Work–life balance is the lack of opposition between work and
other life roles. It is the state of equilibrium in which demands of
personal life, professional life, and family life are equal. Work-life
balance consists but it is not limited to flexible work arrangements
that allow employees to carry out other life programs and practices. The
term ‘Work-Life Balance' is recent in origin, as it was first used in
UK and US in the late 1970's and 1980's, respectively. Work-life balance
is a term commonly used to describe the balance that a working
individual needs between time allocated for work and other aspects of
life. Areas of life other than work–life can include, but it is not
limited to personal interests, family and social or leisure activities.
Technological advances have made it possible for work tasks to be
accomplished faster due to the use of smartphones, email, video-chat,
and other technological software.These technology advances facilitate
individuals to work without having a typical '9 to 5 work day.
Studies from the London Hazards Centre indicate that work today
is more intense than it was a decade ago creating the need for a balance
between work and life. Experiencing being over-worked, long working
hours, and an extreme work environment has proven to affect the overall
physical and psychological health of employees and deteriorate
family-life.Britain's government recognized this reality and started
making an effort to balance the work and home life of its employees by
providing alternatives such as being able to use portable electronic
equipment to do their jobs from a virtual office, or to work from their
actual homes.
According to 2010 National Health Interview Survey Occupational Health Supplement
data, 16% of U.S. workers reported difficulty balancing work and
family. The findings were more prevalent among workers between 30–44
years old.
18% of Workers with a Bachelor Degree and higher education have
difficulties balancing work and life outside of work; compared with
workers with a high school diploma or G.E.D which is(16%). Workers
without a high school education (15%). The results of workers in
industries such as agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting are (9%)
had a lower work–family imbalance ratio compared to adult employees in
other industries (16%). Among other occupations, a higher prevalence
rate of work–family imbalance was found in legal occupations (26%),
whereas a lower prevalence rate was observed for workers in office and
administrative support (14%).
Identity through work
By working in an organization, employees identify, to some extent, with the organization, as part of a collective group. Organizational values, norms and interests become incorporated in the self-concept as employees increase their identification with the organization. However, employees also identify with their outside roles, or their "true self". Examples of these could include: parental/caretaker roles, identifications with certain groups, religious affiliations, align with certain values and morals, mass media etc.
Employee interactions with the organization, through other
employees, management, customers, or others, reinforces (or resists) the
employee identification with the organization. Simultaneously, the employee must manage their "true self"
identification. In other words, identity is "fragmented and
constructed" through a number of interactions within and outside of the
organization; employees do not have just one self.
Most employees identify not only with the organization, but also other facets of their life (family, children, religion,
etc.). Sometimes these identities align and sometimes they do not.
When identities are in conflict, the sense of a healthy work–life
balance may be affected. Organization members must perform identity
work so that they align themselves with the area in which they are
performing to avoid conflict and any stress as a result.
Causes of work–life imbalance
There are three moderators that are correlated with work–life imbalance: gender, time spent at work, and family characteristics.
Gender differences could lead to a work–life imbalance due to the
distinct perception of role identity. It has been demonstrated that men
prioritize their work duties over their family duties to provide
financial support for their families, whereas women prioritize their
family life.
Spending long hours at work due to "inflexibility, shifting in
work requirements, overtime or evening work duties" could lead to an
imbalance between work and family duties.
It has been demonstrated "that time spent at work positively correlate
with both work interference with family and family interference with
work, however, it was unrelated to cross-domain satisfaction" This could be due to the fact that satisfaction is a subjective
measure. This being said, long hours could be interpreted positively or
negatively depending on the individuals. Working long hours affect the
family duties, but on the other side, there are financial benefits that
accompany this action which negate the effect on family duties.
Family characteristics include single employers, married or
cohabiting employers, parent employers, and dual-earning parents.
Parents who are employed experience reduced family satisfaction due to
their family duties or requirements.
This is due to the fact that they are unable to successfully complete
these family duties. In addition, parent workers value family-oriented
activities; thus, working long hours reduces their ability to fulfill
this identity, and, in return, reduces family satisfaction. As for the
married and/ or dual-earning couples, it seems that "not only require
more time and effort at home but also are a resource for individuals to
draw from, both instrumentally through higher income and emotionally
through increased empathy and support."
In addition to these moderators that could lead to an imbalance,
many people expose themselves to unsolicited job stress, because they
enjoy high social recognition. This aspect can also be the cause of an
imbalance in the areas of life.
