Egocentrism
Egocentrism is the inability to differentiate between self and other. More specifically, it is the inability to untangle subjective schemas from objective reality and an inability to accurately assume or understand any perspective other than one's own.
Although egocentrism and narcissism
appear similar, they are not the same. A person who is egocentric
believes they are the center of attention, like a narcissist, but does
not receive gratification by one's own admiration. Both egotists
and narcissists are people whose egos are greatly influenced by the
approval of others, while for egocentrists this may or may not be true.
Although egocentric behaviors are less prominent in adulthood,
the existence of some forms of egocentrism in adulthood indicates that
overcoming egocentrism may be a lifelong development that never achieves
completion.
Adults appear to be less egocentric than children because they are
faster to correct from an initially egocentric perspective than
children, not because they are less likely to initially adopt an
egocentric perspective.
Therefore, egocentrism is found across the life span: in infancy, early childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. It contributes to the human cognitive development by helping children develop theory of mind and self-identity formation.
During infancy
The
main concept infants and young children learn by beginning to show
egocentrism is the fact that their thoughts, values, and behaviors are
different from those of others, also known as the theory of mind.
Initially when children begin to have social interactions with others,
mainly the caregivers, they misinterpret that they are one entity,
because they are together for a long duration of time and the caregivers
often provide for the children's needs. For example, a child may
misattribute the act of their mother reaching to retrieve an object that
they point to as a sign that they are the same entity, when in fact
they are actually separate individuals. As early as 15 months old, children show a mix of egocentrism and theory of mind
when an agent acts inconsistently with how the children expect him to
behave. In this study the children observed the experimenter place a
toy inside one of two boxes, but did not see when the experimenter
removed the toy from the original box and placed it in the other box,
due to obstruction by a screen. When the screen was removed the children
watched the experimenter reach to take the toy out of one of the boxes,
yet because the children did not see the switching part, they looked at
the experimenter's action much longer when she reached for the box
opposite to the one she originally put the toy in. Not only does this
show the existence of infants' memory capacity, but it also demonstrates
how they have expectations based on their knowledge, as they are
surprised when those expectations are not met.
Piaget explained that egocentrism during infancy does not mean
selfishness, self-centredness, or egotism because it refers to the
infant's understanding of the world in terms of their own motor activity
as well as an inability to understand it.
In children's social development, the infancy is the period where the
individual performs very few social functions due to the conscious and
subconscious concern with the fulfillment of physical needs.
During childhood
According to George Butterworth and Margaret Harris, during childhood, one is usually unable to distinguish between what is subjective and objective. According to Piaget, "an egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear, and feel exactly the same as the child does."
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) developed a theory about the development of human intelligence, describing the stages of cognitive development.
He claimed that early childhood is the time of pre-operational thought,
characterized by children's inability to process logical thought.
According to Piaget, one of the main obstacles to logic that children
possess includes centration, "the tendency to focus on one aspect of a
situation to the exclusion of others."
A particular type of centration is egocentrism – literally,
"self-centeredness." Piaget claimed that young children are egocentric,
capable of contemplating the world only from their personal perspective.
For example, a three-year-old presented his mother a model truck as her
birthday present; "he had carefully wrapped the present and gave it to
his mother with an expression that clearly showed he expected her to
love it." The three-year-old boy had not chosen the present out of selfishness
or greediness, but he simply failed to realize that, from his mother's
perspective, she might not enjoy the model car as much as he would.
Piaget was concerned with two aspects of egocentricity in children: language and morality.
He believed that egocentric children use language primarily for
communication with oneself. Piaget observed that children would talk to
themselves during play, and this egocentric speech was merely the
child's thoughts.
He believed that this speech had no special function; it was used as a
way of accompanying and reinforcing the child's current activity. He
theorized that as the child matures cognitively and socially the amount
of egocentric speech used would be reduced. However, Vygotsky felt that egocentric speech has more meaning, as it allows the child's growth in social speech and high mental development.
In addition to Piaget's theory, he believed that when communicating
with others, the child believes that others know everything about the
topic of discussion and become frustrated when asked to give further
detail.
Piaget also believed that egocentrism affects the child's sense of morality.
Due to egocentrism, the child is only concerned with the final outcome
of an event rather than another's intentions. For example, if someone
breaks the child's toy, the child would not forgive the other and the
child would not be able to understand that the person who broke the toy
did not intend to break it.
This phenomenon can also be backed by the evidence from the findings of
the case study by Nelson, who studied the use of motives and outcomes
by young children as aiding to form their moral judgements.
Piaget did a test to investigate egocentrism called the mountains
study. He put children in front of a simple plaster mountain range and
then asked them to pick from four pictures the view that he, Piaget,
would see. The younger children before age seven picked the picture of
the view they themselves saw and were therefore found to lack the
ability to appreciate a viewpoint different from their own. In other
words, their way of reasoning was egocentric. Only when entering the
concrete-operational stage of development at age seven to twelve,
children became less egocentric and could appreciate viewpoints other
than their own. In other words, they were capable of cognitive
perspective-taking. However, the mountains test has been criticized for
judging only the child's visuo-spatial awareness, rather than
egocentrism. A follow up study involving police dolls showed that even
young children were able to correctly say what the interviewer would
see.
It is thought that Piaget overestimated the extent of egocentrism in
children. Egocentrism is thus the child's inability to see other
people's viewpoints, not to be confused with selfishness. The child at
this stage of cognitive development assumes that their view of the world is the same as other people's.
