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Areas included within the Appalachian Regional Commission's charter.
The Appalachian region of the Eastern United States is home to over 25 million people and covers parts of mostly mountainous areas of 13 states, including Mississippi, Alabama, Pennsylvania, New York, Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Maryland, and the entire state of West Virginia. The near-isolation of the area's rugged topography is home to communities with a distinct culture, who in many cases are put at a disadvantage because of the transportation and infrastructure problems that have developed.
Appalachia
is often divided into three regions—southern (portions of Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi, North and South Carolina, and Tennessee), central
(portions of Kentucky, southern West Virginia, southern and southeastern
Ohio, Virginia, and Tennessee), and northern (parts of New York,
Pennsylvania, northern West Virginia, Maryland, and northern and
northeastern Ohio) Appalachia. Though all areas of Appalachia share problems of rural poverty, inadequate jobs, services, transportation, education, and infrastructure, some elements (particularly those relating to industry and natural resource extraction) are unique to each sub-region. For example, Appalachians in the central sub-region experience the deepest poverty, partially due to the area's isolation from urban growth centers.
Appalachia is particularly interesting in the context of social
and economic divisions within and between the region's socioeconomic
communities. In addition, outsiders' often incorrect and
over-generalized external perspectives, and their relationship to
culture and folklore of this near-isolated area, are important to the
region's future development.
Poverty, politics, and uneven economic development
Though
industry and business existed in Appalachia before the 20th century,
the major modern industries of agriculture, large-scale coal mining, timber,
and other outside corporate entries did not truly take root until this
time. Many Appalachians sold their rights to land and minerals to such
corporations, to the extent that 99 percent of the residents control
less than half of the land. Thus, though the area has a wealth of
natural resources, natives are often poor.
Since at least the 1960s, Appalachia has a higher poverty rate and a
higher percentage of working poor than the rest of the nation. Wages, employment rates, and education also lag. The Appalachian Regional Commission
(ARC) was created in 1965 to address some of the region's problems, and
though there have been improvements, serious issues still exist.
Communities that are not considered "growth centers" are bypassed for
investment and fall further behind. In 1999, roughly a quarter of the
counties in the region qualified as "distressed," the ARC's worst status
ranking. Fifty-seven percent of adults in central Appalachia did not
graduate from high school (as opposed to less than 20 percent in the general U.S.), roughly 20 percent of homes have no telephone, and the population is declining.
According to the statistics conducted by ARC, one out of every
three Appalachians suffered from poverty; their average income was 23
percent lower than the average level of American per capita income; and
due to the poor infrastructure, health care, high unemployment rate and other tough living conditions, two million or more Appalachians left their homes during the 1950s.
Poverty in Appalachian had not been given attention until the 1960s. In
the year 1960, the Region's government was trying to solve the poverty
problem with a will. After one year, the newly elected President John F. Kennedy
was touched by the poverty he saw there and decided to improve the
living standard of Appalachians. In 1963, President Kennedy set up President's Appalachian Regional Committee,
aimed to formulate a program to improve the Appalachian economy. The
program was outlined in 1964. One year later, his successor, President Lyndon B. Johnson submitted PARC's reports to the Congress and the program was passed in 1965.
Infrastructure as an agent of poverty
One
of the factors at the root of Appalachian economic struggles is the
poor infrastructure. Though the region is crisscrossed by many U.S. and interstate
highways, those routes primarily serve cross-country traffic rather
than local traffic. Towns closer to the major highways and nearer to the
many larger cities fringing the region (Pittsburgh, Wheeling, Columbus, Cincinnati, Atlanta, Washington, D.C., etc.) are disproportionately better-off than rural regions in the mountainous interior.
Transportation
may be the reason which most restricts the development of the economy.
So after the Appalachian Regional Commission was established, road
construction has become the first concern of regional development. In
the following years, the Commission has spent plenty of capital on road
construction.
Instead of being tied to the land, jobs in the towns tend to emphasize industry and services—important
signs of a more diversified economy. However, aside from the major
urban centers along its perimeter, the entire Appalachian region still
suffers from population decline and the loss of younger residents to the
cities.
Another factor affecting development has been sheer inequality in
power between the classes. Historically, elites interested in
satisfying personal goals have controlled Appalachian politics to the
expense of the region's poorer residents.