However, other occupational activities could also lead to such an
imbalance, for example, unpaid labor such as contribution to house and
garden work, maintenance and support of family members or volunteer
activities. All of these contribute to the perception of a chronic lack
of time.
Lacking time leads to pressure, which is experienced differently based
on the individual's age, the age and number of children in the
household, marital status, the profession and level of employment, and
the income level.
Strong pressure of time leads to increased psychological strain, which
in turn affects health. Psychological strain is also affected by the
complexity of work, the growing responsibilities, concerns for long-term
existential protection, and more.
The mentioned stresses and strains could lead in the long term to
irreversible, physical signs of wear, as well as to negative effects on
the human cardiovascular and immune systems.
Role of gender and family
Work–life conflict is not gender-specific. According to the Center for American Progress, 90 percent of working mothers and 95 percent of working fathers report work–family conflict. However, due to social norms surrounding gender roles,
and how the organization views its ideal worker, men and women handle
the work–life balance differently. Organizations play a large part in
how their employees deal with work–life balance. Some companies have
taken proactive measures in providing programs and initiatives to help
their employees cope with work–life balance.
The conflict of work and family can be exacerbated by perceived
deviation from the "ideal worker" archetype, leading to those with
caretaker roles to be perceived as not as dedicated to the organization.
This has a disproportionate impact on working mothers, who are seen as less worthy of training than childless women.
Many authors believe that parents being affected by work–life
conflict will either reduce the number of hours one works, where other
authors suggest that a parent may run away from family life or work more
hours at a workplace. This implies that each individual views work–life conflict differently.
Research conducted by the Kenexa
Research Institute (KRI) evaluated how male and female workers perceive
work–life balance and found that women are more positive than men in
how they perceive their company’s efforts to help them balance work and
life responsibilities. The report is based on the analysis of data drawn
from a representative sample of 10,000 U.S. workers who were surveyed
through WorkTrends, KRI’s annual survey of worker opinions. The results
indicated a shift in women’s perceptions about work–life balance. In the
past, women often found it more difficult to maintain balance due to
the competing pressures at work and demands at home.
"The past two decades have witnessed a sharp decline in men’s
provider role, caused in part by growing female labor participation and
in part by the weakening of men’s absolute power due to increased rates
of unemployment and underemployment," states sociologist Jiping Zuo. She
continues, "Women’s growing earning power and commitment to the paid
workforce together with the stagnation of men’s social mobility make
some families more financially dependent on women. As a result, the
foundations of the male dominance structure have been eroded."
In recent research by Pew Research Center, it is reported that
half of working mothers and fathers believe it is a challenge to
simultaneously be a professional and a parent. Generally speaking, men
have more interests in financial gain which requires working longer
hours. Women tend to report higher desires of flexibility between
profession and home life, which can allow them to be at home more
frequently.
Changes in perceived gender roles
Today
there are many young women who do not want to just stay at home and do
housework without having careers. About 64% of mothers whose youngest
child was under age six, as well as 77% of mothers with a youngest child
age 6–17—were employed in 2010, this indicates that the majority of
women with dependent-care responsibilities cannot, or do not, wish to
give up careers. While women are increasingly represented in the
workforce, they still face challenges balancing work and home life. Both
domestic and market labor compete for time and energy. "For women, the
results show that only time spent in female housework chores has a
significant negative effect on wages".
Many men do not see work alone as providing their lives with full
satisfaction, and they often want a balance between paid work and
personal attachments, without being penalized at work. These men may desire to work part-time, in order to spend more time with their families.
More men are realizing that work is not their only primary source
of fulfillment from life. A new study on fatherhood (2010) shows that
more men are looking for alternatives to their 40-hour workweek in order
to spend more time with their family. Though working less means a
smaller paycheck and higher stress levels, men are looking for
flexibility just as much as women. However, with an ever-changing
society, flexibility is becoming much more apparent. "It seems that some
traditional stereotypes are starting to lessen just a bit in terms of
who’s responsible for care of the children," says human resource
specialist Steve Moore. Traditionalism is becoming less frequent due to
what’s actually practical for each individual family.
Men often face an unequal opportunity to family life, as they are
often expected to be the financial supporter of the family unit.
According to Garey and Hansen, "the masculine ideal of a worker
unencumbered by care-giving obligations is built into workplace
structures and patterns of reward."
