The social network is distributed across various computer
networks. The social networks are inherently computer networks, linking
people, organization, and knowledge. Social networking services vary in
format and the number of features. They can incorporate a range of new
information and communication tools, operating on desktops and on laptops, on mobile devices such as tablet computers and smartphones. They may feature digital photo/video/sharing and "web logging" diary entries online (blogging). Online community services are sometimes considered
social-network services by programmers and users, though in a broader
sense, a social-network service usually provides an individual-centered
service whereas online community services are group-centered. Defined as
"websites that facilitate the building of a network of contacts in
order to exchange various types of content online," social networking
sites provide a space for interaction to continue beyond in person
interactions. These computer mediated interactions link members of
various networks and may help to both maintain and develop new social
ties.
Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, digital photos and videos, posts, and to inform others about online or real-world activities and events with people in their network. While in-person social networking – such as gathering in a village market to talk about events – has existed since the earliest development of towns, the Web enables people to connect with others who live in different locations, ranging from across a city to across the world. Depending on the social media platform, members may be able to contact any other member. In other cases, members can contact anyone they have a connection to, and subsequently anyone that contact has a connection to, and so on. The success of social networking services can be seen in their dominance in society today, with Facebook having a massive 2.13 billion active monthly users and an average of 1.4 billion daily active users in 2017. LinkedIn, a career-oriented social-networking service, generally requires that a member personally know another member in real life before they contact them online. Some services require members to have a preexisting connection to contact other members.
The main types of social networking services contain category places (such as age or occupation or religion), means to connect with friends (usually with self-description pages), and a recommendation system linked to trust. One can categorize social-network services into four types:
Social networking sites allow users to share ideas, digital photos and videos, posts, and to inform others about online or real-world activities and events with people in their network. While in-person social networking – such as gathering in a village market to talk about events – has existed since the earliest development of towns, the Web enables people to connect with others who live in different locations, ranging from across a city to across the world. Depending on the social media platform, members may be able to contact any other member. In other cases, members can contact anyone they have a connection to, and subsequently anyone that contact has a connection to, and so on. The success of social networking services can be seen in their dominance in society today, with Facebook having a massive 2.13 billion active monthly users and an average of 1.4 billion daily active users in 2017. LinkedIn, a career-oriented social-networking service, generally requires that a member personally know another member in real life before they contact them online. Some services require members to have a preexisting connection to contact other members.
The main types of social networking services contain category places (such as age or occupation or religion), means to connect with friends (usually with self-description pages), and a recommendation system linked to trust. One can categorize social-network services into four types:
- Socializing social network services used primarily for socializing with existing friends (e.g., Facebook)
- Online social networks are decentralized and distributed computer networks where users communicate with each other through internet services.
- Networking social network services used primarily for non-social interpersonal communication (e.g., LinkedIn, a career- and employment-oriented site)
- Social navigation social network services used primarily for helping users to find specific information or resources (e.g., Goodreads for books)
Definition
There is a variety of social networking services available online. However, most incorporate common features:
- Social networking services are Web 2.0, Internet-based applications;
- User-generated content (UGC) is the lifeblood of social networking services;
- Users create service-specific profiles for the site or app that are designed and maintained by the SNS organization;
- Social networking services facilitate the development of online social networks by connecting a user's profile with those of other individuals or groups.
A challenge of definition
The
variety and evolving range of stand-alone and built-in social
networking services in the online space introduces a challenge of
definition.
Furthermore, the idea that these services are defined by their ability
to bring people together and provides too broad a definition. Such a
broad definition would suggest that the telegraph and telephone were social networking services – not the Internet technologies scholars are intending to describe. The terminology is also unclear, with some referring to social networking services as social media.
Attempting definition
A recent attempt
at providing a clear definition reviewed the prominent literature in
the area and identified four commonalities unique to current social
networking services:
- Social networking services are interactive Web 2.0 Internet-based applications;
- User-generated content (UGC), such as user-submitted digital photos, text posts, "tagging", online comments, and diary-style "web logs" (blogs), is the lifeblood of the SNS organism;
- Users create service-specific profiles for the site or app that are designed and maintained by the SNS organization; and(4) social networking services facilitate the development of social networks online by connecting a user's profile with those of other individuals or groups.
Offline and online social networking services
| Characteristic | Offline social network | Online social network |
|---|---|---|
| Degree centrality | While the number of cognitively manageable ties is limited to about 150 (Dunbar 2003), most people report having 14-56 ties at average (Granovetter 1983; van Tilburg 1995; Christakis and Fowler 2009) | Huge number of ties technologically possible, but average number is limited, e.g., Facebook: 395 (Tong et al. 2008), LinkedIn: 149 (Utz 2016), XING: 121 (Buettner 2016c), Twitter: 150-250 (Gonçalves et al. 2011; Hofer and Aubert 2013) |
| Symmetry | Usually symmetric (reciprocal behavior, cf. Buettner (2009)) | Symmetric (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn, XING, cf. Buettner (2016d)) and asymmetric (e.g., Twitter, cf. Buettner and Buettner (2016)) |
| Affect | Positive (92-97 %) and negative (3-8 %) tie relationships (Kane et al. 2014) can be managed using high sophisticated coordination mechanisms such as argumentation and negotiation (Buettner 2006a, 2006b; Landes and Buettner 2012; Buettner 2016a) | Except through blocking (e.g., Twitter) or hiding (e.g., Facebook) limited support to deal with negative tie relationships |
| Strength | 2-8 strong ties and 12-48 weak/latent ties on average (Granovetter 1983; Christakis and Fowler 2009) | 9-37 strong ties and 68-131 weak/latent ties on average (Levin and Cross 2004; De Meo et al. 2014; Utz 2016) |
| Dynamic of change | Low due to manual interaction (Freeman 1977; Miritello et al. 2013) | High because of technological support (Miritello et al. 2013; Kane et al. 2014) |
History
The potential for computer networking to facilitate newly improved
forms of computer-mediated social interaction was suggested early on. Efforts to support social networks via computer-mediated communication were made in many early online services, including Usenet, ARPANET, LISTSERV, and bulletin board services (BBS). Many prototypical features of social networking sites were also present in online services such as America Online, Prodigy, CompuServe, ChatNet, and The WELL.
Early social networking on the World Wide Web began in the form of generalized online communities such as Theglobe.com (1995), Geocities (1994) and Tripod.com
(1995). Many of these early communities focused on bringing people
together to interact with each other through chat rooms and encouraged
users to share personal information and ideas via personal web pages by
providing easy-to-use publishing tools and free or inexpensive web
space. Some communities – such as Classmates.com – took a different approach by simply having people link to each other via email addresses. PlanetAll started in 1996.
In the late 1990s, user profiles became a central feature of social networking sites, allowing users to compile lists of "friends"
and search for other users with similar interests. New social
networking methods were developed by the end of the 1990s, and many
sites began to develop more advanced features for users to find and
manage friends. Open Diary,
a community for online diarists, invented both friends-only content and
the reader comment, two features of social networks important to user
interaction.
This newer generation of social networking sites began to flourish with the emergence of SixDegrees.com in 1997, followed by Open Diary in 1998, Mixi in 1999, Makeoutclub in 2000, Hub Culture and Friendster in 2002 or Canada's first online social network Nexopia in 2003,
and soon became part of the Internet mainstream. However, thanks to the
nation's high Internet penetration rate, the first mass social
networking site was the South Korean service, Cyworld, launched as a blog-based site in 1999 and social networking features added in 2001. It also became one of the first companies to profit from the sale of virtual goods. Friendster was followed by MySpace and LinkedIn a year later, and eventually Bebo. Friendster became very popular in the Pacific Islands. Orkut
became the first popular social networking service in Brazil (although
most of its very first users were from the United States) and quickly
grew in popularity in India (Madhavan, 2007). Attesting to the rapid increase in social networking sites' popularity, by 2005, it was reported that Myspace was getting more page views than Google. Facebook, launched in 2004, became the largest social networking site in the world in early 2009. Facebook was first introduced as a Harvard social networking site, expanding to other universities and eventually, anyone. The term social media was introduced and soon became widespread.
Social impact
Web-based social networking services make it possible to connect
people who share interests and activities across political, economic,
and geographic borders. Through e-mail and instant messaging, online communities are created where a gift economy and reciprocal altruism are encouraged through cooperation. Information is suited to a gift economy, as information is a nonrival good and can be gifted at practically no cost. Scholars have noted that the term "social" cannot account for technological features of the social network platforms alone.