Seeing no personal benefit to establishing infrastructure, they
generally eschewed developments that would have been difficult and
expensive to establish in the mountainous areas.
Instead, they allowed the region to rely on industry—using barges to
send natural resources to market, requiring that workers have only
minimal education, etc.--and created no infrastructure for business.
There is a lot of evidence to show that economic status generally
has a positive effect on education. This positive link suggests that
people in Appalachia are less educated than in rest areas of the nation.
"Labor economists estimated that the inflation-adjusted rate of return
to an additional year of schooling is about 10 percent on average".
(Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) This means, each additional school
year will contribute a 10 percent average gain in earnings. "At the same
time, this 10 percent average return masks important variation in
returns across individuals with different levels of schooling". (Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland) High school graduates often earn more than those with GED
recipients. During past decades, the Appalachian population are better
educated than many years ago, but it still lags behind the United
States' average level. From Burris's research, the central lands of Appalachia have been
dominated by landowners who only show interest in the profits of mountaintop coal mining,
undermining the importance of those who live in the areas and the
effect their business has on their lives. It is the cyclical way of life
where those who profit from the detrimental effects are the ones who do not have to endure those effects. This economy has caused a region-wide depression
on the people as well as other afflictions such as illness and
addiction. The goal is to eliminate the depression and need people feel
to abuse pain medications. As systems work together to aim attention of
younger generations at education instead of drugs.
"For well over a century now, central Appalachia has been ruled by
absentee landowners only interested in making the highest profit
available from natural resource extraction, primarily coal. From the
beginning of its presence in the mountains, the coal industry
intentionally created single-industry economies to exert absolute
control over the people, the politicians, the land and the wealth that
still flows out of the mountains". (American Psychologic Association)
Now, with roughly 100,000 jobs left for miners, Appalachianites
are unable to access jobs or the resources and opportunities necessary
to lift themselves out of poverty. Some academics contend that the situation of Appalachianites amounts to one similar to that in third world countries: Residents live on land that cannot be traded outside of trusted circles or used as collateral because, due to the history of unincorporated businesses with unidentified liabilities, there are not adequate records of ownership rights. This "dead" capital
is a factor that contributes to the historical poverty of the region,
limiting Appalachianites' abilities to use their investments in home and
other land-related capital.
Political inequalities
The elite class instilled strong systems of inequality into Appalachian politics and economy. For instance, the powerful have a history of encouraging racial divisions in order to divide workers and pit them against each other, spurring competition and serving to lower workers' wages. Family history and economic status
are also bases of discrimination: One resident notes of employers, "If
you have a rich name, they'll take you--otherwise you can't get no
work."
Since the 19th century, coal operators and plantation bosses have discouraged education and civic action,
allowing workers to become indebted to plantation stores, live in
company housing, and generally make themselves vulnerable to the
interests of their powerful employers. Community members who experienced a justifiable fear of punishment for speaking out against the corruption of the status quo developed a habit of compliance rather than democratic institutions for social change.
Fearful of punishment, middle class residents allied themselves with
the elites rather than challenging the system that colored their
everyday lives. Burdened by the choice between exile and exploitation,
the actual and potential middle class left the region, widening the gap
between the poor and those in power. Observers often perceive a fatalistic attitude on the part of the Appalachian people; many suggest that this is due to the history of political corruption and disenfranchisement, which led to weak civic cultures
and a sense of powerlessness. Says a volunteer in the area, "the people
usually regard politicians as crooks who won't do anything."
In the remote mountain districts, violent feuds often happen.
Appalachians use assassination and guns as weapons, against each other
for several years. The major participants are always the elite class and people who are fighting for their political rights.
Educational disadvantages
In 2000, 80.49 percent of all adults in the United States were high school graduates, as opposed to 76.89 in Appalachia. Almost 30 percent of Appalachian adults are considered functionally illiterate.
Education differences between men and women are greater in Appalachia
than the rest of the nation, tying into a greater trend of gender inequalities.
Education in Appalachia has historically lagged behind average literacy levels of United States.
At first, education in this region was largely nurtured through
religious institutions. Children who found time away from family work
were often taught to read about the Bible and Christian morality. Then,
after the civil war, some districts established primary schools and high
schools. People began to access standard education during this period,
and higher education in large communities was expanded at that time.
