World map of current time zones
Coordinated Universal Time (or UTC) is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time. It is within about 1 second of mean solar time at 0° longitude, and is not adjusted for daylight saving time. It is effectively a successor to Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
The system has been adjusted several times, including a brief
period where the time-coordination radio signals broadcast both UTC and
"Stepped Atomic Time (SAT)" before a new UTC was adopted in 1970 and
implemented in 1972. This change also adopted leap seconds
to simplify future adjustments. This CCIR Recommendation 460 "stated
that (a) carrier frequencies and time intervals should be maintained
constant and should correspond to the definition of the SI second; (b)
step adjustments, when necessary, should be exactly 1 s to maintain
approximate agreement with Universal Time (UT); and (c) standard signals should contain information on the difference between UTC and UT."
A number of proposals have been made to replace UTC with a new
system that would eliminate leap seconds. A decision whether to remove
them altogether has been deferred until 2023.
The current version of UTC is defined by International Telecommunications Union Recommendation (ITU-R TF.460-6), Standard-frequency and time-signal emissions, and is based on International Atomic Time (TAI) with leap seconds added at irregular intervals to compensate for the slowing of the Earth's rotation. Leap seconds are inserted as necessary to keep UTC within 0.9 second of the UT1 variant of universal time. See the "Current number of leap seconds" section for the number of leap seconds inserted to date.
Etymology
The official abbreviation for Coordinated Universal Time is UTC. This abbreviation arose from a desire by the International Telecommunication Union and the International Astronomical Union to use the same abbreviation in all languages. English speakers originally proposed CUT (for "coordinated universal time"), while French speakers proposed TUC (for "temps universel coordonné"). The compromise that emerged was UTC, which conforms to the pattern for the abbreviations of the variants of Universal Time (UT0, UT1, UT2, UT1R, etc.).
Uses
Time zones around the world are expressed using positive or negative offsets from UTC, as in the list of time zones by UTC offset.
The westernmost time zone uses UTC−12, being twelve hours behind UTC; the easternmost time zone uses UTC+14, being fourteen hours ahead of UTC. In 1995, the island nation of Kiribati moved those of its atolls in the Line Islands from UTC−10 to UTC+14 so that Kiribati would all be on the same day.
UTC is used in many Internet and World Wide Web standards. The Network Time Protocol (NTP), designed to synchronise the clocks of computers over the Internet, transmits time information from the UTC system.
If only milliseconds precision is needed, clients can obtain the
current UTC from a number of official internet UTC servers. For
sub-microsecond precision, clients can obtain the time from satellite
signals.
UTC is also the time standard used in aviation, e.g. for flight plans and air traffic control. Weather forecasts and maps all use UTC to avoid confusion about time zones and daylight saving time. The International Space Station also uses UTC as a time standard.
Amateur radio
operators often schedule their radio contacts in UTC, because
transmissions on some frequencies can be picked up in many time zones.
Mechanism
UTC divides time into days, hours, minutes and seconds. Days are conventionally identified using the Gregorian calendar, but Julian day numbers
can also be used. Each day contains 24 hours and each hour contains
60 minutes. The number of seconds in a minute is usually 60, but with an
occasional leap second, it may be 61 or 59 instead.
Thus, in the UTC time scale, the second and all smaller time units
(millisecond, microsecond, etc.) are of constant duration, but the
minute and all larger time units (hour, day, week, etc.) are of variable
duration. Decisions to introduce a leap second are announced at least
six months in advance in "Bulletin C" produced by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service. The leap seconds cannot be predicted far in advance due to the unpredictable rate of rotation of the Earth.
Nearly all UTC days contain exactly 86,400 SI seconds with exactly 60 seconds in each minute. UTC is within about one second of mean solar time at 0° longitude, so that, because the mean solar day
is slightly longer than 86,400 SI seconds, occasionally the last minute
of a UTC day is adjusted to have 61 seconds. The extra second is called
a leap second. It accounts for the grand total of the extra length
(about 2 milliseconds each) of all the mean solar days since the
previous leap second. The last minute of a UTC day is permitted to
contain 59 seconds to cover the remote possibility of the Earth rotating
faster, but that has not yet been necessary. The irregular day lengths
mean that fractional Julian days do not work properly with UTC.