Hence, the level of network sociability should determine by the actual
performances of its users. According to the communication theory of uses
and gratifications, an increasing number of individuals are looking to
the Internet and social media to fulfill cognitive, affective, personal
integrative, social integrative, and tension free needs. With Internet
technology as a supplement to fulfill needs, it is in turn affecting
every day life, including relationships, school, church, entertainment,
and family.
Companies are using social media as a way to learn about potential
employees' personalities and behavior. In numerous situations a
candidate who might otherwise have been hired has been rejected due to
offensive or otherwise unseemly photos or comments posted to social
networks or appearing on a newsfeed.
Facebook
and other social networking tools are increasingly the aim of scholarly
research. Scholars in many fields have begun to investigate the impact
of social networking sites, investigating how such sites may play into
issues of identity, privacy,
social capital, youth culture, and education. Research has also suggested that individuals add offline friends on Facebook to maintain contact and often this blurs the lines between work and home lives.
According to a study in 2015, 63% of the users of Facebook or Twitter
in the USA consider these networks to be their main source of news, with
entertainment news being the most seen. In the times of breaking news,
Twitter users are more likely to stay invested in the story. In some
cases when the news story is more political, users may be more likely to
voice their opinion on a linked Facebook story with a comment or like,
while Twitter users will just follow the sites feed and/ or retweet the
article.
A 2015 study shows that 85% of people aged 18 to 34 use social
networking sites for their purchase decision making. While over 65% of
people aged 55 and over-rely on word of mouth. Several websites are beginning to tap into the power of the social networking model for philanthropy.
Such models provide a means for connecting otherwise fragmented
industries and small organizations without the resources to reach a
broader audience with interested users.
Social networks are providing a different way for individuals to
communicate digitally. These communities of hypertexts allow for the
sharing of information and ideas, an old concept placed in a digital
environment. In 2011, HCL Technologies conducted research that showed
that 50% of British employers had banned the use of social networking
sites/services during office hours.
Research has provided us with mixed results as to whether or not a
person's involvement in social networking can affect their feelings of loneliness.
Studies have indicated that how a person chooses to use social
networking can change their feelings of loneliness in either a negative
or positive way. Some companies with mobile workers have encouraged
their workers to use social networking to feel connected, educators are
using it to keep connected with their students and individuals are
benefiting from social networking to keep connect with already close
relationships that they've developed under circumstances that would
otherwise make it difficult to do so. Each social networking user is able to create a community that centers around a personal identity they choose to create online. In his book Digital Identities: Creating and Communicating the Online Self, Rob Cover argues that social networking's foundation in Web 2.0,
high-speed networking shifts online representation to one which is both
visual and relational to other people, complexifying the identity
process for younger people and creating new forms of anxiety.
In 2016, news reports stated that excessive usage of SNS sites may be
associated with an increase in the rates of depression, to almost triple
the rate for non-SNS users. Experts worldwide have said that 2030 people who use SNS more have higher levels of depression than those who use SNS less.
At least one study went as far as to conclude that the negative effects
of Facebook usage are equal to or greater than the positive effects of
face-to-face interactions.
According to a recent article from Computers in Human Behavior,
Facebook has also been shown to lead to issues of social comparison.
Users are able to select which photos and status updates to post,
allowing them to portray their lives in acclamatory manners. These updates can lead to other users feeling like their lives are inferior by comparison.
Users may feel especially inclined to compare themselves to other users
with whom they share similar characteristics or lifestyles, leading to a
fairer comparison.
Motives for these comparisons can be associated with the goals of
improving oneself by looking at profiles of people who one feels are
superior, especially when their lifestyle is similar and possible.
One can also self-compare to make oneself feel superior to others by
looking at the profiles of users who one believes to be worse off.
However, a study by the Harvard Business Review shows that these goals
often lead to negative consequences, as use of Facebook has been linked
with lower levels of well-being; mental health has been shown to
decrease due to the use of Facebook.Computers in Human Behavior
emphasizes that these feelings of poor mental health have been
suggested to cause people to take time off from their Facebook accounts;
this action is called “Facebook Fatigue” and has been common in recent
years.
Usage of social networking has contributed to a new form of
bullying on social media, the communication model of interpersonal
communications motives explains that a person could be embracing the
motivation of escape in order to feel more powerful when the person's
reality may not reflect the motivation that they are showing when they
are online.
Features
Typical features
According
to Boyd and Ellison's (2007) article, "Why Youth (Heart) Social Network
Sites: The Role of Networked Publics in Teenage Social Life", social
networking sites share a variety of technical features that allow
individuals to: construct a public/semi-public profile, articulate a
list of other users that they share a connection with, and view their
list of connections within the system. The most basic of these are
visible profiles with a list of "friends" who are also users of the
site.
In an article entitled "Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and
Scholarship," Boyd and Ellison adopt Sunden's (2003) description of
profiles as unique pages where one can "type oneself into being".
A profile is generated from answers to questions, such as age,
location, interests, etc. Some sites allow users to upload pictures, add
multimedia content or modify the look and feel of the profile. Others,
e.g., Facebook, allow users to enhance their profile by adding modules
or "Applications".
Many sites allow users to post blog entries, search for others with
similar interests and compile and share lists of contacts. User profiles
often have a section dedicated to comments from friends and other
users. To protect user privacy, social networks typically have controls
that allow users to choose who can view their profile, contact them, add
them to their list of contacts, and so on.
Additional features
There is a trend towards more interoperability between social networks led by technologies such as OpenID and OpenSocial.
In most mobile communities, mobile phone users can now create their own
profiles, make friends, participate in chat rooms, create chat rooms,
hold private conversations, share photos and videos, and share blogs by
using their mobile phone. Some companies provide wireless services that
allow their customers to build their own mobile community and brand it;
one of the most popular wireless services for social networking in North America and Nepal is Facebook Mobile.
Emerging trends
| “ | The things you share are things that make you look good, things which you are happy to tie into your identity. | ” |
| — Hilary Mason, chief data scientist, bitly, VentureBeat, 2012 | ||
While the popularity of social networking consistently rises,
new uses for the technology are frequently being observed. Today's
technologically savvy population requires convenient solutions to their
daily needs. At the forefront of emerging trends in social networking sites is the concept of "real-time web"
and "location-based". Real-time allows users to contribute contents,
which is then broadcast as it is being uploaded—the concept is analogous
to live radio and television broadcasts. Twitter
set the trend for "real-time" services, wherein users can broadcast to
the world what they are doing, or what is on their minds within a
140-character limit. Facebook
followed suit with their "Live Feed" where users' activities are
streamed as soon as it happens. While Twitter focuses on words, Clixtr,
another real-time service, focuses on group photo sharing wherein users
can update their photo streams with photos while at an event. Facebook,
however, remains the largest photo sharing site—Facebook application
and photo aggregator Pixable estimates that Facebook will have 100 billion photos by Summer 2012. In April 2012, the image-based social media network Pinterest had become the third largest social network in the United States.
Companies have begun to merge business technologies and solutions, such as cloud computing,
with social networking concepts. Instead of connecting individuals
based on social interest, companies are developing interactive
communities that connect individuals based on shared business needs or
experiences. Many provide specialized networking tools and applications that can be accessed via their websites, such as LinkedIn. Others companies, such as Monster.com,
have been steadily developing a more "socialized" feel to their career
center sites to harness some of the power of social networking sites.
These more business related sites have their own nomenclature for the
most part but the most common naming conventions are "Vocational
Networking Sites" or "Vocational Media Networks", with the former more
closely tied to individual networking relationships based on social
networking principles.
Foursquare gained popularity as it allowed for users to check into places that they are frequenting at that moment. Gowalla is another such service that functions in much the same way that Foursquare does, leveraging the GPS
in phones to create a location-based user experience. Clixtr, though in
the real-time space, is also a location-based social networking site,
since events created by users are automatically geotagged, and users can
view events occurring nearby through the Clixtr iPhone app. Recently, Yelp
announced its entrance into the location-based social networking space
through check-ins with their mobile app; whether or not this becomes
detrimental to Foursquare or Gowalla is yet to be seen, as it is still
considered a new space in the Internet technology industry.