Consequences of work–life imbalance
Stress
Steven L. Sauter, chief of the Applied Psychology and Ergonomics Branch of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health in Cincinnati, Ohio, states that recent studies show that "the workplace has become the single greatest source of stress". Michael Feuerstein, professor of clinical psychology at the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences
at Bethesda Naval Hospital declares "seeing a greater increase in
work-related neuroskeletal disorders from a combination of stress and
ergonomic stressors".
Seventy-five to ninety percent of physician visits are related to
stress and, according to the American Institute of Stress, the estimated
costs to industry is $200 billion–$300 billion a year.
Problems caused by stress have become a major concern to both
employers and employees. Symptoms of stress are manifested both
physiologically and psychologically. Persistent stress can result in cardiovascular disease, sexual health problems, a weaker immune system and frequent headaches, stiff muscles, or backache. It can also result in poor coping skills, irritability, jumpiness, insecurity, exhaustion, and difficulty concentrating. Stress may also perpetuate or lead to binge eating, smoking, and alcohol consumption.
The feeling that simply working hard is not enough anymore is
acknowledged by many other American workers. "To get ahead, a
seventy-hour work week is the new standard. What little time is left is
often divided up among relationships, kids, and sleep." This increase in
work hours over the past two decades means that less time will be spent
with family, friends, and community as well as pursuing activities that
one enjoys and taking the time to grow personally and spiritually.
According to a survey conducted by the National Life Insurance Company, four out of ten U.S. employees state that their jobs are "very" or "extremely" stressful.
Those in high-stress jobs are three times more likely than others to
suffer from stress-related medical conditions and are twice as likely to
quit. The study states that women, in particular, report stress related
to the conflict between work and family.
In the study, Work–Family Spillover and Daily Reports of Work and Family Stress in the Adult Labor Force,
researchers found that with an increased amount of negative spillover
from work to family, the likelihood of reporting stress within the
family increased by 74%, and with an increased amount of negative
spillover from family to work the likelihood to report stress felt at
work increased by 47%.
Shepherd-Banigan, Basu, Booth & Harris (2016) conduct research on
how stress can cause extremely negative effects on new parents. Between
trying to balance a new schedule, managing additional responsibilities,
and lacking flexibility and support, they can only increase stress, potentially causing depression to the employee.
Psychoanalysts diagnose uncertainty as the dominant attitude to life in the postmodern society.
The pressure that society exerts on individuals can cause them to have
an uncertain attitude. It is the uncertainty to fail, but also the fear
of their own limits, not to achieve what the society expects, and
especially the desire for recognition in all areas of life.
In today's society, competition manifests itself in various settings.
For example, appearance, occupation, education of the children are
compared to a media-staged ideal. This idea of perfection is due to this
deep-rooted aversion to all things average; the pathological pursuit to
excellence.
Whoever wants more from the job—from the partner, from the children,
and from themselves—could one day burn out. The individual is then faced
with the realization that perfection does not exist.
To date, burnout is not a recognized illness. It has been noticed that a
burnout affects those passionate people who seek perfection. This
condition is not considered a mental illness but only a grave exhaustion
that can lead to numerous sick days.
It can benefit the term that it is a disease model which is socially
acceptable and also, to some extent, the individual self-esteem
stabilizing. According to experts in the field, the individuals who
detain the following characteristics are more prone to burnouts: the
hard-working, the perfectionist, the loner,
the grim and the thin-skinned. All together, they usually have a lack
of a healthy distance to work, leading to work–life imbalance.
Another example related to burnout is decision-makers in
government offices and upper echelons. They are not allowed to show
weaknesses or signs of disease, because this would immediately lead to doubts of their ability for further responsibilities. Only 20% of managers (e.g. in Germany) do sports regularly, and only 2% regularly attend preventive medical check-ups.
In such a position other priorities seem to be set and the time is
lacking for regular sports. The highest priority seems linked to the
job, and it leads individuals to waive screening as a sign of weakness.
Nonetheless, the burnout syndrome seems to be gaining popularity.
Nothing seems shameful about showing weaknesses, but quite the opposite,
the burnout is part of a successful career like a home for the role
model family.
In other terms, attributing the highest priority and allotted time to
work leads to a higher chance for success, but also interrupts the
balance between work and life. Since the description of burnout could be
"socially recognized precious version of the depression and despair
that lets also at the moment of failure the self-image intact", it
concludes that "only losers become depressed, burnout against it is a
diagnosis for winners, more precisely, for former winners.".
