A classroom in Norway.
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how students absorb, process, and retain knowledge during learning.
Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior
experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is
acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.
Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and advocate a system of rewards and targets in education. Educators who embrace cognitive theory
believe that the definition of learning as a change in behavior is too
narrow, and study the learner rather than their environment—and in
particular the complexities of human memory. Those who advocate constructivism
believe that a learner's ability to learn relies largely on what they
already know and understand, and the acquisition of knowledge should be
an individually tailored process of construction. Transformative learning
theory focuses on the often-necessary change required in a learner's
preconceptions and world view. Geographical learning theory focuses on
the ways that contexts and environments shape the learning process.
Outside the realm of educational psychology, techniques to directly observe the functioning of the brain during the learning process, such as event-related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging, are used in educational neuroscience. The theory of multiple intelligences,
where learning is seen as the interaction between dozens of different
functional areas in the brain each with their own individual strengths
and weaknesses in any particular human learner, has also been proposed,
but empirical research has found the theory to be unsupported by
evidence.
Educational philosophy
Classical theorists
Plato
Plato
(428 BC–347 BC) proposed the question: How does an individual learn
something new when the topic is brand new to that person? This question
may seem trivial; however, think of a human like a computer. The
question would then become: How does a computer take in any factual
information without previous programming? Plato answered his own
question by stating that knowledge is present at birth and all
information learned by a person is merely a recollection of something
the soul has already learned previously, which is called the Theory of Recollection or Platonic epistemology. This answer could be further justified by a paradox: If a person knows
something, they don't need to question it, and if a person does not
know something, they don't know to question it.
Plato says that if one did not previously know something, then they
cannot learn it. He describes learning as a passive process, where
information and knowledge are ironed into the soul over time. However,
Plato's theory elicits even more questions about knowledge: If we can
only learn something when we already had the knowledge impressed onto
our souls, then how did our souls gain that knowledge in the first
place? Plato's theory can seem convoluted; however, his classical
theory can still help us understand knowledge today.
Locke
John Locke
(1632–1704) offered an answer to Plato's question as well. John Locke
offered the "blank slate" theory where humans are born into the world
with no innate knowledge. He recognized that something had to be
present, however. This something, to John Locke, seemed to be "mental
powers". Locke viewed these powers as a biological ability the baby is
born with, similar to how a baby knows how to biologically function when
born. So as soon as the baby enters the world, it immediately has
experiences with its surroundings and all of those experiences are being
transcribed to the baby's "slate". All of the experiences then
eventually culminate into complex and abstract ideas. This theory can
still help teachers understand their students' learning today.
Educational psychology
Behavior analysis
The term "behaviorism" was coined by John Watson
(1878–1959). Watson believed the behaviorist view is a purely objective
experimental branch of natural science with a goal to predict and
control behavior. In an article in the Psychological Review,
he stated that, "Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of
behavior. Introspection forms no essential part of its methods, nor is
the scientific value of its data dependent upon the readiness with which
they lend themselves to interpretation in terms of consciousness."
Methodological behaviorism is based on the theory of only explaining public events, or observable behavior. B.F. Skinner introduced another type of behaviorism called radical behaviorism,
or the conceptual analysis of behavior, which is based on the theory of
also explaining private events; particularly, thinking and feelings.
Radical behaviorism forms the conceptual piece of behavior analysis.
In behavior analysis, learning is the acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning and social learning.
Learning and conditioning
There are three types of conditioning and learning:
- Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to an antecedent stimulus;
- Operant conditioning, where antecedent stimuli results from the consequences that follow the behavior through a reward (reinforcement) or a punishment;
- Social learning theory, where an observation of behavior is followed by modeling.
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning. He observed that if dogs come to
associate the delivery of food with a white lab coat or the ringing of a
bell, they produce saliva, even when there is no sight or smell of
food. Classical conditioning considers this form of learning the same,
whether in dogs or in humans. Operant conditioning
reinforces this behavior with a reward or a punishment. A reward
increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, a punishment
decreases its likelihood. Social learning theory observes behavior and is followed with modeling.
These three learning theories form the basis of applied behavior analysis, the application of behavior analysis, which uses analyzed antecedents, functional analysis,
replacement behavior strategies, and often data collection and
reinforcement to change behavior. The old practice was called behavior
modification, which only used assumed antecedents and
consequences to change behavior without acknowledging the conceptual
analysis; analyzing the function of behavior and teaching of new
behaviors that would serve the same function was never relevant in
behavior modification.