One popular use for this new technology is social networking
between businesses. Companies have found that social networking sites
such as Facebook and Twitter are great ways to build their brand image.
According to Jody Nimetz, author of Marketing Jive, there are five major uses for businesses and social media: to create brand awareness, as an online reputation management tool, for recruiting, to learn about new technologies and competitors, and as a lead generation tool to intercept potential prospects.
These companies are able to drive traffic to their own online sites
while encouraging their consumers and clients to have discussions on how
to improve or change products or services. As of September 2013, 71% of
online adults use Facebook, 17% use Instagram, 21% use Pinterest, and
22% use LinkedIn.
Niche networks
In
2012, it was reported that in the past few years, the niche social
network has steadily grown in popularity, thanks to better levels of
user interaction and engagement. In 2012, a survey by Reuters and
research firm Ipsos
found that one in three users were getting bored with Facebook and in
2014 the GlobalWebIndex found that this figured had risen to almost 50%.
The niche social network offers a specialized space that's designed to
appeal to a very specific market with a clearly defined set of needs.
Where once the streams of social minutia on networks such as Facebook
and Twitter were the ultimate in online voyeurism, now users are looking
for connections, community and shared experiences. Social networks that
tap directly into specific activities, hobbies, tastes, and lifestyles
are seeing a consistent rise in popularity. Niche social networks such
as Fishbrain for fishing and Strava for cycling. These social platforms offer brands a rich space in which to engage with their target market and build awareness.
Science
One
other use that is being discussed is the use of social networks in the
science communities. Julia Porter Liebeskind et al. have published a
study on how new biotechnology firms are using social networking sites
to share exchanges in scientific knowledge.
They state in their study that by sharing information and knowledge
with one another, they are able to "increase both their learning and
their flexibility in ways that would not be possible within a
self-contained hierarchical organization". Social networking is allowing
scientific groups to expand their knowledge base and share ideas, and
without these new means of communicating their theories might become
"isolated and irrelevant". Researchers use social networks frequently to
maintain and develop professional relationships.
They are interested in consolidating social ties and professional
contact, keeping in touch with friends and colleagues and seeing what
their own contacts are doing. This can be related to their need to keep
updated on the activities and events of their friends and colleagues in
order to establish collaborations on common fields of interest and
knowledge sharing.
Social networks are used also to communicate scientists research results
and as a public communication tool and to connect people who share the
same professional interests, their benefits can vary according to the
discipline.
The most interesting aspects of social networks for professional
purposes are their potentialities in terms of dissemination of
information and the ability to reach and multiple professional contacts
exponentially. Social networks like Academia.edu, LinkedIn, Facebook, and ResearchGate
give the possibility to join professional groups and pages, to share
papers and results, publicize events, to discuss issues and create
debates. Academia.edu is extensively used by researchers, where they follow a combination of social networking and scholarly norms. ResearchGate is also widely used by researchers, especially to disseminate and discuss their publications, where it seems to attract an audience that it wider than just other scientists. The usage of Research Gate and Academia in different academic communities has increasingly been studied in recent years.
Education
The European Southern Observatory uses social networks to engage people in astronomical observations.
The advent of social networking platforms may also be impacting the
way(s) in which learners engage with technology in general. For a number
of years, Prensky's (2001) dichotomy between Digital Natives
and Digital Immigrants has been considered a relatively accurate
representation of the ease with which people of a certain age range—in
particular those born before and after 1980—use technology. Prensky's
theory has been largely disproved, however, and not least on account of
the burgeoning popularity of social networking sites and other metaphors
such as White and Le Cornu's "Visitors" and "Residents" (2011) are
greater currency. The use of online social networks by school libraries
is also increasingly prevalent and they are being used to communicate
with potential library users, as well as extending the services provided
by individual school libraries. Social networks and their educational
uses are of interest to many researchers. According to Livingstone and
Brake (2010), "Social networking sites, like much else on the Internet, represent a moving target for researchers and policymakers."
Pew Research Center project, called Pew Internet, did a USA-wide survey
in 2009 and in 2010 February published that 47% of American adults use a
social networking website. Same survey found that 73% of online teenagers use SNS, which is an increase from 65% in 2008, 55% in 2006.
Recent studies have shown that social network services provide
opportunities within professional education, curriculum education, and
learning. However, there are constraints in this area. Researches,
especially in Africa, have disclosed that the use of social networks
among students has been known to negatively affect their academic life.
This is buttressed by the fact that their use constitutes distractions,
as well as that the students tend to invest a good deal of time in the
use of such technologies.
Albayrak and Yildirim (2015) examined the educational use of
social networking sites. They investigated students' involvement in
Facebook as a Course Management System (CMS) and the findings of their
study support that Facebook as a CMS has the potential to increase
student involvement in discussions and out-of-class communication among
instructors and students.
Professional use
Professional
use of social networking services refers to the employment of a network
site to connect with other professionals within a given field of
interest. SNSs like LinkedIn,
a social networking website geared towards companies and industry
professionals looking to make new business contacts or keep in touch
with previous co-workers, affiliates, and clients. Not only does
LinkedIn provide a professional social use, but it also encourages
people to inject their personality into their profile–making it more
personal than a resume. Other network sites are now being used in this manner, Twitter has become [a] mainstay for professional development as well as promotion
and online SNSs support both the maintenance of existing social ties
and the formation of new connections. Much of the early research on
online communities assume that individuals using these systems would be
connecting with others outside their preexisting social group or
location, liberating them to form communities around shared interests,
as opposed to shared geography. Other researchers have suggested that the professional use of network sites produce "social capital".
For individuals, social capital allows a person to draw on resources
from other members of the networks to which he or she belongs.
These resources can take the form of useful information, personal
relationships, or the capacity to organize groups. As well, networks
within these services also can be established or built by joining
special interest groups that others have made, or creating one and
asking others to join.
Curriculum use
According
to Doering, Beach, and O'Brien, a future English curriculum needs to
recognize a major shift in how adolescents are communicating with each
other.
Curriculum uses of social networking services also can include sharing
curriculum-related resources. Educators tap into user-generated content
to find and discuss curriculum-related content for students. Responding
to the popularity of social networking services among many students,
teachers are increasingly using social networks to supplement teaching
and learning in traditional classroom environments as they can provide
new opportunities for enriching existing curriculum through creative,
authentic and flexible, non-linear learning experiences. Some social networks, such as English, baby! and LiveMocha, are explicitly education-focused and couple instructional content with an educational peer environment. The new Web 2.0
technologies built into most social networking services promote
conferencing, interaction, creation, research on a global scale,
enabling educators to share, remix, and repurpose curriculum resources.
In short, social networking services can become research networks as
well as learning networks.
Learning use
Educators and advocates of new digital literacies
are confident that social networking encourages the development of
transferable, technical, and social skills of value in formal and
informal learning. In a formal learning environment, goals or objectives are determined by an outside department or agency. Tweeting, instant messaging, or blogging
enhances student involvement. Students who would not normally
participate in class are more apt to partake through social network
services. Networking allows participants the opportunity for
just-in-time learning and higher levels of engagement.
The use of SNSs allow educators to enhance the prescribed curriculum.
When learning experiences are infused into a website student utilize
everyday for fun, students realize that learning can and should be a
part of everyday life. It does not have to be separate and unattached.
Informal learning consists of the learner setting the goals and
objectives. It has been claimed that media no longer just influence
human culture; they are human culture.
With such a high number of users between the ages of 13–18, a number of
skills are developed. Participants hone technical skills in choosing to
navigate through social networking services. This includes elementary
items such as sending an instant message or updating a status. The
development of new media skills are paramount in helping youth navigate
the digital world with confidence.
Social networking services foster learning through what Jenkins (2006) describes as a "participatory culture".
A participatory culture consists of a space that allows engagement,
sharing, mentoring, and an opportunity for social interaction.
Participants of social network services avail of this opportunity.
Informal learning, in the forms of participatory and social learning
online, is an excellent tool for teachers to sneak in material and ideas
that students will identify with and therefore, in a secondary manner,
students will learn skills that would normally be taught in a formal
setting in the more interesting and engaging environment of social
learning. Sites like Twitter provide students with the opportunity to converse and collaborate with others in real time.
Social networking services provide a virtual "space" for learners. James Gee (2004) suggests that affinity spaces instantiate participation, collaboration, distribution, dispersion of expertise, and relatedness. Registered users share and search for knowledge which contributes to informal learning.
