhouse gases responsible for global warming. It is also an issue of social and cultural sustainability. Like gated communities,
the private automobile produces physical separation between people and
reduces the opportunities for unstructured social encounter that is a
significant aspect of social capital formation and maintenance in urban environments.
Negative externalities of automobile
Automobile Inefficiencies
According to the Handbook on estimation of external costs in the transport sector made by the Delft University
and which is the main reference in European Union for assessing the
externalities of cars, the main external costs of driving a car are:
There are a number of planning and design approaches to redressing automobile dependency, known variously as New Urbanism, transit-oriented development, and smart growth. Most of these approaches focus on the physical urban design, urban density and landuse zoning of cities. Dr. Paul Mees, a transport planning academic formerly at the University of Melbourne,
argues that investment in good public transit, centralised management
by the public sector and appropriate policy priorities are more
significant than issues of urban form and density.
There are, of course, many who argue against a number of the
details within any of the complex arguments related to this topic,
particularly relationships between urban density
and transit viability, or the nature of viable alternatives to
automobiles that provide the same degree of flexibility and speed. There
is also research into the future of automobility itself in terms of shared usage, size reduction, roadspace management and more sustainable fuel sources.
Car-sharing is one example of a solution to automobile dependency. Research has shown that in the United States, services like Zipcar, have reduced demand by about 500,000 cars. In the developing world, companies like eHi, Carrot, Zazcar and Zoom
have replicated or modified Zipcar's business model to improve urban
transportation to provide a broader audience with greater access to the
benefits of a car and provide"last-mile" connectivity between public
transportation and an individual's destination. Car sharing also reduces
private vehicle ownership.
A diagram showing an inverse correlation between urban density and car use for selected North American cities
Urban sprawl and smart growth
Whether smart growth does or can reduce problems of automobile dependency associated with urban sprawl has been fiercely contested for several decades. The influential study in 1989 by Peter Newman and Jeff Kenworthy compared 32 cities across North America, Australia, Europe and Asia. The study has been criticised for its methodology, but the main finding, that denser cities, particularly in Asia, have lower car use than sprawling cities, particularly in North America,
has been largely accepted, but the relationship is clearer at the
extremes across continents than it is within countries where conditions
are more similar.
Within cities, studies from across many countries (mainly in the
developed world) have shown that denser urban areas with greater mixture
of land use and better public transport tend to have lower car use than
less dense suburban and exurban
residential areas. This usually holds true even after controlling for
socio-economic factors such as differences in household composition and
income.
This does not necessarily imply that suburban sprawl
causes high car use, however. One confounding factor, which has been
the subject of many studies, is residential self-selection:
people who prefer to drive tend to move towards low-density suburbs,
whereas people who prefer to walk, cycle or use transit tend to move
towards higher density urban areas, better served by public transport.
Some studies have found that, when self-selection is controlled for, the
built environment has no significant effect on travel behaviour.
More recent studies using more sophisticated methodologies have
generally rejected these findings: density, land use and public
transport accessibility can influence travel behaviour, although social
and economic factors, particularly household income, usually exert a
stronger influence.
The paradox of intensification
Reviewing the evidence on urban intensification, smart growth and their effects on automobile use, Melia et al. (2011) found support for the arguments of both supporters and opponents of smart growth. Planning policies that increase population densities
in urban areas do tend to reduce car use, but the effect is a weak one,
so doubling the population density of a particular area will not halve
the frequency or distance of car use.
These findings led them to propose the paradox of intensification:
All other things being equal, urban intensification which
increases population density will reduce per capita car use, with
benefits to the global environment, but will also increase
concentrations of motor traffic, worsening the local environment in
those locations where it occurs.
At the citywide level, it may be possible, through a range of
positive measures to counteract the increases in traffic and congestion
that would otherwise result from increasing population densities: Freiburg im Breisgau
in Germany is one example of a city which has been more successful in
reducing automobile dependency and constraining increases in traffic
despite substantial increases in population density.
This study also reviewed evidence on the local effects of
building at higher densities. At the level of the neighbourhood or
individual development, positive measures (like improvements to public
transport) will usually be insufficient to counteract the traffic effect
of increasing population density.
This leaves policy-makers with four choices:
intensify and accept the local consequences
sprawl and accept the wider consequences
a compromise with some element of both
or intensify accompanied by more direct measures such as parking restrictions, closing roads to traffic and carfree zones.
The car-free movement is a broad, informal, emergent network of individuals and organizations, including social activists, urban planners, transportation engineers and others, brought together by a shared belief that large and/or high-speed motorized vehicles (cars, trucks, tractor units, motorcycles, etc.)
are too dominant in most modern cities. The goal of the movement is to
create places where motorized vehicle use is greatly reduced or
eliminated, by converting road and parking space to other public uses and rebuilding compact urban environments where most destinations are within easy reach by other means, including walking, cycling, public transport, personal transporters, and mobility as a service.
Before the twentieth century, cities and towns were normally compact,
containing narrow streets busy with human activity. In the early
twentieth century, many of these settlements were adapted to accommodate
the car with wider roads, more car parking spaces, and lower population densities, with space between urban buildings reserved for automotive use. Lower population densities meant urban sprawl with longer distances between places. The low cost of use brought traffic congestion
which made older transport unattractive or impractical, and created the
conditions for more traffic and sprawl; the car system was
"increasingly able to 'drive' out competitors, such as feet, bikes,
buses and trains". This process led to changes in urban form and living patterns that offered little opportunity for people without a car.