Since 1972, UTC is calculated by subtracting the accumulated leap seconds from International Atomic Time (TAI), which is a coordinate time scale tracking notional proper time on the rotating surface of the Earth (the geoid). In order to maintain a close approximation to UT1, UTC occasionally has discontinuities
where it changes from one linear function of TAI to another. These
discontinuities take the form of leap seconds implemented by a UTC day
of irregular length. Discontinuities in UTC have occurred only at the
end of June or December, although there is provision for them to happen
at the end of March and September as well as a second preference.
The International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS)
tracks and publishes the difference between UTC and Universal Time, DUT1 = UT1 − UTC, and introduces discontinuities into UTC to keep DUT1 in the interval (−0.9 s, +0.9 s).
As with TAI, UTC is only known with the highest precision in
retrospect. Users who require an approximation in real time must obtain
it from a time laboratory, which disseminates an approximation using
techniques such as GPS or radio time signals. Such approximations are designated UTC(k), where k is an abbreviation for the time laboratory.
The time of events may be provisionally recorded against one of these
approximations; later corrections may be applied using the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) monthly publication of tables of differences between canonical TAI/UTC and TAI(k)/UTC(k) as estimated in real time by participating laboratories.
Because of time dilation, a standard clock not on the geoid, or in rapid motion, will not maintain synchronicity with UTC. Therefore, telemetry from clocks with a known relation to the geoid is used to provide UTC when required, on locations such as those of spacecraft.
It is not possible to compute the exact time interval elapsed between two UTC timestamps
without consulting a table that shows how many leap seconds occurred
during that interval. By extension, it is not possible to compute the
precise duration of a time interval that ends in the future and may
encompass an unknown number of leap seconds (for example, the number of
TAI seconds between "now" and 2099-12-31 23:59:59). Therefore, many
scientific applications that require precise measurement of long
(multi-year) intervals use TAI instead. TAI is also commonly used by
systems that cannot handle leap seconds. GPS time always remains exactly 19 seconds behind TAI (neither system is affected by the leap seconds introduced in UTC).
Time zones
Time zones are usually defined as differing from UTC by an integer number of hours,
although the laws of each jurisdiction would have to be consulted if
sub-second accuracy was required. Several jurisdictions have established
time zones that differ by an odd integer number of half-hours or
quarter-hours from UT1 or UTC.
Current civil time in a particular time zone can be determined by adding or subtracting the number of hours and minutes specified by the UTC offset, which ranges from UTC−12:00 in the west to UTC+14:00 in the east (see List of UTC time offsets).
The time zone using UTC is sometimes denoted UTC±00:00 or by the letter Z—a reference to the equivalent nautical time zone (GMT), which has been denoted by a Z
since about 1950. Time zones were identified by successive letters of
the alphabet and the Greenwich time zone was marked by a Z as it
was the point of origin. The letter also refers to the "zone
description" of zero hours, which has been used since 1920. Since the NATO phonetic alphabet word for Z is "Zulu", UTC is sometimes known as "Zulu time". This is especially true in aviation, where "Zulu" is the universal standard. This ensures that all pilots, regardless of location, are using the same 24-hour clock, thus avoiding confusion when flying between time zones. See the list of military time zones for letters used in addition to Z in qualifying time zones other than Greenwich.
On electronic devices which only allow the time zone to be
configured using maps or city names, UTC can be selected indirectly by
selecting cities such as Accra in Ghana or Reykjavík in Iceland as they are always on UTC and do not currently use Daylight Saving Time.
Daylight saving time
UTC does not change with a change of seasons, but local time
or civil time may change if a time zone jurisdiction observes daylight
saving time (summer time). For example, local time on the east coast of
the United States is five hours behind UTC during winter, but four hours
behind while daylight saving is observed there.
History
The Scottish-Canadian engineer Sir Sandford Fleming promoted worldwide standard time zones, a prime meridian, and the use of the 24-hour clock as key elements in communicating the accurate time. He referred to the resulting system as Cosmic Time. At the 1884 International Meridian Conference held in Washington, D.C., the local mean solar time at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in England
was chosen to define the Universal day, counted from 0 hours at mean
midnight. This agreed with civil Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), used on the
island of Great Britain since 1847. In contrast, astronomical GMT began
at mean noon, 12 hours after mean midnight of the same date until 1 January 1925, whereas nautical GMT began at mean noon, 12 hours before mean midnight of the same date, at least until 1805 in the Royal Navy,
but persisted much later elsewhere because it was mentioned at the 1884
conference. In 1884, the Greenwich Meridian was used for two-thirds of
all charts and maps as their Prime Meridian.