Constraints
In
the past, social networking services were viewed as a distraction and
offered no educational benefit. Blocking these social networks was a
form of protection for students against wasting time, bullying, and
invasions of privacy. In an educational setting, Facebook, for example,
is seen by many instructors and educators as a frivolous, time-wasting
distraction from schoolwork, and it is not uncommon to be banned in
junior high or high school computer labs. Cyberbullying
has become an issue of concern with social networking services.
According to the UK Children Go Online survey of 9- to 19-year-olds, it
was found that a third have received bullying comments online.
To avoid this problem, many school districts/boards have blocked access
to social networking services such as Facebook, MySpace, and Twitter
within the school environment. Social networking services often include a
lot of personal information posted publicly, and many believe that
sharing personal information is a window into privacy theft. Schools
have taken action to protect students from this. It is believed that
this outpouring of identifiable information and the easy communication
vehicle that social networking services open the door to sexual
predators, cyberbullying, and cyberstalking.
In contrast, however, 70% of social media using teens and 85% of adults
believe that people are mostly kind to one another on social network
sites.
Recent research suggests that there has been a shift in blocking the use
of social networking services. In many cases, the opposite is occurring
as the potential of online networking services is being realized. It
has been suggested that if schools block them [social networking
services], they are preventing students from learning the skills they
need. Banning social networking [...] is not only inappropriate but also
borderline irresponsible when it comes to providing the best educational
experiences for students. Schools and school districts have the option of educating safe media usage as well as incorporating digital media into the classroom experience, thus preparing students for the literacy they will encounter in the future.
Positive correlates
A
cyberpsychology research study conducted by Australian researchers
demonstrated that a number of positive psychological outcomes are
related to Facebook use.
These researchers established that people can derive a sense of social
connectedness and belongingness in the online environment. Importantly,
this online social connectedness was associated with lower levels of
depression and anxiety, and greater levels of subjective well-being.
These findings suggest that the nature of online social networking
determines the outcomes of online social network use.
Grassroots organizing
Social
networks are being used by activists as a means of low-cost grassroots
organizing. Extensive use of an array of social networking sites enabled
organizers of 2009 National Equality March
to mobilize an estimated 200,000 participants to march on Washington
with a cost savings of up to 85% per participant over previous methods.
The August 2011 England riots were similarly considered to have escalated and been fuelled by this type of grassroots organization.
Employment
A
rise in social network use is being driven by college students using
the services to network with professionals for internship and job
opportunities. Many studies have been done on the effectiveness of
networking online in a college setting, and one notable one is by Phipps
Arabie and Yoram Wind published in Advances in Social Network Analysis.
Many schools have implemented online alumni directories which serve as
makeshift social networks that current and former students can turn to
for career advice. However, these alumni directories tend to suffer from
an oversupply of advice-seekers and an undersupply of advice providers.
One new social networking service, Ask-a-peer, aims to solve this
problem by enabling advice seekers to offer modest compensation to
advisers for their time. LinkedIn is also another great resource. It
helps alumni, students and unemployed individuals look for work. They
are also able to connect with others professionally and network with
companies.
In addition, employers have been found to use social network sites to screen job candidates.
Hosting service
A social network hosting service
is a web hosting service that specifically hosts the user creation of
web-based social networking services, alongside related applications.
Trading networks
A social trade network is a service that allows traders of financial derivatives
such as contracts for difference or foreign exchange contracts to share
their trading activity via trading profiles online. Their services are
created by financial brokers.
Business model
Few
social networks charge money for membership. In part, this may be
because social networking is a relatively new service, and the value of
using them has not been firmly established in customers' minds.
Companies such as Myspace and Facebook sell online advertising
on their site. Their business model is based upon large membership
count, and charging for membership would be counterproductive.
Some believe that the deeper information that the sites have on each
user will allow much better targeted advertising than any other site can
currently provide.
In recent times, Apple has been critical of the Google and Facebook
model, in which users are defined as product and a commodity, and their
data being sold for marketing revenue.
Social networks operate under an autonomous business model, in which a
social network's members serve dual roles as both the suppliers and the
consumers of content. This is in contrast to a traditional business
model, where the suppliers and consumers are distinct agents. Revenue is
typically gained in the autonomous business model via advertisements,
but subscription-based revenue is possible when membership and content
levels are sufficiently high.
Social interaction
People
use social networking sites for meeting new friends, finding old
friends, or locating people who have the same problems or interests they
have, called niche networking. More and more relationships and
friendships are being formed online and then carried to an offline
setting. Psychologist and University of Hamburg professor Erich H. Witte
says that relationships which start online are much more likely to
succeed. In this regard, there are studies which predict tie strength
among the friends
on social networking websites. Witte has said that in less than 10
years, online dating will be the predominant way for people to start a
relationship.
One online dating site claims that 2% of all marriages begin at its
site, the equivalent of 236 marriages a day. Other sites claim one in
five relationships begin online.
Users do not necessarily share with others the content which is of most
interest to them, but rather that which projects a good impression of
themselves.
While everyone agrees that social networking has had a significant
impact on social interaction, there remains a substantial disagreement
as to whether the nature of this impact is completely positive. A number
of scholars have done research on the negative effects of Internet
communication as well. These researchers have contended that this form
of communication is an impoverished version of conventional face-to-face
social interactions, and therefore produce negative outcomes such as
loneliness and depression for users who rely on social networking
entirely. By engaging solely in online communication, interactions
between communities, families, and other social groups are weakened.
Issues
Spamming
Spamming on online social networks
is quite prevalent. A primary motivation to spam arises from the fact
that a user advertising a brand would like others to see them and they
typically publicize their brand over the social network. Detecting such
spamming activity has been well studied by developing a semi-automated
model to detect spams. For instance, text mining techniques are leveraged
to detect regular activity of spamming which reduces the viewership and
brings down the reputation (or credibility) of a public pages maintained over Facebook. In some online social networks like Twitter, users have evolved mechanisms to report spammers which has been studied and analyzed.
Privacy
Privacy concerns with social networking services have been raised growing concerns among users on the dangers of giving out too much personal information and the threat of sexual predators. Users of these services also need to be aware of data theft or viruses. However, large services, such as Myspace and Netlog, often work with law enforcement to try to prevent such incidents.
In addition, there is a perceived privacy threat in relation to placing
too much personal information in the hands of large corporations or
governmental bodies, allowing a profile to be produced on an
individual's behavior on which decisions, detrimental to an individual,
may be taken. Furthermore, there is an issue over the control of data
and information that was altered or removed by the user may, in fact, be
retained and passed to third parties. This danger was highlighted when
the controversial social networking site Quechup harvested e-mail addresses from users' e-mail accounts for use in a spamming operation.
In medical and scientific research, asking subjects for information about their behaviors is normally strictly scrutinized by institutional review boards, for example, to ensure that adolescents and their parents have informed consent.
It is not clear whether the same rules apply to researchers who collect
data from social networking sites. These sites often contain a great
deal of data that is hard to obtain via traditional means. Even though
the data are public, republishing it in a research paper might be
considered invasion of privacy.
Privacy on social networking sites can be undermined by many
factors. For example, users may disclose personal information, sites may
not take adequate steps to protect user privacy, and third parties
frequently use information posted on social networks for a variety of
purposes. "For the Net generation, social networking sites have become
the preferred forum for social interactions, from posturing and role
playing to simply sounding off. However, because such forums are
relatively easy to access, posted content can be reviewed by anyone with
an interest in the users' personal information". The UK government has plans to monitor traffic on social networks.
As well, schemes similar to e-mail jamming have been proposed for
networks such as Twitter and Facebook. These would involve "friending"
and "following" large numbers of random people to thwart attempts at
network analysis. Privacy concerns have been found to differ between
users according to gender and personality. Women are less likely to
publish information that reveals methods of contacting them. Personality
measures openness, extraversion, and conscientiousness were found to positively affect the willingness to disclose data, while neuroticism decreases the willingness to disclose personal information.
Another debate lies in the design of algorithmic systems to target specific audiences on social networking sites. With multiple formats for marketing, Facebook
offers a variety of direct marketing options for advertisers to reach
their intended audience. For example, these ads may appear as suggested
ad posts on the home News Feed
or on the right side of the feed as a banner. Businesses may create a
page to outline their company and post related information, promotions
and contact information to it, directly reaching their interested
audience. Users who "like" a business page will be subscribed to receive
these business' updates on their home News Feed. Banner ads and
suggested posts are paid for by marketers and advertisers to reach their
intended audience.