Behaviorists view the learning process as a change in behavior,
and arrange the environment to elicit desired responses through such
devices as behavioral objectives, Competency-based learning, and skill development and training. Educational approaches such as Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention, curriculum-based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.
Transfer of learning
Transfer of learning
is the idea that what one learns in school somehow carries over to
situations different from that particular time and that particular
setting. Transfer was amongst the first phenomena tested in educational psychology.
Edward Lee Thorndike was a pioneer in transfer research. He found that
though transfer is extremely important for learning, it is a rarely
occurring phenomenon. In fact, he held an experiment where he had the
subjects estimate the size of a specific shape and then he would switch
the shape. He found that the prior information did not help the
subjects; instead it impeded their learning.
One explanation of why transfer does not occur often involves
surface structure and deep structure. The surface structure is the way a
problem is framed. The deep structure is the steps for the solution.
For example, when a math story problem changes contexts from asking how
much it costs to reseed a lawn to how much it costs to varnish a table,
they have different surface structures, but the steps for getting the
answers are the same. However, many people are more influenced by the
surface structure. In reality, the surface structure is unimportant.
Nonetheless, people are concerned with it because they believe that it
provides background knowledge on how to do the problem. Consequently,
this interferes with their understanding of the deep structure of the
problem. Even if somebody tries to concentrate on the deep structure,
transfer still may be unsuccessful because the deep structure is not
usually obvious. Therefore, surface structure gets in the way of
people's ability to see the deep structure of the problem and transfer
the knowledge they have learned to come up with a solution to a new problem.
Current learning pedagogies focus on conveying rote knowledge, independent of the context that gives it meaning. Because of this, students often struggle to transfer this stand-alone information into other aspects of their education. Students need much more than abstract concepts and self-contained knowledge; they need to be exposed to learning that is practiced in the context of authentic activity and culture. Critics of situated cognition, however, would argue that by discrediting stand-alone information, the transfer of knowledge across contextual boundaries becomes impossible.
There must be a balance between situating knowledge while also grasping
the deep structure of material, or the understanding of how one arrives
to know such information.
Some theorists argue that transfer does not even occur at all.
They believe that students transform what they have learned into the new
context. They say that transfer is too much of a passive notion. They
believe students, instead, transform their knowledge
in an active way. Students don't simply carry over knowledge from the
classroom, but they construct the knowledge in a way that they can
understand it themselves.The learner changes the information they have
learned to make it best adapt to the changing contexts that they use the
knowledge
in. This transformation process can occur when a learner feels
motivated to use the knowledge—however, if the student does not find the
transformation necessary, it is less likely that the knowledge will
ever transform
Techniques and benefits of transfer of learning
There are many different conditions that influence transfer of learning in the classroom.
These conditions include features of the task, features of the learner,
features of the organization and social context of the activity.
The features of the task include practicing through simulations,
problem-based learning, and knowledge and skills for implementing new
plans.
The features of learners include their ability to reflect on past
experiences, their ability to participate in group discussions, practice
skills, and participate in written discussions. All the unique features
contribute to a student's ability to use transfer of learning.
There are structural techniques that can aid learning transfer in the
classroom. These structural strategies include hugging and bridging.
Hugging uses the technique of simulating an activity to encourage
reflexive learning. An example of the hugging strategy is when a
student practices teaching a lesson or when a student role plays with
another student. These examples encourage critical thinking that engages
the student and helps them understand what they are learning—one of the
goals of transfer of learning and desirable difficulties.
Bridging is when instruction encourages thinking abstractly by
helping to identify connections between ideas and to analyze those
connections. An example is when a teacher lets the student analyze their
past test results and the way they got those results. This includes
amount of study time and study strategies. Looking at their past study
strategies can help them come up with strategies to improve performance.
These are some of the ideas important to successful to hugging and
bridging practices.
There are many benefits of transfer of learning in the classroom.
One of the main benefits is the ability to quickly learn a new task.
This has many real-life applications such as language and speech
processing. Transfer of learning is also very useful in teaching
students to use higher cognitive thinking by applying their background
knowledge to new situations.