Some governments have responded with policies and regulations aimed at reversing auto dependency by increasing urban densities, encouraging mixed use development and infill, reducing space allocated to private cars, increasing walkability, supporting cycling and other alternative vehicles similar in size and speed, and public transport. Globally, urban planning
is evolving in an effort to increase public transport and non-motorized
transport modal shares and shift away from private transport oriented
development. Cities like Hong Kong developed a highly integrated public
transportation system which effectively reduced the use of private
transport. In contrast with private automotive travel, car sharing,
where people can easily rent a car for a few hours rather than own one,
is emerging as an increasingly important element for urban
transportation.
Urban design
Passenger Capacity of different Transport Modes
Road Space Requirements
Proponents of the car-free movement focus on both sustainable and public transport (bus, tram, etc.) options and on urban design, zoning, school placement policies, urban agriculture, telecommuting
options, and housing developments that create proximity or access so
that long distance transportation becomes less of a requirement of daily
life.
New urbanism is an American urban design movement that arose in the early 1980s. Its goal has been to reform all aspects of real estate development and urban planning, from urban retrofits to suburban infill. New urbanist neighborhoods are designed to contain a diverse range of housing and jobs, and to be walkable. Other, more auto-oriented cities are also making incremental changes to provide transportation alternatives through Complete streets improvements.
World Squares for all is a scheme to remove much of the traffic from major squares in London, including Trafalgar Square and Parliament Square.
Car-free cities are, as the name implies, entire cities (or at least the inner parts thereof) which have been made entirely car-free.
Car-free zones are areas of a city or town where the use of cars is prohibited or greatly restricted.
To make the car-free zones/cities, (movable and/or stationary) traffic bollards and other barriers are often used to deny car access.
Living streets and complete streets
prioritize the needs of users of the street as a whole over those of
car drivers. They are designed to be shared by pedestrians, playing
children, bicyclists, and low-speed motor vehicles.
The ring road around Amsterdam (shown in red). At exits of ring roads such as this, distribution centers can be set up.
Distribution centers allow easy restocking of supermarkets, outlet stores, restaurants, and more in city centers. They rely on tractor units to unload their cargo in the suburban distribution center.
The products are then placed in a small truck (sometimes electrically powered), freight bicycle, or other vehicle to bridge the last mile
to the destination in the city center. Besides offering advantages to
the population (increased safety due to truck drivers having less blind spots,
reduced noise/traffic, reduced tailpipe emissions, and more), it also
offers financial advantage for the companies, as tractor units require a
lot of time to bridge this last mile (they lack agility and consume
much fuel in congested streets).
The method above however still doesn't reduce car use inside
non-car-free city centers (customers often use cars to fetch their
groceries or appliances from city stores, since they have so much
storage space). This problem is solved by means of online food ordering
systems, which allow customers to order online, and then have it
delivered to their doorstep by the supermarket or store itself, through bicycle couriers (using freight bicycles), electric delivery robots and delivery vans.
Delivery vans allow to take along more cargo and deliver to several
customers on a same trip. These food ordering systems could provide for a
smooth transition for those cities that wish to become car-free as it
can reduce both personal car use and personal car demand in cities.
At the outskirts of towns, between the exits of the rings roads,
and the car-free zones in the city center themselves, additional car
parking lots can be added, generally in the form of underground car
parks (to avoid it taking up surface space).
Careful placement of these car-parking lots is needed though, ensuring
that they are made far enough from the city centers (and closer to the
ring roads) to avoid them attracting more cars to the city center. In
some instances, near these car parking lots, Park and ride public transport (i.e. bus) stops are foreseen, or bicycle-sharing systems are present.
Community bicycle programs
provide bicycles within an urban environment for short term use. The
first successful scheme was in the 1960s in Amsterdam and can now be
found in many other cities with 20,000 bicycles introduced to Paris in
2007 in the Vélib' scheme.
Dockless bike share systems have recently appeared in the United
States and provide more convenience for people wanting to rent a bike
for a short time period.
Advocacy groups
The Campaign for Better Transport
(formerly known as Transport2000) was formed in 1972 in Britain to
challenge proposed cuts in the British rail network and since then has
promoted public transport.
Car Free Walks is a UK-based website encouraging walkers to use public transport to reach the start and end of walks, rather than using a car.
Activism groups
Road protests in the United Kingdom
rose to prominence in the early 1990s in response to a major road
building program both in urban communities and also rural areas.
Reclaim the Streets,
a movement formed in 1991 in London, "invaded" major roads, highway or
freeway to stage parties. While this may obstruct the regular users of
these spaces such as car drivers and public bus riders, the philosophy
of RTS is that it is vehicle traffic, not pedestrians, who are causing
the obstruction, and that by occupying the road they are in fact opening
up public space.
In Flanders, the organization Fietsersbond has called upon the government to ban tractor units in city centers.
Critical Mass
rides emerged in 1992 in San Francisco where cyclists take to the
streets en masse to dominate the traffic, using the slogan "we are
traffic." The ride was founded with the idea of drawing attention to how
unfriendly the city was to bicyclists. The movement has grown to include events in major metropolitan cities around the world.