Like other methods of marketing, emotional connections are critical to
reaching the user. From the fourth quarter of 2012 to the fourth quarter
of 2013, Facebook increased its advertising click-through rate by 365%, having 2.5 million promoted suggested posts on user's news feeds.
This surge of posts resulted in an influx of information that was
difficult to organize. A study of the emotional responses to advertising
on Facebook found that Business Pages found the highest appeal to users
because they were only recommended when liked by the user or the user's
friends. “Liked” pages have higher credibility to users. However, a
change in algorithm announced on April 10, 2014, said that Business
Pages were receiving a reduced reach after engaging in “click bait”
tactics (fooling users to click links to things other than what
discretely said on Facebook). The quantity of engagement on Facebook
posts are measured, relaying important information about the user
audience and their actions online.
The debate questions to what extent the design of these systems
is compromising the needs, privacy and information of the users. More
research is needed to evaluate if allowing advertising to access user
information to specifically tailor content to their choices and
interactions, for example by placing ads within their personal feeds and
throughout their use of the site, is compromising the user's
information and social wellbeing. John Herrman (2018) compares the
function of algorithms in adjusting content to omniscience and recounts
the unpleasant experiences that coincide as a result. He calls to web
browsing on Amazon, where products he browsed through briefly reappear
on other news feeds, including his Instagram feed. He outlines the
experience as if the networks “[have] got eyes everywhere,” and suggests
that this looming omniscience may alter how we interact online, even
“risk driving away followers in the process.” This may deter users from
engaging in social interactions online and points to how much
advertisers are able to tailor information to their intended audience.
This debate was further ignited in early 2018. On April 10, 2018, Mark
Zuckerberg testified before Congress on questions defining Facebook's
policy, information handling and data design systems. Congress placed
emphasis on addressing Facebook's tracking of user data online,
skeptical that the social networking site can regulate itself.
Data mining
Through data mining,
companies are able to improve their sales and profitability. With this
data, companies create customer profiles that contain customer demographics and online behavior. A recent strategy has been the purchase and production of "network analysis software". This software is able to sort out through the influx of social networking data for any specific company.
Facebook has been especially important to marketing strategists.
Facebook's controversial "Social Ads" program gives companies access to
the millions of profiles in order to tailor their ads to a Facebook
user's own interests and hobbies. However, rather than sell actual user
information, Facebook sells tracked "social actions". That is, they
track the websites a user uses outside of Facebook through a program
called Facebook Beacon.
Notifications
There
has been a trend for social networking sites to send out only
"positive" notifications to users. For example, sites such as Bebo,
Facebook, and MySpace will not send notifications to users when they are
removed from a person's friends list. Likewise, Bebo will send out a
notification if a user is moved to the top of another user's friends
list but no notification is sent if they are moved down the list. This
allows users to purge undesirables from their list extremely easily and
often without confrontation since a user will rarely notice if one
person disappears from their friends list. It also enforces the general
positive atmosphere of the website without drawing attention to
unpleasant happenings such as friends falling out, rejection and failed
relationships.
Access to information
Many social networking services, such as Facebook,
provide the user with a choice of who can view their profile. This is
supposed to prevent unauthorized users from accessing their information.
Parents who want to access their child's MySpace or Facebook account
have become a big problem for teenagers who do not want their profile
seen by their parents. By making their profile private, teens can select
who may see their page, allowing only people added as "friends" to view
their profile and preventing unwanted viewing of the profile by
parents. Most teens are constantly trying to create a structural barrier
between their private life and their parents. To edit information on a certain social networking service account, the social networking sites require you to log in or provide a password.
This is designed to prevent unauthorized users from adding, changing,
or removing personal information, pictures, or other data.
Impact on employability
Social
networking sites have created issues among getting hired for jobs and
losing jobs because of exposing inappropriate content, posting photos of
embarrassing situations or posting comments that contain potentially
offensive comments (e.g., racist, homophobic or defamatory comments), or
even political comments that are contrary to those of the employer.
There are works which recommend friends to social networking users based
on their political opinions.
Many people use social networking sites to express their personal
opinions about current events and news issues to their friends. If a
potential applicant expresses personal opinions on political issues or
makes potentially embarrassing posts online on a publicly available
social networking platform, employers can access their employees' and
applicants' profiles, and judge them based on their social behavior or
political views. According to Silicon Republic's statistics,
17,000 young people in six countries were interviewed in a survey. 1 in
10 people aged 16 to 34 have been rejected for a job because of comments
made on an online profile.
This shows the effects that social networks have had on people's lives.
There have been numerous cases where employees have lost jobs because
their opinions represented their companies negatively. In September
2013, a woman got fired over Facebook because she posted disruptive
information about her company stating that military patrons should not
receive special treatment or discounts. A manager of the company found
her opinion online, disagreed with it, and fired her because it went
against the company's mission statement.
In November 2012, a woman posted a racist remark about the President of
the United States and mentioned a possible assassination. She lost her
job, and was put under investigation by the Secret Service.
Not only have employees lost their jobs in the United States, but
it has happened with social network users internationally. In April
2011, a Lloyd's banking group employee in the United Kingdom was fired
for making a sarcastic post about the higher salary of her boss in
relation to hers.
In February 2013 there was another case where a flight attendant
working for a Russian airline lost her job because she posted a photo of
herself giving the middle finger to a plane full of passengers. The
photo went viral exposing it all over the Internet.
In November 2009, a woman working for IBM in Quebec, Canada, lost her
company's health insurance benefits because she posted photos displaying
her mental health problem. The company decided to cut her benefits
because it was costing them additional funds.
Cases like these have created some privacy implications as to
whether or not companies should have the right to look at employees'
social network profiles. In March 2012, Facebook decided they might take
legal action against employers for gaining access to employee's
profiles through their passwords.
According to Facebook Chief Privacy Officer for policy, Erin Egan, the
company has worked hard to give its users the tools to control who sees
their information. He also said users shouldn't be forced to share
private information and communications just to get a job. According to
the network's Statement of Rights and Responsibilities, sharing or
soliciting a password is a violation to Facebook. Employees may still
give their password information out to get a job, but according to Erin
Egan, Facebook will continue to do their part to protect the privacy and
security of their users.
Potential for misuse
The
relative freedom afforded by social networking services has caused
concern regarding the potential of its misuse by individual patrons. In
October 2006, a fake MySpace profile created in the name of Josh Evans by Lori Janine Drew led to the suicide of Megan Meier.
The event incited global concern regarding the use of social networking
services for bullying purposes. In July 2008, a Briton and a former
friend was ordered to pay a total of GBP £22,000 (about US$44,000) for
libel and breach of privacy. He had posted a fake page on Facebook
purporting to be that of a former school friend Matthew Firsht, with
whom he had fallen out in 2000. The page falsely claimed that Firsht was
homosexual and that he was dishonest.
At the same time, genuine use of social networking services has
been treated with suspicion on the ground of the services' misuse. In
September 2008, the profile of Australian Facebook user Elmo Keep was
banned by the site's administrators on the grounds that it violated the
site's terms of use. Keep is one of several users of Facebook who were
banned from the site on the presumption that their names aren't real, as
they bear resemblance to the names of characters like Sesame Street's Elmo.
Online social networks have also become a platform for spread of rumors, one such study has analyzed rumors in retrospect. One of the approaches to detect rumors (or misinformation) is to compare the spread of topic over social network (say Twitter) with those spread by reliable and authorized news agencies.
Unauthorized access
There are different forms where user data in social networks are accessed and updated without a user's permission. One study highlighted that the most common incidents included inappropriate comments posted on social networking sites (43%), messages sent to contacts that were never authored (25%) and change of personal details (24%). The most incidents
are carried out by the victim's friends (36%) or partners (21%) and one
in ten victims say their ex-partner has logged into their account
without prior consent. The survey found that online social network accounts had been subject to unauthorized access in 60 million cases in 2011.
