A Bible open to the Book of Isaiah
Exegesis (/ˌɛksɪˈdʒiːsɪs/; from the Greek ἐξήγησις from ἐξηγεῖσθαι, "to lead out") is a critical explanation or interpretation of a text, particularly a religious text. Traditionally the term was used primarily for work with the Bible;
however, in modern usage "biblical exegesis" is used for greater
specificity to distinguish it from any other broader critical text
explanation.
Exegesis includes a wide range of critical disciplines: textual criticism
is the investigation into the history and origins of the text, but
exegesis may include the study of the historical and cultural
backgrounds of the author, text, and original audience. Other analyses
include classification of the type of literary genres presented in the text and analysis of grammatical and syntactical features in the text itself.
The terms exegesis and hermeneutics have been used interchangeably.
Usage
One who practices exegesis is called an exegete (/ˌɛksɪˈdʒiːt/; from Greek ἐξηγητής). The plural of exegesis is exegeses (/ˌɛksɪˈdʒiːsiːz/).
Adjectives are exegetic or exegetical (e.g., exegetical commentaries).
In biblical exegesis, the opposite of exegesis (to draw out) is eisegesis
(to draw in), in the sense of an eisegetic commentator "importing" or
"drawing in" his or her own purely subjective interpretations into the
text, unsupported by the text itself. Eisegesis is often used as a
derogatory term.
Mesopotamian commentaries
The
earliest examples, and also one of the largest corpora of text
commentaries from the ancient world, come from Mesopotamia (modern Iraq)
in the first millennium BCE. Known from over 860 manuscripts, the
majority of which date to the period 700–100 BCE, most of these
commentaries explore numerous types of texts, including literary works
(such as the Babylonian Epic of Creation), medical treatises, magical texts, ancient dictionaries, and law collections (the Code of Hammurabi).
Most of them, however, comment on divination treatises, in particular
treatises that predict the future from the appearance and movement of
celestial bodies on the one hand (Enūma Anu Enlil), and from the appearance of a sacrificed sheep’s liver on the other (Bārûtu).
As with the majority of the thousands of texts from the ancient Near East that have survived to the present day, Mesopotamian text commentaries are written on clay tablets in cuneiform script. Text commentaries are written in the East Semitic language of Akkadian, but due to the influence of lexical lists written in Sumerian language on cuneiform scholarship, they often contain Sumerian words or phrases as well.
Cuneiform commentaries are important because they provide
information about Mesopotamian languages and culture that are not
available elsewhere in the cuneiform record. To give but one example,
the pronunciation of the cryptically written name of Gilgamesh, the hero
of the Epic of Gilgamesh, was discovered in a cuneiform commentary on a medical text.
However, the significance of cuneiform commentaries extends beyond the
light they shed on specific details of Mesopotamian civilization. They
open a window onto what the concerns of the Mesopotamian literate elite
were when they read some of the most widely studied texts in the
Mesopotamian intellectual tradition, a perspective that is important for
“seeing things their way.”
Finally, cuneiform commentaries are also the earliest examples of
textual interpretation. It has been repeatedly argued that they
influenced rabbinical exegesis.
The publication and interpretation of these texts began in the
mid-nineteenth century, with the discovery of the royal Assyrian
libraries at Nineveh, from which ca. 454 text commentaries have been
recovered. The study of cuneiform commentaries is, however, far from
complete. It is the subject of on-going research by the small,
international community of scholars who specialize in the field of Assyriology.
Bible commentaries
A common published form of biblical exegesis is known as a Bible
commentary and typically takes the form of a set of books, each of which
is devoted to the exposition of one or two books of the Bible. Long books or those that contain much material either for theological or historical-critical speculation, such as Genesis or Psalms, may be split over two or three volumes. Some, such as the Four Gospels, may be multiple- or single-volume, while short books such as the deuterocanonical portions of Daniel, Esther, and Jeremiah (i.e. Book of Susanna, Prayer of Azariah, Bel and the Dragon, Additions to Esther, Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremiah), or the pastoral or Johannine epistles are often condensed into one volume.
The form of each book may be identical or allow for variations in methodology
between the many authors who collaborate to write a full commentary.
Each book's commentary generally consists of a background and
introductory section, followed by detailed commentary of the book pericope-by-pericope
or verse-by-verse. Before the 20th century, a commentary would be
written by a sole author, but today a publishing board will commission a
team of scholars to write a commentary, with each volume being divided
out among them.
A single commentary will generally attempt to give a coherent and unified view on the Bible as a whole, for example, from a Catholic or Reformed (Calvinist) perspective, or a commentary that focuses on textual criticism or historical criticism
from a secular point of view. However, each volume will inevitably lean
toward the personal emphasis of its author, and within any commentaries
there may be great variety in the depth, accuracy, and critical or
theological strength of each volume.
Christianity
Views
The main Christian exegetical methods are historical-grammatical, historical criticism, revealed, and rational.