Although burnout is linked to a more positive view, four out of
five Germans complain about high stress levels. In fact, one in every
sixth individual under the age of 60 consumes medication against
insomnia, depression or to boost energy levels, at least once a week.
The phases of burnout can be described first by great ambition, then
the suppression of failure, isolation, and, finally, the cynical
attitude towards the employer or supervisor. Often, those individuals
seem to have anxiety disorders and depression as well, which are serious
mental diseases. Depression is the predominant cause of nearly 10,000 suicides that occur each year in Germany.
The consequences of high stress levels could lead to depression, which
in turns affects the balance between work and life. For example, in
Germany, early retirement
due to mental illness represented 15.4 percent of all cases in 1993. In
2008, the percentage increased to 35.6 percent. The proportion of
failures due to mental disorders seems to be increasing. In 2008,
statisticians calculated 41 million absent days that were related to
these crises, leading to 3.9 billion euros in lost production costs.
Role of technology
According
to Bowswell and Olson-Buchanan the recent changes in the work place are
due to changes in technology. Greater technological advancements such
as portable cellphones, portable computers, e-mail and cell phone have
made it possible for employees to work beyond the confinement of their
physical office space. This allows employees to answer e-mails and work
on deadlines after-hours while not officially "on the job".
Having these technological resources at all times and everywhere
increases the likelihood of employees to spend their "free time" or
outside of work, family time doing work related tasks. Employees that
consider their work roles highly important are more likely to apply all
these technological advancements to work while outside of their work
domain.
Some theorists suggest that this vague boundary of work and life
is a result of technological control. Technological control unfolds from
the physical technology provided by an organization". Companies use
email and distribute smartphones to enable and encourage their employees
to stay connected to the business even when they are not in the office.
This type of control, as Barker argues, replaces the more direct,
authoritarian control, or simple control, such as managers and bosses.
As a result, communication technologies in the temporal and structural
aspects of work have changed, defining a "new workplace" in which
employees are more connected to the jobs beyond the boundaries of the
traditional workday and workplace. The more this boundary is blurred,
the higher work-to-life conflict is self-reported by employees. In a
review of recent literature looking at the theory of technological
control suggests employers and employees often communicate and continue
to work during "off hours" or even periods of vacation. This added use
of technology creates a confusion as to what the purpose of the
technology poses for the individual using it. Questions such as "what is
work usage media compared to non-work usage media look like" or "are we
working more because it is easier and more accessible or because we
want to work more?"
Employee assistance professionals say there are many causes for
this situation ranging from personal ambition and the pressure of family
obligations to the accelerating pace of technology. According to a
recent study for the Center for Work-Life Policy, 1.7 million people in
the United States consider their jobs and their work hours excessive
because of globalization.
Working from Home
Technology
has also provided the opportunity to work from home rather than from
the company's physical office. Working from home is an initiative that
arose from the efforts of improving the work-life balance. One of the
ways in which the UK government believes the desired work-life balance
can be achieved is by working from home. The idea of working from home
started in the UK and the number of people working from home is only
increasing. By 2000 it was reported that a quarter of Britain's
workforce worked from home at least part time. Working from home can be
defined as any paid work that is done primarily from home. Working from
home is also known as Telecommuting.
In 2017, it was reported that 8 million people in the US are
working from home, that is 5% of the entire US work force. This increase
has been in response to the demand for more flexibility work
environments. A 2017 report by a polling company named Gallup found that
allowing their employees to work from home decreases employee turnover
and increases employee productivity. Trend suggests the type of workers
leading the work from home wave are professionals in industries such as
finance, designers, computer scientists, and other high-skill
professionals.
Improving work–life balance
Responsibility of the employer
Texas
Quick, an expert witness at trials of companies who were accused of
overworking their employees, states that "when people get worked beyond
their capacity, companies pay the price." Although some employers believe that workers should reduce their own stress by simplifying their lives
and making a better effort to care for their health, most experts feel
that the chief responsibility for reducing stress should be management.
According to Esther M. Orioli, president of Essi Systems, a
stress management consulting firm, "Traditional stress-management
programs placed the responsibility of reducing stress on the individual
rather than on the organization where it belongs. No matter how healthy
individual employees are when they start out, if they work in a
dysfunctional system, they’ll burn out."