Risk for child safety
Citizens
and governments have been concerned with the misuse of social
networking services by children and teenagers, in particular in relation
to online
sexual predators. For instance, there is a study which suggests the
children are not too far from inappropriate content on YouTube. Overuse of social networking may also make children more susceptible to depression and anxiety. Governments are taking action to better understand the problem and find some solutions. A 2008 panel concluded that technological fixes such as age verification and scans are relatively ineffective means of apprehending online predators. In May 2010, a child pornography
social networking site with hundreds of members was dismantled by law
enforcement. It was deemed "the largest crimes against children case
brought anywhere by anyone".
Girls in particular are also known to be at more of risk online using
social networks than boys. According to the article, High Tech or High
Risks: Moral Panics About Girls Online, it suggests that young girls are
more at risks because they are often represented through "products of
play" in transgressive poses because they often manipulate other users
online by making themselves look older than what they actually appear
which can attract sexual predators. Many parents of teenage girls worry
about their safety online because of the many manipulations there are
online and on social networking sites.
Social networking can also be a risk to child safety in another
way; parents can get addicted to games and neglect their children. One
instance in South Korea resulted in the death of a child from
starvation.
Law enforcement agencies have published articles with their
recommendations to parents about their children's use of social
networking sites.
Trolling
Social networking sites such as Facebook are occasionally used to emotionally abuse, harass or bully
individuals, either by posting defamatory statements or by forwarding
private digital photos or videos that can have an adverse impact on the
individuals depicted in the videos. Such actions are often referred to
as "trolling". Confrontations in the real world can also be transferred to the online world.
Trolling can occur in many different forms, such as (but not limited
to) defacement of deceased person(s) tribute pages, name-calling,
playing online pranks on individuals and making controversial or inflammatory comments with the intention to cause anger and cause arguments. Individuals troll for many reasons. The psychology behind why people troll according to Psychology Today
is due to anonymity, perceived obscurity, and a perceived lack of
consequences for online misbehavior. Trolls may also do their activities
due to a perceived majority status, social identity salience and due to
a sense by the troll that she or he is surrounded by online 'friends'.
Trolls may also engage in harmful acts due to desensitization or
negative personality traits (Fox, 2014).
As these eight reasons behind the thought processes of trolls suggest
individuals thrive behind being able to create a false identity or
pseudonym to hide behind and the premise that they have 'friends' on
social networks that agree with their outlook on certain topics, thus
join in on trolling. The reason for the perceived lack of consequences
is that they believe they have created an identity in which they can not
be seen as a real life human and more of a persona/avatar that they have created, which leads them to feel that they will not face the consequences of being an online troll.
Trolling is a prominent issue in the 2010s, and as the Internet
and social media is consistently expanding and more individuals sign up
to social networking sites, more people come under fire and become the
target of trolls. As more people sign up to social networking sites,
more celebrities are also becoming more prominent on these sites. With a
variety of celebrities joining social networking sites, trolls tend to
target abuse towards them. With some famous people gaining an influx of
negative comments and slew of abuse from trolls it causes them to 'quit'
social media. One prime example of a celebrity quitting social media is
Stephen Fry.
He left Twitter due to "too much aggression and unkindness around"
emphasizing how trolls can negatively impact people's lives (Cohen,
2014).
As celebrities face trolls and backlash on social media forcing them to
quit, it can mean that they become less in touch with their fans,
potentially losing a fan base, as they are not as relevant as people
enjoy interacting with celebrities and makes them feel as though they
are valued. As trolling can lead to celebrities deleting their social
networks such as Twitter, it emphasizes how trolls can win, and can ruin
people's lives.
While trolls believe that they do not face consequences and can
troll others on the Internet without repercussions, in the 2000s, due to
high-profile cases where cyberbullies have allegedly been factors in suicides attributed to bullying,
more laws have been put in place by governments. Trolls can face going
to prison for certain actions that they take on the Internet, such as
spreading hate speech
such as racist messages. One of the highest profile cases is racist
trolling. Racist trolling has seen individuals been sent to prison for
Tweets they have sent that to them may have seemed harmless and not
racist. One case of this in recent years is Liam Stacey who was jailed
for fifty-six days for tweeting offensive messages such as 'Muamba is
dead, hahahaha', referring to when footballer Fabrice Muamba collapsed during a professional football game for Bolton Wanders (Williams, 2012).
This highlights how offensive tweets and messages sent on any social
networking platform does have repercussions for individuals and they
have to be aware that they have to face the consequences of their
actions.
Online bullying
Online bullying, also called cyberbullying,
is a relatively common occurrence and it can often result in emotional
trauma for the victim. Depending on the networking outlet, up to 39% of
users admit to being "cyber-bullied". In her article, "Why Youth (Heart) Social Network Sites", danah boyd,
published in December 2007, a researcher of social networks, quotes a
teenager. The teenager expresses frustration towards networking sites
like MySpace because it causes drama and too much emotional stress.
There are not many limitations as to what individuals can post when
online. Individuals are given the power to post offensive remarks or
pictures that could potentially cause a great amount of emotional pain
for another individual.
Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal
communication has been a growing issue as more and more people have
turned to social networking as a means of communication. "Benniger
(1987) describes how mass media has gradually replaced interpersonal
communication as a socializing force. Further, social networking sites
have become popular sites for youth culture to explore themselves,
relationships, and share cultural artifacts".
Many teens and social networking users may be harming their
interpersonal communication by using sites such as Facebook and MySpace.
Stated by Baroness Greenfield, an Oxford University
neuroscientist, "My fear is that these technologies are infantilizing
the brain into the state of small children who are attracted by buzzing
noises and bright lights, who have a small attention span and who live for the moment".
The convenience that social network sites give users to
communicate with one another can also damage their interpersonal
communication. Sherry Turkle, the founder and director of the MIT
Initiative on Technology and Self, stated, "Networked, we are together,
but so lessened are our expectations of each other that we feel utterly
alone. And there is the risk that we come to see others as objects to be
accessed--and only for the parts we find useful, comforting, or
amusing".
Furthermore, social network sites can create insincere friendships,
Turkle also noted, "They nurture friendships on social-networking sites
and then wonder if they are among friends. They become confused about
companionship".
Psychological effects of social networking
As
social networking sites have risen in popularity over the past years,
people have been spending an excessive amount of time on the Internet in
general and social networking sites in specific. This has led
researchers to debate the establishment of Internet addiction as an
actual clinical disorder.
Social networking can also affect the extent to which a person feels lonely. In a Newsweek
article, Johannah Cornblatt explains "Social-networking sites like
Facebook and MySpace may provide people with a false sense of connection
that ultimately increases loneliness in people who feel alone." John T.
Cacioppo, a neuroscientist at the University of Chicago, claims that
social networking can foster feelings of sensitivity to disconnection,
which can lead to loneliness.
Fabio Sabatini and Francesco Sarracino found that if an individual
tends to (a) trust people and (b) have a significant number of
face-to-face interactions, the individual is likely to assess their own
well-being as relatively high. The researchers found that online social
networking plays a positive role in subjective well-being when the
networking is used to facilitate physical interactions, but networking
activities that do not facilitate face-to-face interactions tend to
erode trust, and this erosion can then negatively affect subjective
well-being (independent of the online social interaction itself).
Sabatini and Sarracino conclude that "The overall effect of networking
on individual welfare is significantly negative." However, some scholars have expressed that concerns about social networking are often exaggerated and poorly researched.
Patents
Number of US social network patent applications published per year and patents issued per year
There has been rapid growth in the number of U.S. patent applications
that cover new technologies related to social networking. The number of
published applications has been growing rapidly since 2003. There are
now
over 3,500 published applications. As many as 7,000 applications may be
currently on file including those that haven't been published yet. Only about 400 of these applications have issued as patents, however, due largely to the multi-year backlog in examination of business method patents and the difficulty in getting these patent applications allowed.
It has been reported that social networking patents are important for the establishment of new start-up companies. It has also been reported, however, that social networking patents inhibit innovation. On June 15, 2010, the United States Patent and Trademark Office awarded Amazon.com a patent for a "Social Networking System" based on its ownership of PlanetAll. The patent describes a Social Networking System as
A networked computer system provides various services for assisting users in locating, and establishing contact relationships with, other users. For example, in one embodiment, users can identify other users based on their affiliations with particular schools or other organizations. The system also provides a mechanism for a user to selectively establish contact relationships or connections with other users, and to grant permissions for such other users to view personal information of the user. The system may also include features for enabling users to identify contacts of their respective contacts. In addition, the system may automatically notify users of personal information updates made by their respective contacts.