The World Naked Bike Ride
was born in 2001 in Spain with the first naked bike rides, which then
emerged as the WNBR in 2004 a concept which rapidly spread through
collaborations with many different activist groups and individuals
around the world to promote bicycle transportation, renewable energy,
recreation, walkable communities, and environmentally responsible,
sustainable living.
Parking Days started in 2005 when REBAR,
a collaborative group of creators, designers and activists based in San
Francisco, transformed a metered parking spot into a small park
complete with turf, seating, and shade and by 2007 there were 180 parks in 27 cities around the world.
Official events
Car Free Days
are official events with the common goal of taking a fair number of
cars off the streets of a city or some target area or neighborhood for
all or part of a day, in order to give the people who live and work
there a chance to consider how their city might look and work with
significantly fewer cars. The first events were organized in Reykjavík
(Iceland), Bath (UK) and La Rochelle (France) in 1995.
Ciclovía is a similar event in many cities that places a large emphasis on cycling
as an alternative to auto travel. The event originated in Bogotá,
Colombia in 1974. Now, Bogotá holds weekly ciclovías that turn the
streets into giant car-free celebrations complete with stages set up in
city parks with aerobics instructors, yoga teachers, and musicians
leading people through various performances. The event has inspired
similar celebrations globally.
In town, without my car!
is an EU campaign and day every autumn (Northern Hemisphere) for an
increased use of vehicles other than the car. It has since spread beyond
the EU, and in 2004 more than 40 countries participated.
World Urbanism Day was founded in 1949 in Buenos Aires and is celebrated in more than 30 countries on four continents each November 8.
Towards Car-free Cities is the annual conference of the World Car-free Network
and provides a focal point for diverse aspects of the emerging global
car-free movement. The conference has been held in major cities around
the world, including Portland, Oregon, United States in 2008 (its first
time in North America), and has also been in Istanbul, Turkey; Bogota,
Colombia; Budapest, Hungary; Berlin, Germany; Prague, Czech Republic;
Timisoara, Romania; and Lyon, France. The conference series attempts to
bridge the gap between many of the diverse people and organizations
interested in reducing urban dependence on the automobile.
Transportation Alternative's Annual Commuter Race pits a
bicyclist against both a subway rider and a cab rider in a race from
Queens to Manhattan. The Fifth Annual Commuter race took place in May
2009, where bicyclist Rachel Myers beat straphanger Dan Hendrick and cab
rider Willie Thompson to make it the fifth year the contestant on the
bicycle won. Myers took the 2009 title with a time of 20 minutes and 15
seconds to make the 4.2 mile trek from Sunnyside, Queens to Columbus
Circle in Manhattan. Hendrick showed up 15 minutes later off the subway
and Thompson arrived via cab nearly a half-hour after that.
Transportation Alternatives is a group that "seeks to change New York
City's transportation priorities to encourage and increase
non-polluting, quiet, city-friendly travel and decrease—not ban—private
car use. [They] seek a rational transportation system based on a 'Green
Transportation Hierarchy,' which gives preference to modes of travel
based on their benefits and costs to society. To achieve its goals, T.A.
works in five areas: Bicycling, Walking and Traffic Calming, Car-Free
Parks, Safe Streets and Sensible Transportation." The 2009 Commuter Race
came on the heels of a Times Square traffic ban in NYC that drew
national media attention.
Car-free development
Definitions and types
There
are many areas of the world where people have always lived without
cars, because no road access is possible, or none has been provided. In
developed countries these include islands and some historic
neighborhoods or settlements, the largest example being the canal city
of Venice. The term carfree development implies a physical change - either new building or changes to an existing built area.
Melia et al. (2010) define car-free development as follows:
Car-free developments are residential or mixed use developments which:
Normally provide a traffic-free immediate environment, and:
Offer no parking or limited parking separated from the residence, and:
Are designed to enable residents to live without owning a car.
This definition (which they distinguish from the more common "low car
development") is based mainly on experience in Northwestern Europe,
where the movement for car-free development began. Within this
definition three types are identified:
Vauban model
Limited Access model
Pedestrian zones with residential population
Vauban
Vauban, Freiburg, Germany
is according to this definition, the largest car-free development in
Europe, with over 5,000 residents. Whether it can be considered car-free
is open to debate: many local people prefer the term "stellplatzfrei" -
literally "free from parking spaces" to describe the traffic management
system there. Vehicles are allowed down the residential streets at
walking pace to pick up and deliver but not to park, although there are
frequent infractions. Residents of the stellplatzfrei areas must sign an
annual declaration stating whether they own a car or not. Car owners
must purchase a place in one of the multi-storey car parks
on the periphery, run by a council-owned company. The cost of these
spaces – €17,500 in 2006, plus a monthly fee – acts as a disincentive to
car ownership.
Limited access type
The
more common form of car free development involves some sort of physical
barrier, which prevents motor vehicles from penetrating into a car-free
center.
Melia et al.
describe this as the "Limited Access" type.
In some cases such as Stellwerk 60 in Cologne, there is a removable
barrier, controlled by a residents' organizations. In others cases, such
as in Waterwijk, vehicular access is only available from the exterior.