Work–life balance has been addressed by some employers and has
been seen as a benefit to them. Indeed, employees report increased job
satisfaction, greater sense of job security, better physical and mental
health, reduced levels of job stress and enhanced control of their
environment. In fact, work–life balance does not only benefit the
employee, but also the organization. Once work–life balance has been
introduced to the employee, the organization faces less absenteeism,
lateness and staff turnover rates. In addition, there is an increase
retention of valuable employees, higher employee loyalty and commitment
towards the organization, improved productivity and enhanced
organizational image.
In the literature, “work–family policies, family-friendly or
family-responsive policies” are practices intended for work and life
balances. In fact, “the primary way companies can help facilitate
work–life balance for their employees is through work–life practices,
that are usually associated with flexible working and reductions in
working time or family-friendly policies”.
According to Hartel et al., a variety of policies could be implemented
to help manage work life balance just as "flexible working hour, job
sharing, part-time work, compressed work weeks, parental leave,
telecommuting, on-site child care facility".
Studies from Canadian adjunct professor and psychology researcher
Yani Likongo demonstrated that sometimes in organizations an
idiosyncratic psychological contract is built between the employee and
his direct supervisor in order to create an "informal deal" regarding
work–life balance. These "deals" support the idea of a constructivist
approach including both the employer and the employee, based on a
give-and-take situation for both of them.
As of March 2011, paid leave benefits continued to be the most
widely available benefit offered by employers in the United States, with
paid vacations available to 91 percent of full-time workers in private
industry. Access to these benefits, however, varied by employee and
establishment characteristics. According to the data from the National
Compensation Survey (NCS), paid vacation benefits were available to 37
percent of part-time workers in private industry. These benefits were
available to 90 percent of workers earning wages in the highest 10th
percent of employees and only to 38 percent of workers in the lowest 10
percent of private industry wage earners. Paid sick leave was available
to 75 percent of full-time workers and 27 percent of part-time workers.
Access to paid sick leave benefits ranged from 21 percent for the lowest
wage category to 87 percent for the highest wage category. These data
provide comprehensive measures of compensation cost trends and incidence
and provisions of employee benefit plans.
"It is generally only highly skilled workers that can enjoy such
benefits as written in their contracts, although many professional
fields would not go so far as to discourage workaholic behaviour.
Unskilled workers will almost always have to rely on bare minimum legal
requirements. The legal requirements are low in many countries, in
particular, the United States. In contrast, the European Union has gone
quite far in assuring a legal work–life balance framework, for example
pertaining to parental leave and the non-discrimination of part-time workers."
According to Stewart Friedman—professor
of management and founding director of the Wharton School’s Leadership
Program and of its Work/Life Integration Project—a "one size fits all"
mentality in human resources management often perpetuates frustration
among employees. "[It’s not an] uncommon problem in many HR areas where,
for the sake of equality, there's a standard policy that is implemented
in a way that's universally applicable -- [even though] everyone's life
is different and everyone needs different things in terms of how to
integrate the different pieces. It's got to be customized."
Friedman’s research indicates that the solution lies in
approaching the components of work, home, community, and self as a
comprehensive system. Instead of taking a zero-sum approach, Friedman’s
Total Leadership program teaches professionals how to successfully
pursue "four-way wins"—improved performance across all parts of life.
Although employers are offering many opportunities to help their
employees balance work and life, these opportunities may be a catch
twenty-two for some female employees. Even if the organization offers
part-time options, many women will not take advantage of it as this type
of arrangement is often seen as "occupational dead end".
Even with the more flexible schedule, working mothers opt not to
work part-time because these positions typically receive less
interesting and challenging assignments; taking these assignments and
working part-time may hinder advancement and growth. Even when the
option to work part-time is available, some may not take advantage of it
because they do not want to be marginalized.
This feeling of marginalization could be a result of not fitting into
the "ideal worker" framework (see: Formation of the "ideal worker" and
gender differences).
Additionally, some mothers, after returning to work, experience
what is called the maternal wall. The maternal wall is experienced in
the less desirable assignments given to the returning mothers. It is
also a sense that because these women are mothers, they cannot perform
as "ideal workers".
If an organization is providing means for working mothers and fathers
to better balance their work–life commitments, the general
organizational norm needs to shift so the "ideal worker" includes those
who must manage a home, children, elderly parents, etc.