The historical-grammatical method is a Christian hermeneutical method that strives to discover the Biblical author's original intended meaning in the text. It is the primary method of interpretation for many conservative Protestant exegetes who reject the historical-critical method to various degrees (from the complete rejection of historical criticism of some fundamentalist Protestants to the moderated acceptance of it in the Catholic Church since Pope Pius XII),
in contrast to the overwhelming reliance on historical-critical
interpretation, often to the exclusion of all other hermeneutics, in liberal Christianity.
Historical criticism also known as the historical-critical method or higher criticism,
is a branch of literary criticism that investigates the origins of
ancient texts in order to understand "the world behind the text". This is done to discover the text's primitive or original meaning in its original historical context and its literal sense.
Revealed exegesis considers that the Holy Spirit inspired the authors of the scriptural texts, and so the words of those texts convey a divine revelation. In this view of exegesis, the principle of sensus plenior
applies — that because of its divine authorship, the Bible has a
"fuller meaning" than its human authors intended or could have foreseen.
Rational exegesis bases its operation on the idea that the authors have their own inspiration (in this sense, synonymous with artistic inspiration), so their works are completely and utterly a product of the social environment and human intelligence of their authors.
Catholic
Catholic centres of biblical exegesis include:
- the École Biblique of Jerusalem founded in 1890 by the Dominican order's Marie-Joseph Lagrange. The school became embroiled in the modernist crisis, and had to curtail its New Testament activities until after Vatican II
- the Pontifical Biblical Institute of Rome, a division of the Jesuit Gregorian University, has influenced Catholic exegesis through teaching and through the Pontifical Biblical Commission
Protestant
For more than a century, German universities such as Tübingen have had reputations as centers of exegesis; in the USA, the Divinity Schools of Chicago, Harvard and Yale became famous.
Robert A. Traina's book Methodical Bible Study is an example of Protestant Christian exegesis.
Judaism
Traditional Jewish forms of exegesis appear throughout rabbinic literature, which includes the Mishnah, the two Talmuds, and the midrash literature.
Jewish exegetes have the title mefarshim מפרשים (commentators).
Midrash
The Midrash is a homiletic method of exegesis and a compilation of homiletic teachings or commentaries on the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), a biblical exegesis of the Pentateuch and its paragraphs related to the Law or Torah, which also forms an object of analysis. It comprises the legal and ritual Halakha, the collective body of Jewish laws, and exegesis of the written Law; and the non-legalistic Aggadah, a compendium of Rabbinic homilies of the parts of the Pentateuch not connected with Law.
Biblical interpretation by the Tannaim and the Amoraim,
which may be best designated as scholarly interpretations of the
Midrash, was a product of natural growth and of great freedom in the
treatment of the words of the Bible. However, it proved an obstacle to
further development when, endowed with the authority of a sacred
tradition in the Talmud
and in the Midrash (collections edited subsequently to the Talmud), it
became the sole source for the interpretation of the Bible among later
generations. Traditional literature contains explanations that are in
harmony with the wording and the context. It reflects evidence of
linguistic sense, judgment, and an insight into the peculiarities and
difficulties of the biblical text. But side by side with these elements
of a natural and simple Bible exegesis, of value even today, the
traditional literature contains an even larger mass of expositions
removed from the actual meaning of the text.
- Halakha and Aggadah
In the halakhic as well as in the haggadic exegesis the expounder
endeavored not so much to seek the original meaning of the text as to
find authority in some Bible passage for concepts and ideas, rules of
conduct and teachings, for which he wished to have a biblical
foundation. The talmudical hermeneutics form asmachta
is defined as finding hints for a given law rather than basing on the
bible text. To this were added, on the one hand, the belief that the
words of the Bible had many meanings, and, on the other, the importance
attached to the smallest portion, the slightest peculiarity of the text. Because of this move towards particularities the exegesis of the Midrash strayed further and further away from a natural and common-sense interpretation.
- Midrash
Midrash exegesis was largely in the nature of homiletics,
expounding the Bible not in order to investigate its actual meaning and
to understand the documents of the past but to find religious edification,
moral instruction, and sustenance for the thoughts and feelings of the
present. The contrast between explanation of the literal sense and the
Midrash, that did not follow the words, was recognized by the Tannaim
and the Amoraim,
although their idea of the literal meaning of a biblical passage may
not be allowed by more modern standards. The above-mentioned tanna, Ishmael b. Elisha said, rejecting an exposition of Eliezer b. Hyrcanus: "Truly, you say to Scripture, 'Be silent while I am expounding!'" (Sifra on Lev. xiii. 49).
- Tannaim
Tannaitic
exegesis distinguishes principally between the actual deduction of a
thesis from a Bible passage as a means of proving a point, and the use
of such a passage as a mere mnemonic device – a distinction that was also made in a different form later in the Babylonian schools. The Babylonian Amoraim were the first to use the expression "Peshaṭ" ("simple" or face value method) to designate the primary sense, contrasting it with the "Drash," the Midrashic exegesis. These two terms were later on destined to become important features in the history of Jewish Bible exegesis. In Babylonia was formulated the important principle that the Midrashic
exegesis could not annul the primary sense. This principle subsequently
became the watchword of commonsense Bible exegesis. How little it was
known or recognized may be seen from the admission of Kahana, a Babylonian amora of the fourth century, that while at 18 years of age he had already learned the whole Mishnah, he had only heard of that principle a great many years later (Shab
63a). Kahana's admission is characteristic of the centuries following
the final redaction of the Talmud. The primary meaning is no longer
considered, but it becomes more and more the fashion to interpret the
text according to the meaning given to it in traditional literature. The
ability and even the desire for original investigation of the text
succumbed to the overwhelming authority of the Midrash.