Pedestrian zones
Whereas the first two models apply to newly built car free
developments, most pedestrianized areas have been retro-fitted.
Pedestrian zones may be considered car-free developments where they
include a significant population and a low rate of vehicle ownership per
household. The largest example in Europe is Groningen, Netherlands which had a city centre population of 16,500 in 2008.
Benefits and problems
Reduction in one's carbon footprint for various actions
Several studies have been done on European car free developments. The most comprehensive was conducted in 2000 by Jan Scheurer. Other more recent studies have been made of specific car-free areas such as Vienna's Florisdorf car-free development.
The main benefits found for car free developments (summarized in Melia et al. 2010) found in the various studies are:
very low levels of car use, resulting in much less traffic on surrounding roads
high rates of walking and cycling
more independent movement and active play amongst children
less land taken for parking and roads - more available for green or social space
The main problems related to parking management. Where parking is
not controlled in the surrounding area, this often results in complaints
from neighbors about overspill parking.
Although age-related health effects (presbycusis) occur naturally with age,
in many countries the cumulative impact of noise is sufficient to
impair the hearing of a large fraction of the population over the course
of a lifetime. Noise exposure has been known to induce noise-induced hearing loss, tinnitus, hypertension, vasoconstriction, and other cardiovascularadverse effects.
Chronic noise exposure has been associated with sleep disturbances and
increased incidence of diabetes. Adverse cardiovascular effects occur
from chronic exposure to noise due to the sympathetic nervous system's
inability to habituate. The sympathetic nervous system maintains lighter
stages of sleep when the body is exposed to noise, which does not allow
blood pressure to follow the normal rise and fall cycle of an
undisturbed circadian rhythm.
Stress from time spent around elevated noise levels has been linked with increased workplace accident rates and aggression and other anti-social behaviors. The most significant sources are vehicles, aircraft, prolonged exposure to loud music, and industrial noise.
There are approximately 10,000 deaths per year as a result of noise in the European Union.
Noise induced hearing loss
Noise-induced
hearing loss is a permanent shift in pure-tone thresholds, resulting in
sensorineural hearing loss. The severity of a threshold shift is
dependent on duration and severity of noise exposure. Noise-induced
threshold shifts are seen as a notch on an audiogram from 3000–6000 Hz,
but most often at 4000 Hz.
Exposure to loud noises, either in a single traumatic experience
or over time, can damage the auditory system and result in hearing loss
and sometimes tinnitus
as well. Traumatic noise exposure can happen at work (e.g. loud
machinery), at play (e.g. loud sporting events, concerts, recreational
activities), and/or by accident (e.g. a backfiring engine.) Noise
induced hearing loss is sometimes unilateral and typically causes patients to lose hearing around the frequency of the triggering sound trauma.
Tinnitus
Tinnitus
is an auditory disorder characterized by the perception of a sound
(ringing, chirping, buzzing, etc.) in the ear in the absence of an
external sound source. There are two types of tinnitus: subjective and
objective. Subjective is the most common and can only be heard "in the
head" by the person affected. Objective tinnitus can be heard from those
around the affected person and the audiologist can hear it using a
stethoscope.Tinnitus can also be categorised by the way it sounds in
one's ear, pulsatile tinnitus which is caused by the vascular nature of Glomus tumours and
non-pulsatile tinnitus which usually sounds like crickets, the sea and
bees.
Though the pathophysiology of tinnitus isn't known, noise
exposure can be a contributing factor, therefore tinnitus can be
associated with hearing loss, generated by the cochlea and central
nervous system (CNS). High frequency hearing loss causes a high pitched
tinnitus and low frequency hearing loss causes a roaring tinnitus. Noise-induced tinnitus can be temporary or permanent depending on the type and amount of noise a person was exposed to.
Noise from transportation has been shown to increase blood
pressure in individuals within the surrounding residential areas, with
railways causing the greatest cardiovascular effects. Roadway noise levels are sufficient to constrict arterial blood flow and lead to elevated blood pressure. Vasoconstriction can result from elevated adrenaline levels or through medical stress
reactions. Long-term exposure to noise is correlated to increase in
cortisol and angiotensin-II levels which are respectively associated
with oxidative stress and vascular inflammation. Individuals subject to great than 80 dB(A) in the workplace are at increased risk of having increased blood pressure.
Psychological impacts of noise
Causal
relationships have been discovered between noise and psychological
effects such as annoyance, psychiatric disorders, and effects on
psychosocial well-being. Exposure to intense levels of noise can cause personality changes and violent reactions. Noise has also been shown to be a factor that attributed to violent reactions.
The psychological impacts of noise also include an addiction to loud
music. This was researched in a study where non-professional musicians
were found to have loudness addictions more often than non-musician
control subjects.
Psychological health effects from noise include depression and
anxiety. Individuals who have hearing loss, including noise induced
hearing loss, may have their symptoms alleviated with the use of hearing
aids. Individuals who do not seek treatment for their loss are 50% more
likely to have depression than their aided peers.
These psychological effects can lead to detriments in physical care in
the form of reduced self-care, work-tolerance, and increased isolation.