In 1928, the term Universal Time (UT) was introduced by the
International Astronomical Union to refer to GMT, with the day starting
at midnight. Until the 1950s, broadcast time signals were based on UT, and hence on the rotation of the Earth.
In 1955, the caesium atomic clock
was invented. This provided a form of timekeeping that was both more
stable and more convenient than astronomical observations. In 1956, the
U.S. National Bureau of Standards and U.S. Naval Observatory started to develop atomic frequency time scales; by 1959, these time scales were used in generating the WWV
time signals, named for the shortwave radio station that broadcasts
them. In 1960, the U.S. Naval Observatory, the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, and the UK National Physical Laboratory
coordinated their radio broadcasts so that time steps and frequency
changes were coordinated, and the resulting time scale was informally
referred to as "Coordinated Universal Time".
In a controversial decision, the frequency of the signals was
initially set to match the rate of UT, but then kept at the same
frequency by the use of atomic clocks and deliberately allowed to drift
away from UT. When the divergence grew significantly, the signal was
phase shifted (stepped) by 20 ms to bring it back into agreement with UT. Twenty-nine such steps were used before 1960.
In 1958, data was published linking the frequency for the caesium transition,
newly established, with the ephemeris second. The ephemeris second is a
unit in the system of time that, when used as the independent variable
in the laws of motion that govern the movement of the planets and moons
in the solar system, enables the laws of motion to accurately predict
the observed positions of solar system bodies. Within the limits of
observable accuracy, ephemeris seconds are of constant length, as are
atomic seconds. This publication allowed a value to be chosen for the
length of the atomic second that would accord with the celestial laws of
motion.
In 1961, the Bureau International de l'Heure
began coordinating the UTC process internationally (but the name
Coordinated Universal Time was not formally adopted by the International
Astronomical Union until 1967).
From then on, there were time steps every few months, and frequency
changes at the end of each year. The jumps increased in size to 0.1
second. This UTC was intended to permit a very close approximation to
UT2.
In 1967, the SI
second was redefined in terms of the frequency supplied by a caesium
atomic clock. The length of second so defined was practically equal to
the second of ephemeris time.
This was the frequency that had been provisionally used in TAI since
1958. It was soon recognised that having two types of second with
different lengths, namely the UTC second and the SI second used in TAI,
was a bad idea. It was thought better for time signals to maintain a
consistent frequency, and that this frequency should match the
SI second. Thus it would be necessary to rely on time steps alone to
maintain the approximation of UT. This was tried experimentally in a
service known as "Stepped Atomic Time" (SAT), which ticked at the same
rate as TAI and used jumps of 0.2 second to stay synchronised with UT2.
There was also dissatisfaction with the frequent jumps in UTC (and SAT). In 1968, Louis Essen,
the inventor of the caesium atomic clock, and G. M. R. Winkler both
independently proposed that steps should be of 1 second only.
This system was eventually approved, along with the idea of maintaining
the UTC second equal to the TAI second. At the end of 1971, there was a
final irregular jump of exactly 0.107758 TAI seconds, making the total
of all the small time steps and frequency shifts in UTC or TAI during
1958–1971 exactly ten seconds, so that 1 January 1972 00:00:00 UTC was 1 January 1972 00:00:10 TAI exactly,
and a whole number of seconds thereafter. At the same time, the tick
rate of UTC was changed to exactly match TAI. UTC also started to track
UT1 rather than UT2. Some time signals started to broadcast the DUT1
correction (UT1 − UTC) for applications requiring a closer approximation
of UT1 than UTC now provided.
Current number of leap seconds
The
first leap second occurred on 30 June 1972. Since then, leap seconds
have occurred on average about once every 19 months, always on 30 June
or 31 December. As of July 2019, there have been 27 leap seconds in
total, all positive, putting UTC 37 seconds behind TAI.
Rationale
Graph showing the difference DUT1 between UT1 and UTC (in seconds). Vertical segments correspond to leap seconds.
Earth's rotational speed is very slowly decreasing because of tidal deceleration; this increases the length of the mean solar day. The length of the SI second was calibrated on the basis of the second of ephemeris time and can now be seen to have a relationship with the mean solar day observed between 1750 and 1892, analysed by Simon Newcomb. As a result, the SI second is close to 1/86400 of a mean solar day in the mid‑19th century.