Lately, in the late 19th century and early 20th century, education in
rural areas has been advanced; some settlement schools and sponsored
schools were established by organizations.
In the 20th century, the national policy has begun affecting education
in Appalachia. Those schools were trying to meet the demands which
federal and state settled. Some public schools were facing the problem
of gathering funds because of government's No Child Left Behind policy. (DeYoung 1517–1521)
Since Appalachia is a place with abundant resources such as coal,
mineral, land and forest, the main jobs here are lumbering, mining and
farming. None of these jobs need a high education, and employers don't
decide the jobs based on their education level. A diploma has not been a
priority in job finding. Many children of school age dropped school to
help their family work.
Women in Appalachia have less opportunity in access of jobs. Many kinds
of jobs in this area require a strong body, so that men are preferred
than women by employers when they are seeking jobs.
The National Career Development Association has organized a
program hoping to increase the education in the Appalachia region, which
has been deprived of what other parts of the nation take for granted.
The region is primarily utilized for mining, coal, and its other natural
resources and farmland. Families that live in these parts have become
accustomed to a certain way of life whether it involve school or
working. Many kids are not given the opportunity to be successful, only
to remain in the family business surrounding one of the many natural
resources from their land. The New Opportunity School for Women, NOSW,
has begun offering 14 women a 3-week course in Berea, Kentucky, on
employment opportunities, skills, basic knowledge that they may not have
received. The NOSW also offers a residential housing opportunity to
those with low-income after their participation in the course and
thereafter. This brings hope to Appalachian women, although it only
allows 14 participants, it is a start and that number can only grow with
growth within the Appalachian region.
"Women from the Appalachian region of Kentucky and surrounding
south central Appalachian states share common challenges resulting from
low educational attainment, limited employment skills, few strong role
models and low self-esteem. The presence of these challenges are
directly linked to high incidences of early marriage, teen pregnancies,
divorce, domestic violence, substance abuse and high school dropout
rates". (National Career Development Association.)
This program provides interview, job search, computer and other
basic skills that are useful in careers for those less skilled. Women
can participate freely, no extra money is required.
Participants are provided with classes from Monday to Friday, 8 am to
12 pm and afternoon is internship time. These classes are mainly about:
job search, interview skill, math, women's health, computer skills,
leadership development, and self-protection.
(National Career Development Association) Internships not only include
working in a real work site, but also include a training of choosing
interview clothes and make-ups. The organizer will also hold some events
during the weekends except for additional classes. For instance, the
American Association of University Women and the Berea Younger Women's
Club are available for participants to choose. They can also go for a
field trip to some places. All these efforts are conducted to help women
build confidence in job finding. As a vulnerable group of people, these
rich experiences can help them become an active part in their living
communities. After graduating from NOSW, professional agencies will
provides each of them counseling services about education. This program
has achieved active outcomes. According to a recent survey, after
attending this program, 80 percent of those women participants have
incomes for less than 10,000 dollars per year with their half high
school degree. Among them, 79 percent of graduates are employed, 55
percent of graduates got an associate degree (two-year), a bachelor's
degree or even a master's degree, and 35 percent of graduates got a
Certification Program degree. (National Career Development Association)
Gender inequalities in Appalachia
Women
have traditionally been reedited to the domestic sphere, often lack
access to resources and employment opportunities, are disproportionately
represented in peripheral labor markets, and have lower wages and higher vulnerability to job loss.
Throughout the region, women typically earn 64 percent of men's wages.
However, when adjusted for the fact that women take less risky jobs,
that require less qualifications, they make roughly the same amount. Women are also often the hardest-hit by poverty—for example, 70 percent of female-headed households with children under the age of six are in distressed counties, a figure substantially higher than the national average.
Where there is oppression, there is opposition. There are a lot
of fearless and outstanding women in Appalachia who stood out to fight
for their rights. Women in the Appalachia have long earned their
reputation for being strong as well as struggling. Among the many men
within the region, women have participated in the fields, mines, and
labor movements. Many women have given their all and then some for their
families and to stand up for what they believe in. Women have also made
waves through literature, art, and keeping their stories and family
history alive within their culture.