Cognitivism
Gestalt theory
Cognitive theories grew out of Gestalt psychology. Gestalt psychology was developed in Germany in the early 1900s by Wolfgang Kohler and was brought to America in the 1920s. The German word Gestalt is roughly equivalent to the English configuration or organization and emphasizes the whole of human experience.
Over the years, the Gestalt psychologists provided demonstrations and
described principles to explain the way we organize our sensations into
perceptions.
Matt Wertheimer, one of the founding fathers of Gestalt Theory,
observed that sometimes we interpret motion when there is no motion at
all.
For example: a powered sign used at a convenience store to indicate
that the store is open or closed might be seen as a sign with "flashing
lights". However, the lights are not actually flashing. The lights have
been programmed to blink rapidly at their own individual pace. Perceived
as a whole, the sign flashes. Perceived individually, the lights turn
off and on at designated times. Another example of this would be a brick
house: As a whole, it is viewed as a standing structure. However, it is
actually composed of many smaller parts, which are individual bricks.
People tend to see things from a holistic point of view rather than
breaking it down into sub units.
In Gestalt theory, psychologists say that instead of obtaining knowledge from what's in front of us, we often learn by making sense of the relationship between what's new and old. Because we have a unique perspective of the world, humans have the ability to generate their own learning experiences and interpret information that may or may not be the same for someone else.
Gestalt psychologists criticize behaviorists for being too
dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. They propose looking at
the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories.
Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach: that the memory
system is an active organized processor of information and that prior
knowledge plays an important role in learning. Gestalt theorists believe
that for learning to occur, prior knowledge must exist on the topic.
When the learner applies their prior knowledge to the advanced topic,
the learner can understand the meaning in the advanced topic, and
learning can occur Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to consider
how human memory works to promote learning, and an understanding of short term memory and long term memory is important to educators influenced by cognitive theory. They view learning as an internal mental process (including insight, information processing, memory and perception) where the educator focuses on building intelligence and cognitive development. The individual learner is more important than the environment.
Other cognitive theories
Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology,
new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s,
80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory. These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design. Cognitive theory is used to explain such topics as social role acquisition, intelligence and memory as related to age.
In the late twentieth century, situated cognition emerged as a theory
that recognized current learning as primarily the transfer of
decontextualized and formal knowledge. Bredo (1994) depicts situated
cognition as "shifting the focus from individual in environment to
individual and environment". In other words, individual cognition should be considered as intimately related with the context of social interactions
and culturally constructed meaning. Learning through this perspective,
in which known and doing become inseparable, becomes both applicable and
whole.
Much of the education
students receive is limited to the culture of schools, without
consideration for authentic cultures outside of education. Curricula
framed by situated cognition can bring knowledge to life by embedding
the learned material within the culture students are familiar with. For
example, formal and abstract syntax of math problems can be transformed
by placing a traditional math problem within a practical story problem.
This presents an opportunity to meet that appropriate balance between
situated and transferable knowledge. Lampert (1987) successfully did
this by having students explore mathematical concepts that are
continuous with their background knowledge.
She does so by using money, which all students are familiar with, and
then develops the lesson to include more complex stories that allow for
students to see various solutions as well as create their own. In this
way, knowledge becomes active, evolving as students participate and
negotiate their way through new situations.
Constructivism
Founded by Jean Piaget,
constructivism emphasizes the importance of the active involvement of
learners in constructing knowledge for themselves. Students are thought
to use background knowledge and concepts to assist them in their
acquisition of novel information. On approaching such new information,
the learner faces a loss of equilibrium with their previous
understanding, and this demands a change in cognitive structure. This
change effectively combines previous and novel information to form an
improved cognitive schema. Constructivism can be both subjectively and
contextually based. Under the theory of radical constructivism, coined
by Ernst von Glasersfeld, understanding relies on one's subjective interpretation of experience as opposed to objective "reality". Similarly, William Cobern's idea of contextual constructivism encompasses the effects of culture and society on experience.
Constructivism asks why students do not learn deeply by listening
to a teacher, or reading from a textbook. To design effective teaching
environments, it believes one needs a good understanding of what
children already know when they come into the classroom. The curriculum
should be designed in a way that builds on the pupil's background
knowledge and is allowed to develop with them. Begin with complex problems and teach basic skills while solving these problems. The learning theories of John Dewey, Maria Montessori, and David A. Kolb serve as the foundation of the application of constructivist learning theory in the classroom. Constructivism has many varieties such as active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building, but all versions promote a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.