Auditory stimuli can serve as psychological triggers for individuals with post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Stress
Research commissioned by Rockwool, a multi-national insulation manufacturer headquartered in Denmark,
reveals that in the UK one third (33%) of victims of domestic
disturbances claim loud parties have left them unable to sleep or made
them stressed in the last two years. Around one in eleven (9%)
of those affected by domestic disturbances claims it has left them
continually disturbed and stressed. More than 1.8 million people claim
noisy neighbours have made their life a misery and they cannot enjoy
their own homes. The impact of noise on health is potentially a
significant problem across the UK given that more than 17.5 million
Britons (38%) have been disturbed by the inhabitants of neighbouring
properties in the last two year. For almost one in ten (7%) Britons
this is a regular occurrence.
The extent of the problem of noise pollution for public health is
reinforced by figures collated by Rockwool from local authority
responses to a Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request. This research reveals in the period April 2008 - 2009 UK councils
received 315,838 complaints about noise pollution from private
residences. This resulted in environmental health officers across the UK
serving 8,069 noise abatement notices, or citations under the terms of the Anti-Social Behaviour (Scotland) Act.
Westminster City Council
has received more complaints per head of population than any other
district in the UK with 9,814 grievances about noise, which equates to
42.32 complaints per thousand residents. Eight of the top 10 councils
ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in London.
Annoyance
Sudden impulse noises are typically perceived as more bothersome than noise from traffic of equal volume.
Annoyance effects of noise are minimally affected by demographics, but
fear of the noise source and sensitivity to noise both strongly affect
the 'annoyance' of a noise. Sound levels as low as 40 dB(A) can generate noise complaints and the lower threshold for noise producing sleep disturbance is 45 dB(A) or lower.
Other factors that affect the 'annoyance level' of sound include
beliefs about noise prevention and the importance of the noise source,
and annoyance at the cause (i.e. non-noise related factors) of the
noise.
Many of the interpretations of the level of annoyance and the
relationship between noise levels and resulting health symptoms could be
influenced by the quality of interpersonal relationships at the
workplace, as well as the stress level generated by the work itself. Evidence for impact on annoyance of long-term noise versus recent changes is equivocal.
Approximately 35% to 40% of office workers find noise levels from 55 to 60 dB(A) extremely irritating. The noise standard in Germany for mentally stressful tasks is set at 55 dB(A), however, if the noise source is continuous, the threshold level for tolerability among office workers is lower than 55 dB(A).
Child physical development
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency authored a pamphlet in 1978 that suggested a correlation between low-birthweight (using the World Health Organization definition of less than 2,500 grams (88 oz) and high sound levels, and also high rates of birth defects in places where expectant mothers are exposed to elevated sound levels, such as typical airport environs. Specific birth abnormalities included harelip, cleft palate, and defects in the spine.
According to Lester W. Sontag of The Fels Research Institute (as
presented in the same EPA study): “There is ample evidence that
environment has a role in shaping the physique, behavior, and function
of animals, including man, from conception and not merely from birth. The fetus
is capable of perceiving sounds and responding to them by motor
activity and cardiac rate change." The effects of noise exposure are
highest when it occurs between 15 and 60 days after conception, a period
in which major internal organs and the central nervous system are formed.
Later developmental effects occur as vasoconstriction in the mother reduces blood flow and therefore oxygen and nutrition to the fetus. Low birth weights and noise were also associated with lower levels of certain hormones in the mother. These hormones are thought to affect fetal growth and to be good indicators of protein
production. The difference between the hormone levels of pregnant
mothers in noisy versus quiet areas increased as birth approached.
In a 2000 publication, a review of studies on birthweight and
noise exposure note that while some older studies suggest that when
women are exposed to >65 dB aircraft noise a small decrease in
birthweight occurs, in a more recent study of 200 Taiwanese women
including noise dosimetry measurements of individual noise exposure, the
authors found no significant association between noise exposure and
birth weight after adjusting for relevant confounders, e.g. social
class, maternal weight gain during pregnancy, etc.
Cognitive development
When
young children are regularly exposed to levels of noise that interfere
with speech, they may develop speech or reading difficulties, because
auditory processing functions are compromised. Children continue to
develop their speech perception abilities until they reach their teens.
Evidence has shown that when children learn in noisier classrooms, they
have more difficulties understanding speech than those who learn in
quieter settings.
In a study conducted by Cornell University in 1993, children
exposed to noise in learning environments experienced trouble with word
discrimination, as well as various cognitive developmental delays. In particular, the writing learning impairment dysgraphia is commonly associated with environmental stressors in the classroom.
High noise levels have also been known to damage the physical
health of small children. Children from noisy residences often have a
heart rate that is significantly higher (by 2 beats/min on average) than
those of children from quieter homes.
Prevention
Different styles of earplugs are pictured. Left, pre-molded earplugs. Center, formable earplugs. Right, roll-down foam earplugs.
A hearing protection device (HPD) is an ear protection device worn in or over the ears while exposed to hazardous noise to help prevent noise-induced hearing loss.
HPDs reduce (not eliminate) the level of the noise entering the ear.
HPDs can also protect against other effects of noise exposure such as tinnitus and hyperacusis. Proper hygiene and care of HPDs may reduce chances of outer ear infections. There are many different types of HPDs available for use, including earmuffs, earplugs, electronic hearing protection devices, and semi-insert devices. One can measure the personal attenuation rating through a hearing protection fit-testing system.