Corporate social responsibility
Work-life
balance practices are institutionalized arrangements that make it
easier for employees to manage the often discordant worlds of work and
personal life. These practices are part of a company's social
responsibility with its stakeholders. These practices can be summarized in three major categories: policies, benefits and services.
The term work-life balance has been neglected by employers since
it has been the norm to put pressure on employees in the workplace. In
the current business world work-life balance is not only a common term
but it ranks as one of the most important workplace aspects second only
to compensation.
According to research conducted by more than 50,000 corporate executive
board members, employees who have a better work-life balance tend to
work harder than those that don't. These practices result in more
productivity and employees reporting higher work satisfaction and
company reviews.
The changing global social demands have changed the structure and
nature of traditional work practices. Work is not just a matter of
necessity or survival but of personal and professional development and
family satisfaction. All these factors must balance in order to achieve
the best results for both the employer and the employee; this is a
characteristic of organizational wisdom. This will engage people to the
organization while allowing them to have a balanced life outside of the
workplace. This has become an organizational responsibility due to the
fact that the demand for flexibility is only increasing and the opposite
of it bring dissatisfaction of one of one will impact the other two
which is not beneficial for the organization.
Executive leaders and Human Resources professionals are recognizing the
important of employee engagement or "happiness at work" as a driver of a
company's success. Employees that consider the companies they work for
invest in them are usually more invested in the success of the
organization.
Companies such as Starbucks, Google and Boston Consulting Group
who have incorporated these practices as part of their organizations
have been recognized by Fortune's 100 Best Companies to work for. Some
of the world's best performing organizations understand that creating a
work-life balance is a key factor for great business performance
outcomes. Work-life balance is a strategic initiative for engaged
employees that produce business growth.
Maternity leave
Maternity leave and parental leave
are leaves of absence for expectant or new mothers (sometimes fathers)
for the birth and care of the baby. These policies vary significantly by
country (regarding factors such as the length of the leave and what
amount of money is paid). They may help create a work–life balance for
families. For example, in Canada there is the Quebec Parental Insurance
Program which is responsible for providing maternity, paternity,
parental and adoption benefits to citizens of Quebec. According to the
government of Canada website, El maternity benefits are offered for a
maximum of 15 weeks. Both the biological and surrogate mothers are
eligible to get these benefits. Those involved can receive these
benefits as early as 12 weeks before the expected due date. In addition,
there is also the possibility to be paid 17 weeks after the date of
birth. These benefits can be received either by the standard or extended
option. The standard parental benefits differ from the extended
parental benefits in the percentage of the individual’s average weekly
earnings and the number of weeks the individuals are being paid. Indeed,
the extended parental benefit’s rate is 33% of the individuals’ average
weekly earnings (for a maximum of 61 weeks) compared to 55% (for a
maximum of 35 weeks) for the standard parental benefits. There is also
the possibility for both parents to apply to the El parental benefits.
Men are just as likely as women obtain these benefits.
However, in the United States, most states do not offer any paid
time off for the birth of a child. As of 2015, the US was one of only
three countries in the world (the other two being Papua New Guinea and Suriname) that does not have paid maternity leave.
Some new mothers (and fathers) in the US will take unpaid time
off, allowed by the Family and Medical Leave Act. The FMLA entitles
eligible employees of covered employers to take unpaid, job-protected
leave for specified family and medical reasons with continuation of
group health insurance coverage under the same terms and conditions as
if the employee had not taken leave.
Eligible employees are entitled to twelve workweeks of leave in a
12-month period for:
- the birth of a child and to care for the newborn child within one year of birth;
- the placement with the employee of a child for adoption or foster care and to care for the newly placed child within one year of placement;
Some states will allow paid time off for maternity leave under the states Temporary Disability Insurance (TDI).
| State | TDI Benefit |
|---|---|
| California | 55% - 60% of highest quarterly earnings during a
12-month base period up to $959 (2009)
|
| Hawaii | 58% of average weekly wages up to $510 (2009) |
| New Jersey | 66% of average weekly wages up to $524 (2008) |
| New York | 50% of weekly wages up to $170 (2008) |
| Rhode Island | 4.62% of employees highest calendar quarter
wages in the base year, up to $671, plus dependent
allowance of $10 or 7% of weekly benefit for
up to five dependents (2008)
|
At the state level, California was the first state to offer paid
family leave benefits for its workers. While the benefits only last for
six weeks this is the first major step for maternity leave in the United States and other states seem to be following suit. New Jersey
lawmakers are working on legislation that would make their state the
second state to add this employee benefit. Under one New Jersey
proposal, workers who take leave would be paid through the state's
temporary disability insurance fund, "augmented by a 0.1 percent charge
on workers’ weekly wages."