The patent has garnered attention due to its similarity to the popular social networking site Facebook.
Worker's rights
What
types of speech workers are protected from being fired for on social
networking websites has been an issue for American companies with over
100 complaints as of 2011 on this topic having been made to the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). The National Labor Relations Act
protects workers from being fired for "protected concerted activity",
which prevents workers from being fired for collective action, while
allowing companies the right to fire workers for individual actions they
take against the company.
Companies are concerned with the potential damage comments online can
do to public image due to their visibility and accessibility, but
despite over 100 cases being presented thus far to NLRB only one has led
to a formal ruling, leaving uncertainty as to the boundaries of what
types of speech the NLRB will ultimately protect or condemn.
Decentralized architecture
Most
of the existing SNS sites use one or multiple dedicated data centers to
serve all its users. Such infrastructure-based systems faces
over-provisioning during non-peak hours, while may encounter service
outage during peak hours, due to the highly dynamic of SNS users'
activities. There are several proposals, leveraging a decentralized
architecture to ensure the scalability of SNS sites with low
infrastructure cost. These proposals include Fethr, uaOSN, and Cuckoo.
Virtual identity suicide
There
is a growing number of social network users who decide to quit their
user account by committing a so-called virtual identity suicide or Web 2.0 suicide. A 2013 study in the journal Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking
investigated this phenomenon from the perspective of Facebook users.
The number one reason for these users was privacy concerns (48%), being
followed by a general dissatisfaction with the social networking website
(14%), negative aspects regarding social network friends (13%) and the
feeling of getting addicted to the social networking website (6%).
Facebook quitters were found to be more concerned about privacy, more
addicted to the Internet and more conscientious.
Breaking up
Sites such as Facebook
are becoming increasingly popular tools for methods of ending
relationships and friendships, proving that although new media is being
used as a tool for connecting with individuals, it is now creating new
problems associated with disconnecting from others.
Instead of the traditional phone call or face-to-face interaction
between individuals, people are now starting to end relationships by
simply changing their relationship status, knowing full well that their
partner will soon see it. The problem with that is that you are left
with no closure and the entire online world now knows you are no longer
in a relationship.
In a 2010 study conducted online, nearly one-quarter of the 1,000
individuals surveyed found out that their own relationship was over by
seeing it on Facebook.
New media websites have made our private lives much more public,
especially when it comes to breaking up, since updates are able to be
immediately viewed by everyone in our networks (which tend to be more
people than we would normally tell personally); for example, having
friends comment on your newly changed "single" relationship status, and
having to explain what happened can be distressing.
This creates further problems, as it is even more crucial to
'save face' after one's relationship has been broken when one is
connected to new media technologies. Erving Goffman
argues that all social life boils down to face-to-face interactions.
These interpersonal interactions are mediated by what Goffman terms as
"face-work", which are the actions undertaken to maintain consistency
with one's face and to uphold the expressive order of social situations.
Individuals attempt to keep a positive image of the self when
interacting with others, and in order to do so, they may have to alter
their appearance or manner in some way.
Such face-work can also be seen in new technologies, especially social
media websites such as Facebook. If someone breaks up with you, you can
actively choose what "face" you want to present to your friends,
including your ex. You can choose to either post sad updates, which is
the most natural thing you would want to do, or you can "save face" by
posting happy updates and pictures of you going out with your friends.
Even though you may be absolutely heartbroken within, Facebook allows
you to hide your true feelings from the online world, and from your ex,
by manipulating your profile. New media is being utilized as a tool for
helping users present a desirable image of themselves, enabling them to
save face in difficult situations. Nearly 35% of respondents in a study
admitted to using their Facebook status to make someone think that they
had plans, even if they did not.
Many people find that the only way to really move on from a past
relationship is to cut the person out of their life completely. Social
media has made this process much more complicated and difficult. In a
2012 study, 48% of the participants stated they had remained friends
with their ex on Facebook, and of these people, 88% stated they
'creeped' their ex after the breakup. Many digital social networking
sites leave behind a trail of a user's interactions,
so deleting content may be an arduous process, more difficult than
simply burning or throwing away an entire box of letters, photos, and
mementos. Additionally, this content can still remain online.
Social overload
The
increasing number of messages and social relationships embedded in SNS
also increases the amount of social information demanding a reaction
from SNS users. Consequently, SNS users perceive they are giving too
much social support to other SNS friends. This dark side of SNS usage is
called 'social overload'.
It is caused by the extent of usage, number of friends, subjective
social support norms, and type of relationship (online-only vs offline
friends) while age has only an indirect effect. The psychological and
behavioral consequences of social overload include perceptions of SNS
exhaustion, low user satisfaction, and high intentions to reduce or stop
using SNS.
Social anxiety
Smartphones
and social networking services enable us to stay connected continuously
with people around us or far away from us, which however is sometimes
the root of our anxiety in social life. The eager to know what everyone
was saying and the tendency to see if anyone shared new things are
typical "symptoms" of this anxiety called FoMO.
There is a study that examined possible connections between FOMO and
social media engagement indicating that FoMO was associated with lower
need satisfaction, mood and life satisfaction.
Another type of social anxiety is the FoBM (fear of being missed).
It comes from the situation that we can't produce share-content for
people to consume. The FoBM is a counterpart of FoMO; however, compared
to FoMO it may have a more serious impact since the exclusion from the
conversation can result in continuous exclusion later.
Effects on personal relationships and social capital
The number of contacts on a social platform is sometimes considered an indicator of social capital. However, studies
show it is rather an indicator of low self-esteem and of a form of
social compensation. Indeed, people tend to add friends to compensate
low self-esteem and there is a high correlation between the number of
"friends" on social media platforms and feeling social anxiety, leading
to symptoms of major depression and dysthymia. If we consider this
aspect with regards to the relationships maintained through social media
platforms, we can easily point out a change in our understanding of
friendship. As a matter of fact, online platforms and social media
services altered the old definition of friendship. Indeed, friendship
"redoubleth joys, and cutteth griefs in halves" as stated by Francis
Bacon. However, nowadays we see that Facebook friends, for instance, encourage negative feelings, such as envy, revenge and sadness.
When it comes to friendship, we can wonder whether friendship on
online platforms is a real form of friendship, or it is just a sort of
metaphor to compensate for social communication problems. Actually, a
lot of changes can be spotted in its old definition compared to the one
in the era of social media. Friendship used to relate to the public
sphere as explained in Nicomachean Ethics, however nowadays friendship is rather exposed publicly on different social media platforms.
Moreover, a study
shows that Facebook users know only a bit more than two thirds of their
"friends" on the platform, meaning that they did not know one-third of
the individuals in their friend-lists. This raises security and privacy
issues and the project researchers alerted participants that they would
better unfriend people they did not recognize.
Investigations
Social networking services are increasingly being used in legal and criminal investigations. Information posted on sites such as MySpace and Facebook has been used by police (forensic profiling),
probation, and university officials to prosecute users of said sites.
In some situations, content posted on MySpace has been used in court.
Facebook is increasingly being used by school administrations and
law enforcement agencies as a source of evidence against student users.
This site being the number one online destination for college students,
allows users to create profile pages with personal details. These pages
can be viewed by other registered users from the same school, which
often include resident assistants and campus police who have signed up
for the service. One UK
police force has sifted pictures from Facebook and arrested some people
who had been photographed in a public place holding a weapon such as a
knife (having a weapon in a public place is illegal).
Application domains
Government applications
Banner in Bangkok, observed on June 30, 2014 during the 2014 Thai coup d'état, informing the Thai public that 'like' or 'share' activity on social media could land them in prison.
Social networking is more recently being used by various government
agencies. Social networking tools serve as a quick and easy way for the
government to get the suggestion of the public and to keep the public
updated on their activity, however this comes with a significant risk of
abuse, for example, to cultivate a culture of fear such as that outlined in Nineteen Eighty-Four or THX-1138.
The Centers for Disease Control demonstrated the importance of vaccinations on the popular children's site Whyville and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has a virtual island on Second Life where people can explore caves or explore the effects of global warming. Likewise, NASA has taken advantage of a few social networking tools, including Twitter and Flickr. The NSA is taking advantage of them all. NASA is using such tools to aid the Review of U.S. Human Space Flight Plans Committee, whose goal it is to ensure that the nation is on a vigorous and sustainable path to achieving its boldest aspirations in space.