In addition, a more well-known experiment by Wimmer and Perner
(1983) called the false-belief task demonstrates how children show their
acquisition of theory of mind (ToM) as early as 4 years old.
In this task, children see a scenario where one character hides a
marble in a basket, walks out of the scene, and another character that
is present takes out the marble and put it in a box. Knowing that the
first character did not see the switching task, children were asked to
predict where the first character would look to find the marble. The
results show that children younger than 4 answer that the character
would look inside the box, because they have the superior knowledge of
where the marble actually is. It shows egocentric thinking in early
childhood because they thought that even if the character itself did not
see the entire scenario, it has the same amount of knowledge as oneself
and therefore should look inside the box to find the marble. As
children start to acquire ToM, their ability to recognize and process
others' beliefs and values overrides the natural tendency to be
egocentric.
During adolescence
Although most of the research completed on the study of egocentrism
is primarily focused on early childhood development, it has been found
to also occur during adolescence. David Elkind
was one of the first to discover the presence of egocentrism in
adolescence and late adolescence. He argues, "the young adolescent,
because of the physiological metamorphosis he is undergoing, is
primarily concerned with himself. Accordingly, since he fails to
differentiate between what others are thinking about and his own mental
preoccupations, he assumes that other people are obsessed with his
behavior and appearance as he is himself."
This shows that the adolescent is exhibiting egocentrism, by struggling
to distinguish whether or not, in actuality, others are as fond of them
as they might think because their own thoughts are so prevalent.
Adolescents consider themselves as "unique, special, and much more
socially significant than they actually are."
Elkind also created terms to help describe the egocentric
behaviors exhibited by the adolescent population such as what he calls
an imaginary audience, the personal fable,
and the invincibility fable. Usually when an egocentric adolescent is
experiencing an imaginary audience, it entails the belief that there is
an audience captivated and constantly present to an extent of being
overly interested about the egocentric individual. Personal fable refers
to the idea that many teenagers believe their thoughts, feelings, and
experiences are unique and more extreme than anyone else's.
In the invincibility fable, the adolescent believes in the idea that he
or she is immune to misfortune and cannot be harmed by things that
might defeat a normal person.
Egocentrism in adolescence is often viewed as a negative aspect of
their thinking ability because adolescents become consumed with
themselves and are unable to effectively function in society due to
their skewed version of reality and cynicism.
There are various reasons as to why adolescents experience egocentrism:
- Adolescents are often faced with new social environments (for example, starting secondary school) which require the adolescent to protect the self which may lead to egocentrism.
- Development of the adolescent's identity may lead to the individual experiencing high levels of uniqueness which subsequently becomes egocentric – this manifests as the personal fable.
- Parental rejection may lead to the adolescents experiencing high levels of self-consciousness, which can lead to egocentrism.
Gender differences have been found in the way egocentrism manifests.
Transient Self, as defined by Elkind and Bowen in 1979, refers to
impermanent image of self that is mainly relative to one-time behaviors
and temporary appearance,
and, adolescent females have a higher tendency to consider themselves
to be different from others, and tend to be more self-conscious in
situations that involve momentary embarrassments (e.g. going to a party
with a bad haircut), than their male peers.
Another study conducted by Goossens and Beyers (1992) using similar
measuring instruments found that boys have stronger beliefs that they
are unique, invulnerable and sometimes omnipotent, which are typical
characteristics of personal fable.
This again exemplifies the idea that egocentrism is present in even late adolescence.
Results from other studies have come to the conclusion that
egocentrism does not present itself in some of the same patterns as it
was found originally. More recent studies have found that egocentrism is
prevalent in later years of development unlike Piaget's original
findings that suggested that egocentrism is only present in early
childhood development.
Egocentrism is especially dominant in early adolescence, particularly
when adolescents encounter new environments, such as a new school or a
new peer group.
In addition, throughout adolescence egocentrism contributes to
the development of self-identity; in order to achieve self-identity,
adolescents go through different pathways of "crisis" and "commitment"
stages, and higher self-identity achievement was found to be correlated with heightened egocentrism.
During adulthood
The prevalence of egocentrism in the individual has been found to decrease between the ages of 15 and 16. However, adults are also susceptible to be egocentric or to have reactions or behaviours that can be categorized as egocentric.
Frankenberger tested adolescents (14–18 years old) and adults (20–89) on their levels of egocentrism and self-consciousness.
It was found that egocentric tendencies had extended to early adulthood
and these tendencies were also present in the middle adult years.
Baron and Hanna looked at 152 participants and tested to see how the presence of depression affected egocentrism.
They tested adults between the ages of 18 and 25 and found that the
participants who suffered from depression showed higher levels of
egocentrism than those who did not.
Finally, Surtees and Apperly found that when adults were asked to
judge the number of dots they see and the number of dots the avatar in
the computer simulation sees, the presence of the avatar interfered with
the participants' judgment-making during the trials. Specifically,
these were the trials where the number of dots seen by the participant
was inconsistent from the number of dots the avatar saw.
Such effect on the participants diminished when the avatar was
replaced with a simple yellow or blue line, which concluded that somehow
the avatar having a personal attribute implicitly caused the
participants to include its "vision" into their own decision making.
That said, they made more errors when they saw prompts such as "the
avatar sees N" when N was the number of dots the participant saw and not
the avatar, which shows that egocentric thought is still predominant in
making quick judgments, even if the adults are well aware that their
thoughts could differ from others.