Traditionally, many conservatives have opposed paid family leave, but
there is a sign that this mindset is beginning to change. Reverend Paul
Schenck, a prominent member of the National Pro-Life
Action Center recently stated that he would support paid maternity
leave on the assumption that it might encourage women to follow through
with their pregnancies instead of having abortions.
According to Heyman, "Across the political spectrum, people are
realizing these policies have an enormous impact on working families. If
you look at the most competitive economies in the world, all the others
except the U.S. have these policies in place."
The United States is not as workplace family-oriented as many
other wealthy countries. According to a study released by Harvard and
McGill University researchers in February 2007, workplace policies for
families in the U.S. are weaker than those of all high-income countries
and even many middle-and low-income countries. Other differences include the fact that fathers are granted paid paternity leave
or paid parental leave in sixty-five countries; thirty one of these
countries offer at least fourteen weeks of paid leave. The U.S. does not
guarantee this to fathers.(survey) Sweden, Denmark and Norway
have the highest level of maternity benefits—Sweden provides 68 weeks
paid maternity leave, Norway provides 56 weeks paid maternity leave and
Denmark provides 52.
Diversity
Sexual orientation
Diversity
in regard to sexual orientation is often overlooked when implementing
terms of family guidelines and agreements in corporate policies. Sexual
minorities are often overlooked in establishing these policies.
As a result, the needs of non-traditional families, which consist of
couples or individuals with lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender
(LGBT) backgrounds, are not met. The sexual stigma and prejudice are
present in managing diversity and inclusion on an international level,
and an array of contextual and societal factors define the lack of
attention given to sexual minority employees.
As a result, these employees can be subjected to exclusion, neglect,
and isolation, which have a negative effect on their work–life balance.
Several international studies reveal that LGBT-supportive
corporate policies allow for an inclusive environment in the workplace.
As a result, this entails benefits for the employees and overall company
performance.
There is a positive relationship between LGBT-supportive policies and
business-related outcomes, such as increased productivity.
A decrease in discriminatory behavior amongst employees, enhanced job
satisfaction, and employee engagement are associated with increased
economic outcomes.
However, individual experiences with these kinds of inclusive
policies vary, as there are potential "implementation gaps" between
equality and diversity policies, and practice across sectors, workplaces
and even within buildings of organizations.
Also, on a macroeconomic level, health promotion and public
health policies that adapted and developed to ensure an inclusive and
diversified work environment for sexual minorities. These health goals
target the social determinants of health and lead to increased
population health and an overall decrease in cost in the public health
system.
Religion
Religion
and spirituality play a role in work–life balance as they are part of
diversity management and accommodations in the workplace and religion-based societies in Saudi Arabia or Israel organize
religious accommodation with special provisions in government
legislation and organizational policies. Some organizations also allow
their employees to make up time spent on religious activities out of
contractual hours.
Religion and spirituality represent an essential issue in diversity
management, as the question of accommodating religion at work often
raises controversial debate.
An employee’s religious beliefs are often associated with their ethical beliefs, and an important role in self-identity and religion-based societies in Saudi Arabia or Israel organize
religious accommodations with special provisions in government
legislation and organizational policies. Some organizations also allow
their employees to make up time spent on religious activities out of
contractual hours.
As such, poor management of religious diversity may affect employees’
performances if they feel forced to choose between aspects of their
religious identity and their jobs. This may also lead to them
dissociating themselves from the organization.
Therefore, religious diversity management is essential to ensuring a
satisfying work–life balance for employees. The American Title VII of
the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states that ‘companies have a duty to
provide reasonable religious accommodation’.
Global comparisons
United States
According to a new study by Harvard and McGill University
researchers, the United States lags far behind nearly all wealthy
countries when it comes to family-oriented workplace policies such as maternity leave, paid sick days and support for breast feeding.
Jody Heyman, founder of the Harvard-based Project on Global Working
Families and director of McGill’s Institute for Health and Social
Policy, states that, "More countries are providing the workplace
protections that millions of Americans can only dream of. The United
States has been a proud leader in adopting laws that provide for equal
opportunity in the workplace, but our work/family protections are among
the worst."