In earlier centuries, the mean solar day was shorter than 86,400 SI
seconds, and in more recent centuries it is longer than 86,400 seconds.
Near the end of the 20th century, the length of the mean solar day (also
known simply as "length of day" or "LOD") was approximately
86,400.0013 s. For this reason, UT is now "slower" than TAI by the difference (or "excess" LOD) of 1.3 ms/day.
The excess of the LOD over the nominal 86,400 s accumulates over
time, causing the UTC day, initially synchronised with the mean sun, to
become desynchronised and run ahead of it. Near the end of the 20th
century, with the LOD at 1.3 ms above the nominal value, UTC ran faster
than UT by 1.3 ms per day, getting a second ahead roughly every 800
days. Thus, leap seconds were inserted at approximately this interval,
retarding UTC to keep it synchronised in the long term. The actual rotational period varies on unpredictable factors such as tectonic motion and has to be observed, rather than computed.
Just as adding a leap day every four years does not mean the year
is getting longer by one day every four years, the insertion of a leap
second every 800 days does not indicate that the mean solar day is
getting longer by a second every 800 days. It will take about 50,000
years for a mean solar day to lengthen by one second (at a rate of
2 ms/cy, where cy means century). This rate fluctuates within the range
of 1.7–2.3 ms/cy. While the rate due to tidal friction alone is about 2.3 ms/cy, the uplift of Canada and Scandinavia by several metres since the last Ice Age has temporarily reduced this to 1.7 ms/cy over the last 2,700 years. The correct reason for leap seconds, then, is not the current difference between actual and nominal LOD, but rather the accumulation
of this difference over a period of time: Near the end of the
20th century, this difference was about 1/800 of a second per day;
therefore, after about 800 days, it accumulated to 1 second (and a leap
second was then added).
In the graph of DUT1
above, the excess of LOD above the nominal 86,400 s corresponds to the
downward slope of the graph between vertical segments. (The slope became
shallower in the 2000s (decade), because of a slight acceleration of
Earth's crust temporarily shortening the day.) Vertical position on the
graph corresponds to the accumulation of this difference over time, and
the vertical segments correspond to leap seconds introduced to match
this accumulated difference. Leap seconds are timed to keep DUT1 within
the vertical range depicted by this graph. The frequency of leap seconds
therefore corresponds to the slope of the diagonal graph segments, and
thus to the excess LOD.
Future
As the Earth's rotation continues to slow, positive leap seconds will be required more frequently. The long-term rate of change
of LOD is approximately +1.7 ms per century. At the end of the 21st
century, LOD will be roughly 86,400.004 s, requiring leap seconds every
250 days. Over several centuries, the frequency of leap seconds will
become problematic.
Some time in the 22nd century, two leap seconds will be required
every year. The current use of only the leap second opportunities in
June and December will be insufficient to maintain a difference of less
than 1 second, and it might be decided to introduce leap seconds in
March and September. In the 25th century, four leap seconds are
projected to be required every year, so the current quarterly options
would be insufficient.
In April 2001, Rob Seaman of the National Optical Astronomy Observatory proposed that leap seconds be allowed to be added monthly rather than twice yearly.
There is a proposal to redefine UTC and abolish leap seconds, so that sundials would very slowly get further out of sync with civil time. The resulting gradual shift of the sun's movements relative to civil time is analogous to the shift of seasons relative to the yearly calendar that results from the calendar year not precisely matching the tropical year
length. This would be a practical change in civil timekeeping, but
would take effect slowly over several centuries. UTC (and TAI) would be
more and more ahead of UT; it would coincide with local mean time along a
meridian drifting slowly eastward (reaching Paris and beyond). Thus, the time system would lose its fixed connection to the geographic coordinates based on the IERS meridian.
Assuming that there are no major events affecting civilisation over the
coming centuries, the difference between UTC and UT could reach 0.5
hour after the year 2600 and 6.5 hours around 4600.
ITU‑R
Study Group 7 and Working Party 7A were unable to reach consensus on
whether to advance the proposal to the 2012 Radiocommunications
Assembly; the chairman of Study Group 7 elected to advance the question
to the 2012 Radiocommunications Assembly (20 January 2012), but consideration of the proposal was postponed by the ITU until the World Radio Conference in 2015. This conference, in turn, considered the question, but no permanent decision was reached; it only chose to engage in further study with the goal of reconsideration in 2023.