The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover
principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working
answering open-ended questions and solving real-world problems. To do
this, a teacher should encourage curiosity and discussion among his/her
students as well as promoting their autonomy. In scientific areas in the
classroom, constructivist teachers provide raw data and physical
materials for the students to work with and analyze.
Transformative learning theory
Transformative learning theory seeks to explain how humans revise and reinterpret meaning. Transformative learning is the cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference. A frame of reference defines our view of the world. The emotions are often involved. Adults have a tendency to reject any ideas that do not correspond to their particular values, associations and concepts.
Our frames of reference are composed of two dimensions: habits of mind and points of view. Habits of mind, such as ethnocentrism,
are harder to change than points of view. Habits of mind influence our
point of view and the resulting thoughts or feelings associated with
them, but points of view may change over time as a result of influences
such as reflection, appropriation and feedback.
Transformative learning takes place by discussing with others the
"reasons presented in support of competing interpretations, by
critically examining evidence, arguments, and alternative points of
view".
When circumstances permit, transformative learners move toward a frame
of reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, self-reflective,
and integrative of experience.
Educational neuroscience
American Universities such as Harvard, Johns Hopkins, and University
of Southern California began offering majors and degrees dedicated to educational neuroscience or neuroeducation
in the first decade of the twenty-first century. Such studies seek to
link an understanding of brain processes with classroom instruction and
experiences.
Neuroeducation analyzes biological changes in the brain from
processing new information. It looks at what environmental, emotional,
and social situations best help the brain store and retain new
information via the linking of neurons—and best keep the dendrites from
being reabsorbed, losing the information. The 1990s were designated "The
Decade of the Brain", and advances took place in neuroscience at an
especially rapid pace. The three dominant methods for measuring brain
activities are event-related potential, functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography (MEG).
The integration and application to education of what we know about the brain was strengthened in 2000 when the American Federation of Teachers
stated: "It is vital that we identify what science tells us about how
people learn in order to improve the education curriculum."
What is exciting about this new field in education is that modern brain
imaging techniques now make it possible, in some sense, to watch the
brain as it learns, and the question then arises: can the results of
neuro-scientific studies of brains as they are learning usefully inform
practice in this area?
The neuroscience field is young. Researchers expected that new
technologies and ways of observing will produce new scientific evidence
that helps refine the paradigms of what students need and how they learn
best. In particular, it may bring more informed strategies for teaching
students with learning disabilities.
Formal and mental discipline
All individuals have the ability to develop mental discipline and the
skill of mindfulness, the two go hand in hand. Mental discipline is
huge in shaping what people do, say, think and feel. It's critical in
terms of the processing of information and involves the ability to
recognize and respond appropriately to new things and information people
come across, or have recently been taught. Mindfulness is important to
the process of learning in many aspects. Being mindful means to be
present with and engaged in whatever you are doing at a specific moment
in time. Being mindful can aid in helping us to more critically think,
feel and understand the new information we are in the process of
absorbing.
The formal discipline approach seeks to develop causation between the
advancement of the mind by exercising it through exposure to abstract
school subjects such as science, language and mathematics. With
student's repetitive exposure to these particular subjects, some
scholars feel that the acquisition of knowledge pertaining to science,
language and math is of "secondary importance", and believe that the
strengthening and further development of the mind that this curriculum
provides holds far greater significance to the progressing learner in
the long haul.
D.C. Phillips and Jonas F. Soltis provide some skepticism to this
notion. Their skepticism stems largely in part from feeling that the
relationship between formal discipline and the overall advancement of
the mind is not as strong as some would say. They illustrate their
skepticism by opining that it is foolish to blindly assume that people
are better off in life, or at performing certain tasks, because of
taking particular, yet unrelated courses.
Multiple intelligences
The existence of multiple intelligences is proposed by psychologist Howard Gardner, who suggests that different kinds of intelligence exists in human beings. It is a theory that has been fashionable in continuous professional development (CPD) training courses for teachers. However, the theory of multiple intelligences is often cited as an example of pseudoscience because it lacks empirical evidence or falsifiability.
Multimedia learning
A multimedia classroom at Islington College, in the United Kingdom
Multimedia learning refers to the use of visual and auditory teaching materials that may include video, computer and other information technology.