This observation is being shared by many Americans today and is
considered by many experts to be indicative of the current climate.
However, the U.S. Labor Department is examining regulations that give
workers unpaid leave to deal with family or medical emergencies (a
review that supporters of the FMLA worry might be a prelude to scaling
back these protections, as requested by some business groups). Senator Chris Dodd from Connecticut proposed legislation
that would enable workers to take six weeks of paid leave. Congress was
also expected to reconsider the Healthy Families Act, a bill that would
have required employers with at least fifteen employees to provide
seven paid sick days per year.
At least 107 countries protect working women’s right to
breast-feed and, in at least seventy-three of them, women are paid. The
United States does not have any federal legislation guaranteeing mothers
the right to breast-feed their infants at work, but 24 states, the
District of Columbia and Puerto Rico have laws related to breastfeeding
in the workplace.
At least 134 countries have laws setting the maximum length of
the work week; the U.S. does not have a maximum work week length and
does not place any limits on the amount of overtime that an employee is required to work each week. (survey) Sweden, Denmark and Norway
have the highest level of maternity benefits—Sweden provides 68 weeks
paid maternity leave, Norway provides 56 weeks paid maternity leave and
Denmark provides 52.
Even when vacation time is offered in some U.S. companies, some
choose not to take advantage of it. A 2003 survey by Management
Recruiter International stated that fifty percent of executives surveyed
didn’t have plans to take a vacation. They decided to stay at work and
use their vacation time to get caught up on their increased workloads.
More recently, 2018 research from Project: Time Off indicates 52% of
employees reported having unused vacation days at the end of 2017. This
equates to 705 million unused vacation days in the US annually.
American workers are legally not entitled to any paid holidays.
However, most employers will give the 10 days off of national holidays.
This is one of the lowest paid holidays total in the world. Brazil has a
total of 41 paid days off and Australia has 38 days off.
Some American companies have started to see that to improve
employee efficiency they must improve the quality of their time at work
and the various other stressors they may be experiencing in their life.
Various companies have taken initiatives to drastically improve the
employees work satisfaction. Companies such as 3M have introduced free
stress management coaches into the work place to aid employees with
their busy schedules. Google, Facebook and Sales Force have put areas to
be physically active in the workplace as well as providing free food
and snacks for the workers.
These companies are some of the best in terms of benefits for sick and
maternal leave. These business structures are models that can push the
government to improve the standards across the United States of America.
European Union
The
European Union promotes various initiatives regarding work–life balance
and encourages its member states to implement family-friendly policies. In Europe, the Working Time Directive has implemented a maximum 48-hour working week. Many countries have opted for fewer hours. France introduced a 35-hour workweek.
Contradictory to the Scandinavian countries, there is no evidence of
state policies that absolutely encourage men to take on a larger share
of domestic work in France, Portugal, or Britain.
In a 2007, the European Quality of Life Survey found that countries in
south-eastern Europe had the most common problems with work–life
balance. In Croatia and Greece, a little over 70% of working citizens
say that they are too tired to do household jobs at least several times a
month because of work.
In Britain, legislation has been passed allowing parents of children under six to request a more flexible work
schedule. Companies must approve this request as long as it does not
damage the business. A 2003 Survey of graduates in the UK revealed that
graduates value flexibility even more than wages.
In all twenty-five European Union countries, voters "punish"
politicians who try to shrink vacations. "Even the twenty-two days
Estonians, Lithuanians, Poles and Slovenians count as their own is much
more generous than the leave allotted to U.S. workers." According to a report by the Families and Work Institute, the average
vacation time that Americans took each year averaged 14.6 days.
According to Jeremy Reynolds, unions can lobby for benefits, pay,
training, safety measures, and additional factors that impact the costs
and benefits of work hours. "Unions can also have a more direct impact
on hour mismatches through their efforts to change the length of the
workday, work week, and work year, and to increase vacation and leave
time." This is why workers in countries where there are strong unions
usually work fewer hours and have more generous leave policies than
workers who are in countries where there are weaker unions.
It is critical to mention that cultural factors influence why and
how much we work. As stated by Jeremy Reynolds, "cultural norms may
encourage work as an end in itself or as a means to acquiring other
things, including consumer products." This might be why Americans are
bound to work more than people in other countries. In general, Americans
always want more and more, so Americans need to work more in order to
have the money to spend on these consumer products.