Earmuff style hearing protection devices are designed to fit over the outer ear, or pinna. Earmuff HPDs typically consist of two ear cups and a head band. Earplug style hearing protection devices are designed to fit in the ear canal. Earplugs come in a variety of different subtypes. Some HPDs reduce the sound reaching the eardrum
through a combination of electronic and structural components.
Electronic HPDs are available in both earmuff and custom earplug styles.
Electronic microphones, circuitry, and receivers perform active noise reduction, also known as noise-cancelling, in which a signal that is 180-degrees out-of-phase of the noise is presented, which in theory cancels the noise. Canal caps are similar to earplugs in that they consists of soft tip that is inserted into the opening of the ear canal.
Regulations
Environmental noise regulations usually specify a maximum outdoor noise level of 60 to 65 dB(A),
while occupational safety organizations recommend that the maximum
exposure to noise is 40 hours per week at 85 to 90 dB(A). For every
additional 3 dB(A), the maximum exposure time is reduced by a factor 2,
e.g. 20 hours per week at 88 dB(A). Sometimes, a factor of two per
additional 5 dB(A) is used, however, these occupational regulations are
acknowledged by the health literature as inadequate to protect against hearing loss
and other health effects. In an effort to prevent noise-induced hearing
loss, many programs and initiative have been created, like the Buy Quiet program, which encourages employers to purchase quieter tools and equipment, and the Safe-In-Sound Award, which recognizes organizations with successful hearing loss prevention strategies.
With regard to indoor noise pollution in residences, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) has not set any restrictions on limits to the level of noise.
Rather, it has provided a list of recommended levels in its Model Community Noise Control Ordinance, which was published in 1975. For instance, the recommended noise level for indoor residences is less than or equal to 45 dB.
Noise pollution
control in residences is not funded by the federal government in part
because of the disagreements in establishing causal links between sounds
and health risks, since the effect of noise is often psychological and
also, because it leaves no singular tangible trace of damage on the
human body. For instance, hearing loss could be attributed to a variety
of factors including age, rather than solely due to excessive exposure
to noise.
A state or local government is able to regulate indoor residential
noise, however, such as when excessive noise from within a home causes
disturbances to nearby residences.
Effects on dogs
While
people are often educated on the effects of noise exposure in humans,
there are also different noise exposure effects in animals as well. An
example of this would be in dogs, and the noise exposure levels
occurring within kennels. Dogs experience this noise exposure whether
it be a long stay at an animal shelter, or a weekend stay at a boarding
facility.
Organizations like NIOSH and OSHA
have different regulations when it comes to the noise exposure levels
in industrial workers. Currently there are no regulations related to
the noise exposure for dogs even with such damaging effects related to
their health. Health risks dogs are exposed to include ear damage and
behavioral changes.
The average noise exposure in a kennel is greater than 100 dB
SPL. According to OSHA these levels would yield in the use of hearing
protection for the workers of those kennels due to the risk of noise
induced hearing loss. The anatomical structures of the human and dog
ears are very similar, so it is thought that these levels will
negatively impact the hearing of canines in kennels. The ABR
can be used to estimate the hearing threshold of dogd, and can be used
to show either a temporary threshold shift or permanent threshold shift
after being exposed to excessive sound levels.
Behavioral effects to excessive noise exposure include hiding,
urinating, defecating, panting, pacing, drooling, disregard to commands,
trembling, and barking.
These behavioral patterns pose a much greater problem to canines than
meets the eye. All of these behavioral patterns are characteristics
that result in a longer stay at the kennels before being adopted.
A longer stay at the shelter results in a longer duration of noise
exposure and therefore more likely to show either a temporary or
permanent threshold shift in the canine's hearing.
These excessive noise levels are not only harming the dogs
physical and psychological state, but the workers' and potential
adoptive families' physical and psychological state as well. The
workers' psychological state could affect the care provided to the dogs.
These loud noise exposures also have the potential to reduce the
amount of time that potential adoptive families spend in the facility.
This can result in less dogs being adopted and more time being exposed
to excessive sound levels.
To reduce the level of noise exposure poses a little more
difficulty because the majority of the noise is coming from the dogs
(barking), but structural changes can be made to the facilities in order
to reduce the noise. Structural changes could include how many dogs
are put in one area, more absorbing material rather than metal cages and
cement walls and floors, and possibly in the future use of hearing
protection devices (HPD) for the dogs. All of these structural changes would also benefit the humans involved as well as the use of HPD's (ear plugs).
Noise pollution, also known as environmental noise or sound pollution,
is the propagation of noise with harmful impact on the activity of
human or animal life. The source of outdoor noise worldwide is mainly
caused by machines, transport, and propagation systems. Poor urban planning
may give rise to noise disintegration or pollution, side-by-side
industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in
the residential areas. Some of the main sources of noise in residential
areas include loud music, transportation (traffic, rail, airplanes, etc.), lawn care maintenance, construction, electrical generators, explosions, and people. Documented problems associated with urban environment noise go back as far as ancient Rome.
Noise is measured in Decibel (dB). Noise pollution associated with
household electricity generators is an emerging environmental
degradation in many developing nations. The average noise level of
97.60 dB obtained exceeded the WHO value of 50 dB allowed for residential areas. Research suggests that noise pollution is the highest in low-income and racial minority neighborhoods.