Multimedia learning theory focuses on the principles that determine the
effective use of multimedia in learning, with emphasis on using both
the visual and auditory channels for information processing.
The auditory channel deals with information that is heard, and
the visual channel processes information that is seen. The visual
channel holds less information than the auditory channel.
If both the visual and auditory channels are presented with
information, more knowledge is retained. However, if too much
information is delivered it is inadequately processed, and long term
memory is not acquired. Multimedia learning seeks to give instructors
the ability to stimulate both the visual and auditory channels of the
learner, resulting in better progress.
Using online games for learning
Many educators and researchers believe that information technology
could bring innovation on traditional educational instructions.
Teachers and technologists are searching for new and innovative ways to
design learner-centered learning environments effectively, trying to
engage learners more in the learning process. Claims have been made that
online games have the potential to teach, train and educate and they
are effective means for learning skills and attitudes that are not so
easy to learn by rote memorization.
There has been a lot of research done in identifying the learning
effectiveness in game based learning. Learner characteristics and
cognitive learning outcomes have been identified as the key factors in
research on the implementation of games in educational settings. In the
process of learning a language through an online game, there is a strong
relationship between the learner's prior knowledge of that language and
their cognitive learning outcomes. For the people with prior knowledge
of the language, the learning effectiveness of the games is much more
than those with none or less knowledge of the language.
Other learning theories
Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes. For example, andragogy is the art and science to help adults learn. Connectivism is a recent theory of networked learning,
which focuses on learning as making connections. The Learning as a
Network (LaaN) theory builds upon connectivism, complexity theory, and
double-loop learning. It starts from the learner and views learning as
the continuous creation of a personal knowledge network (PKN).
Learning style theories
Learning style theories propose that individuals learn in different
ways, that there are distinct learning styles and that knowledge of a
learner's preferred learning style leads to faster and more satisfactory
improvement.
However, the current research has not been able to find solid
scientific evidence to support the main premises of learning styles
theory.
Informal and post-modern theories
In theories that make use of cognitive restructuring, an informal curriculum promotes the use of prior knowledge to help students gain a broad understanding of concepts.
New knowledge cannot be told to students, it believes, but rather the
students' current knowledge must be challenged. In this way, students
adjust their ideas to more closely resemble actual theories or concepts.
By using this method students gain the broad understanding they're
taught and later are more willing to learn and keep the specifics of the
concept or theory. This theory further aligns with the idea that
teaching the concepts and the language of a subject should be split into
multiple steps.
Other informal learning theories look at the sources of motivation for learning. Intrinsic motivation may create a more self-regulated learner,
yet schools undermine intrinsic motivation. Critics argue that the
average student learning in isolation performs significantly less well
than those learning with collaboration and mediation. Students learn through talk, discussion, and argumentation.
Educational anthropology
Philosophical anthropology
According to Theodora Polito, "every well-constructed theory of
education [has] at [its] center a philosophical anthropology," which is
"a philosophical reflection on some basic problems of mankind." Philosophical anthropology is an exploration of human nature and humanity. Aristotle,
an early influence on the field, deemed human nature to be "rational
animality," wherein humans are closely related to other animals but
still set apart by their ability to form rational thought.
Philosophical anthropology expanded upon these ideas by clarifying that
rationality is, "determined by the biological and social conditions in
which the lives of human beings are embedded."
Fully developed learning theories address some of the "basic problems
of mankind" by examining these biological and social conditions to
understand and manipulate the rationality of humanity in the context of
learning.
Philosophical anthropology is evident in behaviorism,
which requires an understanding of humanity and human nature in order
to assert that the similarities between humans and other animals are
critical and influential to the process of learning. Situated cognition
focuses on how humans interact with each other and their environments,
which would be considered the "social conditions" explored within the
field of philosophical anthropology. Transformative learning
theories operate with the assumption that humans are rational creatures
capable of examining and redefining perspectives, something that is
heavily considered within philosophical anthropology.
An awareness and understanding of philosophical anthropology
contributes to a greater comprehension and practice of any learning
theory. In some cases, philosophy can be used to further explore and
define uncertain terms within the field of education. Philosophy can also be a vehicle to explore the purpose of education, which can greatly influence an educational theory.
Criticism
Critics of learning theories that seek to displace traditional educational practices
claim that there is no need for such theories; that the attempt to
comprehend the process of learning through the construction of theories
creates problems and inhibits personal freedom.