"Women have played a major role in the labor and activist
movements in the coal-bearing regions of Appalachia.", "Other crucial
roles for women have involved education, literature, healthcare and art,
and the promotion of minorities in our region". (Appalachian Voices).
There are many achievements conducted by outstanding women
leadership. Those women devoted their lifelong efforts in improving
their social status and in fighting against poverty in their communities
and their living regions. A woman named Kathy Selvage was a citizen
lobbyist for years and worked in the fight against a proposal for a Wise
County coal-fired plant. She says that Appalachian women are people of
action. Lorelei Scarbro helped establish a community center in
Whitesville, W.V. to encourage outside activity besides the home and
workplace. This reunites them with togetherness and a place to convene
about ideas and local build-up. Vivian Stockman is the face of the stand
against mountaintop removal and has worked endlessly to spread the word
through photos of the detrimental effects it has on the land that
people call home. These women, among countless others have done
everything they can to end the poverty and depression that has plagued
their region for so long.
"A coal miner's daughter from Wise County, Va., Selvage has
always had a great respect for miners, but when a coal company began
blasting off mountaintops in her community, Selvage began working to
bring national exposure to mountaintop removal coal mining".
(Appalachian Voices).
Rural Appalachian has found projects to help women save for their life
especially life after retirement. It is kind of program to help females
who have problems in raising their children and retirement save money.
Some women have saved surprisingly a little for their retirement and
they are facing the risk of running out of their money. Appalachian
Savings Project was established to alleviate this risk by recreating
saving plans for those self-employed women workers who do not have those
plans provided by companies. This program is aiming to help the female
workers who have children to care about. Anita Wallace is a mother who
operates a family day care in Athens County, Ohio. She is 40 years old
while her husband is 47 years old and they have three of their own
children to raise. As Wallace is self-employed, she has not provided
with company retirement plans, for example, company 401(k). She often
complaints about that it is expensive to raise children. Since she is
not employed by another company, to have retirement funds is a difficult
thing for her. Appalachian Saving Project made her an offer that "if
she saved 600 dollars in United States saving bonds in a year, it would
match half of that".(Npr)
Wallace thought it was a great idea, because even if she has not enough
money to put in one month, she doesn't need to worry about that. Now
she has an account and save 50 dollars per month in it. This program is
designed to help women with low or relatively low incomes save for their
retired life and to alleviate the retirement crisis for them. Due to
the lagged economic status in Appalachian regions and discriminations,
there are an increasing number of women who are getting jobs without
comprehensive benefits, such as retirement plans. Instead of
consumption, it is an investment to have this saving account. Many
mothers put their children at first place and will not start to save
money for their retirement until their children are independent and do
not need their help any more. However, this program is encouraging them
to save money for their own need instead of their kids'. There are also
some complaints. Most of them complain that they don't have enough time
to attend the financial classes and money is always not enough to spare.
In a word, the road ahead of Appalachian Saving Project will not be
flat. All it wants is that women can realize they can save for
themselves and then save more.
Outside perspectives and stereotypes
Though mainstream Americans assume that Appalachian culture is homogeneous in the region, many distinct locales and sub-regions exist.
Over-generalizations of Appalachianites as impulsive, personalistic,
and individualistic "hillbillies" abound. Many scholars speculate that
these stereotypes have been created by powerful economic and political
forces to justify exploitation of Appalachian peoples.
For example, the same forces that put up barriers to prevent the
development of civic culture promulgate the image of Appalachian peoples
as politically apathetic, without a social consciousness,
and deserving of their disenfranchised state. In spite of the region's
desperate need for aid, weariness of being represented as "helpless,
dumb and poor" often creates an attitude of hostility among
Appalachianites.
Appalachians as a separate status group
It has been suggested that Appalachia constitutes a separate status group under the sociologist Max Weber's definition. The criteria are tradition, endogamy,
an emphasis on intimate interaction and isolation from outsiders,
monopolization of economic opportunities, and ownership of certain
commodities rather than others. Appalachia fulfills at least the first four, if not all five. Furthermore, mainstream Americans tend to see Appalachia as a separate subculture of low status. Based on these facts, it is reasonable to say that Appalachia constitutes a separate status group.