High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased incidence of coronary artery disease.
In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator
or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and
navigation, and contribute to permanent hearing loss.
While the elderly may have cardiac problems due to noise, according to
the World Health Organization, children are especially vulnerable to
noise, and the effects that noise has on children may be permanent.
Noise poses a serious threat to a child's physical and psychological
health, and may negatively interfere with a child's learning and
behavior.
Noise pollution affects both health and behavior. Unwanted sound
(noise) can damage physiological health. Noise pollution is associated
with several health conditions, including cardiovascular disorders, hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful and disturbing effects. According to a 2019 review of the existing literature, noise pollution was associated with faster cognitive decline.
Across Europe, according to the European Environment Agency,
an estimated 113 million people are affected by road traffic noise
levels above 55 decibels, the threshold at which noise becomes harmful
to human health by the WHO's definition.
A sound level meter, is one of the main tools for measuring sounds in the environment and the workplace
Sound becomes unwanted when it either interferes with normal
activities such as sleep or conversation, or disrupts or diminishes
one's quality of life. Noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by prolonged exposure to noise levels above 85 A-weighted decibels. A comparison of Maaban
tribesmen, who were insignificantly exposed to transportation or
industrial noise, to a typical U.S. population showed that chronic
exposure to moderately high levels of environmental noise contributes to
hearing loss.
Noise exposure in the workplace can also contribute to noise-induced hearing loss and other health issues. Occupational hearing loss is one of the most common work-related illnesses in the U.S. and worldwide.
It is less clear how humans adapt to noise subjectively.
Tolerance for noise is frequently independent of decibel levels. Murray
Schafer's soundscape research was groundbreaking in this regard. In his
work, he makes compelling arguments about how humans relate to noise on a
subjective level, and how such subjectivity is conditioned by culture.
Schafer also notes that sound is an expression of power, and as such,
material culture (e.g., fast cars or Harley Davidson motorcycles with
aftermarket pipes) tend to have louder engines not only for safety
reasons, but for expressions of power by dominating the soundscape with a
particular sound. Other key research in this area can be seen in Fong's
comparative analysis of soundscape differences between Bangkok,
Thailand and Los Angeles, California, US. Based on Schafer's research,
Fong's study showed how soundscapes differ based on the level of urban
development in the area. He found that cities in the periphery have
different soundscapes than inner city areas. Fong's findings tie not
only soundscape appreciation to subjective views of sound, but also
demonstrates how different sounds of the soundscape are indicative of
class differences in urban environments.
Noise pollution can have negative affects on adults and children on the autistic spectrum. Those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) can have hyperacusis, which is an abnormal sensitivity to sound.
People with ASD who experience hyperacusis may have unpleasant
emotions, such as fear and anxiety, and uncomfortable physical
sensations in noisy environments with loud sounds.
This can cause individuals with ASD to avoid environments with noise
pollution, which in turn can result in isolation and negatively affect
their quality of life. Sudden explosive noises typical of
high-performance car exhausts and car alarms are types of noise
pollution that can affect people with ASD.
Wildlife
Noise
can have a detrimental effect on animals, increasing the risk of death
by changing the delicate balance in predator or prey detection and
avoidance, and interfering the use of the sounds in communication,
especially in relation to reproduction and in navigation. These effects
then may alter more interactions within a community through indirect (“domino”) effects. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing.
European robins
living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places
with high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that
they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can
propagate through the environment more clearly. The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than night-time light pollution,
to which the phenomenon often is attributed. Anthropogenic noise
reduced the species richness of birds found in Neoptropical urban parks.
Zebra finches
become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise.
This could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting
traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities and thus
leading to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.
Underwater noise pollution due to human activities is also
prevalent in the sea. Cargo ships generate high levels of noise due to
propellers and diesel engines. This noise pollution significantly raises the low-frequency ambient noise levels above those caused by wind.
Animals such as whales that depend on sound for communication can be
affected by this noise in various ways. Even marine invertebrates, such
as crabs (Carcinus maenas), have been shown to be negatively affected by ship noise.
Larger crabs were noted to be negatively affected more by the sounds
than smaller crabs. Repeated exposure to the sounds did lead to acclimatization.
Higher ambient noise levels also cause animals to vocalize more loudly, which is called the Lombard effect. Researchers have found that humpback whales' song lengths were longer when low-frequency sonar was active nearby.
Noise pollution may have caused the death of certain species of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar.
A man inserting an earplug in his ear to reduce the noise exposure
The Hierarchy of Controls concept is often used to reduce noise in
the environment or the workplace. Engineering noise controls can be used
to reduce noise propagation and protect individuals from overexposure.
When noise controls are not feasible or adequate, individuals can also
take steps to protect themselves from the harmful effects of noise
pollution. If people must be around loud sounds, they can protect their
ears with hearing protection (e.g., ear plugs or ear muffs). In recent years, Buy Quiet
programs and initiatives have arisen in an effort to combat
occupational noise exposures. These programs promote the purchase of
quieter tools and equipment and encourage manufacturers to design
quieter equipment.