It was, therefore, providential that, just at the time when the Midrash
was paramount, the close study of the text of the Bible, at least in
one direction, was pursued with rare energy and perseverance by the Masorites,
who set themselves to preserving and transmitting the pronunciation and
correct reading of the text. By introducing punctuation (vowel-points and accents) into the biblical text, in the seventh century, they supplied that protecting hedge which, according to Rabbi Akiva's saying, the Masorah
was to be for the words of the Bible. Punctuation, on the one hand,
protected the tradition from being forgotten, and, on the other, was the
precursor of an independent Bible science to be developed in a later
age.
Mikra
The Mikra,
the fundamental part of the national science, was the subject of the
primary instruction. It was also divided into the three historic groups
of the books of the Bible: the Pentateuch, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa, called in traditional Hebrew attribution the Torah (the Law or Teaching), the Nevi'im (the Prophets) and the Kethuvim
(the Writings) respectively. The intelligent reading and comprehension
of the text, arrived at by a correct division of the sentences and
words, formed the course of instruction in the Bible. The scribes were
also required to know the Targum, the Aramaic translation of the text.
The Targum made possible an immediate comprehension of the text, but was
continuously influenced by the exegesis taught in the schools. The
synagogues were preeminently the centers for instruction in the Bible
and its exegesis. The reading of the biblical text, which was combined
with that of the Targum, served to widen the knowledge of the scholars
learned in the first division of the national science. The scribes found
the material for their discourses, which formed a part of the synagogue
service, in the second division of the several branches of the
tradition. The Haggadah, the third of these branches, was the source
material for the sermon.
Jewish exegesis did not finish with the redaction of the Talmud, but continued during ancient times, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance;
it remains a subject of study today. Jews have centres for exegetic
studies around the world, in each community: they consider exegesis an
important tool for the understanding of the Scriptures.
Indian philosophy
The Mimamsa school of Indian philosophy, also known as Pūrva Mīmāṃsā ("prior" inquiry, also Karma-Mīmāṃsā), in contrast to Uttara Mīmāṃsā ("posterior" inquiry, also Brahma-Mīmāṃsā), is strongly concerned with textual exegesis, and consequently gave rise to the study of philology and the philosophy of language. Its notion of shabda "speech" as indivisible unity of sound and meaning (signifier and signified) is due to Bhartrhari (7th century).
Islam
Tafsir (Arabic: تفسير, tafsīr, "interpretation") is the Arabic word for exegesis or commentary, usually of the Qur'an. An author of tafsīr is a mufassir (Arabic: 'مُفسر, mufassir, plural: Arabic: مفسرون, mufassirūn).
Tafsir does not include esoteric or mystical interpretations, which are covered by the related word Ta'wil. Shi'ite organization Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project cites the Islamic prophet Muhammad
as stating that the Qur'an has an inner meaning, and that this inner
meaning conceals an even deeper inner meaning, in support of this view. Adherents of people for Sufism and Ilm al-Kalam pioneered this thought.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrian exegesis consists basically of the interpretation of the Avesta.
However, the closest equivalent Iranian concept, zand, generally
includes Pahlavi texts which were believed to derive from commentaries
upon Avestan scripture, but whose extant form contains no Avestan
passages. Zoroastrian exegesis differs from similar phenomena in many
other religions in that it developed as part of a religious tradition
which made little or no use of writing until well into the Sasanian
era. This lengthy period of oral transmission has clearly helped to
give the Middle Persian Zand its characteristic shape and has, in a
sense, limited its scope. Although the later tradition makes a formal
distinction between “Gathic” (gāhānīg), “legal” (dādīg), and perhaps
“ritual” (hādag-mānsrīg) Avestan texts, there appear to be no
significant differences in approach between the Pahlavi commentary on
the Gathas and those on dādīg texts, such as the Vendīdād, the Hērbedestān and the Nērangestān.
Since many 19th and 20th century works by Zoroastrians contain an
element of exegesis, while on the other hand no exegetical literature in
the strict sense of the word can be said to exist, the phenomenon of
modern Zoroastrian exegesis as such will be discussed here, without
detailed reference to individual texts.
In a secular context
Several universities, including the Sorbonne in Paris, Leiden University, and the Université Libre de Bruxelles (Free University of Brussels), put exegesis in a secular context, next to exegesis in a religious tradition. Secular exegesis is an element of the study of religion.
At Australian universities, the exegesis is part of practice-based doctorate projects. It is a scholarly text accompanying a film, literary text, etc. produced by the PhD. candidate.