Noise from roadways and other urban factors can be mitigated by urban planning and better design of roads. Roadway noise can be reduced by the use of noise barriers, limitation of vehicle speeds, alteration of roadway surface texture, limitation of heavy vehicles,
use of traffic controls that smooth vehicle flow to reduce braking and
acceleration, and tire design. An important factor in applying these
strategies is a computer model for roadway noise, that is capable of addressing local topography, meteorology,
traffic operations, and hypothetical mitigation. Costs of building-in
mitigation can be modest, provided these solutions are sought in the
planning stage of a roadway project.
Up until the 1970s governments tended to view noise as a "nuisance" rather than an environmental problem.
Many conflicts over noise pollution are handled by negotiation
between the emitter and the receiver. Escalation procedures vary by
country, and may include action in conjunction with local authorities,
in particular the police.
India
Noise pollution is a major problem in India. The government of India has rules and regulations against firecrackers and loudspeakers, but enforcement is extremely lax. Awaaz Foundation
is a non-governmental organization in India working to control noise
pollution from various sources through advocacy, public interest
litigation, awareness, and educational campaigns since 2003.
Despite increased enforcement and stringency of laws now being
practised in urban areas, rural areas are still affected. The Supreme
Court of India had banned playing of music on loudspeakers after 10pm.
In 2015, The National Green Tribunal directed authorities in Delhi to
ensure strict adherence to guidelines on noise pollution, saying noise
is more than just a nuisance as it can produce serious psychological
stress. However, implementation of the law continues to remain poor.
Sweden
How noise
emissions should be reduced, without the industry being hit too hard,
is a major problem in environmental care in Sweden today. The Swedish Work Environment Authority
has set an input value of 80 dB for maximum sound exposure for eight
hours. In workplaces where there is a need to be able to converse
comfortably the background noise level should not exceed 40 dB. The government of Sweden has taken soundproofing and acoustic absorbing actions, such as noise barriers and active noise control.
United Kingdom
Figures compiled by rockwool, the mineral woolinsulation manufacturer, based on responses from local authorities to a Freedom of Information Act (FOI) request reveal in the period April 2008 – 2009 UK councils
received 315,838 complaints about noise pollution from private
residences. This resulted in environmental health officers across the UK
serving 8,069 noise abatement
notices or citations under the terms of the Anti-Social Behaviour
(Scotland) Act. In the last 12 months, 524 confiscations of equipment
have been authorized involving the removal of powerful speakers, stereos
and televisions. Westminster City Council
has received more complaints per head of population than any other
district in the UK with 9,814 grievances about noise, which equates to
42.32 complaints per thousand residents. Eight of the top 10 councils
ranked by complaints per 1,000 residents are located in London.
United States
The Noise Control Act
of 1972 established a U.S. national policy to promote an environment
for all Americans free from noise that jeopardizes their health and
welfare. In the past, Environmental Protection Agency coordinated all federal noise control activities through its Office of Noise Abatement and Control. The EPA
phased out the office's funding in 1982 as part of a shift in federal
noise control policy to transfer the primary responsibility of
regulating noise to state and local governments. However, the Noise
Control Act of 1972 and the Quiet Communities Act of 1978 were never
rescinded by Congress and remain in effect today, although essentially
unfunded.
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates aircraft noise
by specifying the maximum noise level that individual civil aircraft
can emit through requiring aircraft to meet certain noise certification
standards. These standards designate changes in maximum noise level
requirements by "stage" designation. The U.S. noise standards are
defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 14 Part 36 –
Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification (14 CFR
Part 36). The FAA also pursues a program of aircraft noise control in cooperation with the aviation community. The FAA has set up a process to report aviation-related noise complaints for anyone who may be impacted by Aircraft noise.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) developed noise regulations to control highway noise
as required by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1970. The regulations
requires promulgation of traffic noise-level criteria for various land
use activities, and describe procedures for the abatement of highway
traffic noise and construction noise.
The Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD) noise standards as described in 24 CFR part 51, Subpart B
provides minimum national standards applicable to HUD programs to
protect citizen against excessive noise in their communities and places
of residence. For instance, all sites whose environmental or community
noise exposure exceeds the day night average sound level (DNL) of 65
(dB) are considered noise-impacted areas, it defines "Normally
Unacceptable" noise zones where community noise levels are between
65–75 dB, for such locations, noise abatement and noise attenuation
features must be implemented. Locations where the DNL is above 75 dB are
considered "Unacceptable" and require approval by the Assistant
Secretary for Community Planning and Development.
The Department of Transportation's Bureau of Transportation Statistics has created a National Transportation Noise Map
to provide access to comprehensive aircraft and road noise data on
national and county-level. The map aims to assist city planners, elected
officials, scholars, and residents to gain access to up-to-date
aviation and Interstate highway noise information.
States and local governments typically have very specific statutes on building codes, urban planning,
and roadway development. Noise laws and ordinances vary widely among
municipalities and indeed do not even exist in some cities. An ordinance
may contain a general prohibition against making noise that is a
nuisance, or it may set out specific guidelines for the level of noise
allowable at certain times of the day and for certain activities.
New York City instituted the first comprehensive noise code in 1985. The Portland
Noise Code includes potential fines of up to $5000 per infraction and
is the basis for other major U.S. and Canadian city noise ordinances.