Business applications
The
use of social networking services in an enterprise context presents the
potential of having a major impact on the world of business and work (Fraser & Dutta 2008). Social networks connect people at low cost; this can be beneficial for entrepreneurs and small businesses
looking to expand their contact bases. These networks often act as a
customer relationship management tool for companies selling products and
services. Companies can also use social networks for advertising in the
form of banners and text ads. Since businesses operate globally, social
networks can make it easier to keep in touch with contacts around the
world. Applications for social networking sites have extended toward
businesses and brands are creating their own, high functioning sites, a
sector known as brand networking.
It is the idea that a brand can build its consumer relationship by
connecting their consumers to the brand image on a platform that
provides them relative content, elements of participation, and a ranking
or score system. Brand networking is a new way to capitalize on social
trends as a marketing tool. The power of social networks is beginning to
permeate into internal culture of businesses where they are finding
uses for collaboration, file sharing and knowledge transfer. The term "enterprise social software" is becoming increasingly popular for these types of applications.
Dating applications
Many social networks provide an online environment for people to
communicate and exchange personal information for dating purposes.
Intentions can vary from looking for a one time date, short-term
relationships, and long-term relationships.
Most of these social networks, just like online dating services,
require users to give out certain pieces of information. This usually
includes a user's age, gender, location, interests, and perhaps a
picture. Releasing very personal information is usually discouraged for
safety reasons.
This allows other users to search or be searched by some sort of
criteria, but at the same time, people can maintain a degree of
anonymity similar to most online dating services. Online dating sites
are similar to social networks in the sense that users create profiles
to meet and communicate with others, but their activities on such sites
are for the sole purpose of finding a person of interest to date. Social
networks do not necessarily have to be for dating; many users simply
use it for keeping in touch with friends, and colleagues.
However, an important difference between social networks and
online dating services is the fact that online dating sites usually
require a fee, where social networks are free.
This difference is one of the reasons the online dating industry is
seeing a massive decrease in revenue due to many users opting to use
social networking services instead. Many popular online dating services
such as Match.com, Yahoo Personals, and eHarmony.com are seeing a decrease in users, where social networks like MySpace and Facebook are experiencing an increase in users.
The number of Internet users in the United States that visit online
dating sites has fallen from a peak of 21% in 2003 to 10% in 2006.
Whether it is the cost of the services, the variety of users with
different intentions, or any other reason, it is undeniable that social
networking sites are quickly becoming the new way to find dates online.
Educational applications
The National School Boards Association
reports that almost 60% of students who use social networking talk
about education topics online, and more than 50% talk specifically about
schoolwork. Yet the vast majority of school districts have stringent
rules against nearly all forms of social networking during the school
day—even though students and parents report few problem behaviors
online. Social networks focused on supporting relationships between
teachers and their students are now used for learning, educator
professional development, and content sharing. HASTAC
is a collaborative social network space for new modes of learning and
research in higher education, K-12, and lifelong learning; Ning supports teachers; TermWiki, TeachStreet
and other sites are being built to foster relationships that include
educational blogs, portfolios, formal and ad hoc communities, as well as
communication such as chats, discussion threads, and synchronous
forums. These sites also have content sharing and rating features.
Social networks are also emerging as online yearbooks, both public and private. One such service is MyYearbook,
which allows anyone from the general public to register and connect. A
new trend emerging is private label yearbooks accessible only by
students, parents, and teachers of a particular school, similar to Facebook's beginning within Harvard.
Finance applications
The use of virtual currency systems inside social networks create new opportunities for global finance. Hub Culture operates a virtual currency Ven used for global transactions among members, product sales and financial trades in commodities and carbon credits. In May 2010, carbon pricing
contracts were introduced to the weighted basket of currencies and
commodities that determine the floating exchange value of Ven. The
introduction of carbon to the calculation price of the currency made Ven
the first and only currency that is linked to the environment.
Medical and health applications
Social
networks are beginning to be adopted by healthcare professionals as a
means to manage institutional knowledge, disseminate peer to peer
knowledge and to highlight individual physicians and institutions. The
advantage of using a dedicated medical social networking site is that
all the members are screened against the state licensing board list of
practitioners. A new trend is emerging with social networks created to help its members with various physical and mental ailments. For people suffering from life-altering diseases or chronic health conditions, companies such as HealthUnlocked and PatientsLikeMe
offers their members the chance to connect with others dealing with
similar issues and share experiences. For alcoholics and addicts,
SoberCircle gives people in recovery the ability to communicate with one
another and strengthen their recovery through the encouragement of
others who can relate to their situation. DailyStrength
is also a website that offers support groups for a wide array of topics
and conditions, including the support topics offered by PatientsLikeMe and SoberCircle. Some social networks aim to encourage healthy lifestyles in their users. SparkPeople and HealthUnlocked offer community and social networking tools for peer support during weight loss. Fitocracy and QUENTIQ
are focused on exercise, enabling users to share their own workouts and
comment on those of other users. Other aspects of social network usage
include the analysis of data coming from existing social networks (such
as Twitter) to discover large crowd concentration events (based on
tweets location statistical analysis) and disseminate the information to
e.g. mobility-challenged individuals for e.g. avoiding the specific
areas and optimizing their journey in an urban environment.
Social and political applications
Social networking sites have recently showed a value in social and political movements. In the Egyptian revolution, Facebook and Twitter both played an allegedly pivotal role in keeping people connected to the revolt. Egyptian activists have credited social networking sites with providing a platform for planning protest and sharing news from Tahrir Square
in real time. By presenting a platform for thousands of people to
instantaneously share videos of mainly events featuring brutality,
social networking can be a vital tool in revolutions. On the flip side, social networks enable government authorities to easily identify, and repress, protestors and dissidents.
Another thing that social media helps with in political applications is
getting the younger generations involved in politics and ongoing
political issues.
Perhaps the most significant political application of social media is Barack Obama's election campaign in 2008.
It was the first of its kind, as it successfully incorporated social
media into its campaign winning strategy, evolving the way of political
campaigns forevermore in the ever-changing technological world we find
ourselves in today. His campaign won by engaging everyday people and
empowering volunteers, donors, and advocates, through social networks,
text messaging, email messaging and online videos.
Obama's social media campaign was vast, with his campaign boasting 5
million 'friends' on over 15 social networking sites, with over 3
million friends just on Facebook.
Another significant success of the campaign was online videos, with
nearly 2,000 YouTube videos being put online, receiving over 80 million
views.
In 2007, when Obama first announced his candidacy, there was no
such thing as an iPhone or Twitter. However, a year later, Obama was
sending out voting reminders to thousands of people through Twitter,
showing just how fast social media moves. Obama's campaign was current
and needed to be successful in incorporating social media, as social
media acts best and is most effective in real time.
Building up to the 2012 presidential election, it was interesting
to see how strong the influence of social media would be following the
2008 campaigns, where Obama's winning campaign had been social
media-heavy, whereas McCain's campaign did not really grasp social
media. JFK was the first president who really understood television, and
similarly, Obama is the first president to fully understand the power
of social media.
Obama has recognized social media is about creating relationships and
connections and therefore used social media to the advantage of
presidential election campaigns, in which Obama has dominated his
opponents in terms of social media space.
Other political campaigns have followed on from Obama's
successful social media campaigns, recognizing the power of social media
and incorporating it as a key factor embedded within their political
campaigns, for example, Donald Trump's presidential electoral campaign,
2016. Dan Pfeiffer, Obama's former digital and social media guru,
commented that Donald Trump is "way better at the internet than anyone
else in the GOP which is partly why he is winning".
Research has shown that 66% of social media users actively engage
in political activity online, and like many other behaviors, online
activities translate into offline ones.
With research from the 'MacArthur Research Network on Youth and
Participatory Politics' stating that young people who are politically
active online are double as likely to vote than those who are not
politically active online.
Therefore, political applications of social networking sites are
crucial, particularly to engage with the youth, who perhaps are the
least educated in politics and the most in social networking sites.
Social media is, therefore, a very effective way in which politicians
can connect with a younger audience through their political campaigns.
Crowdsourcing applications
Crowdsourcing social media platform, such as Design Contest, Arcbazar, Tongal, combined group of professional freelancers, such as designers,
and help them communicate with business owners interested in their
suggestion. This process is often used to subdivide tedious work or to
fund-raise startup companies and charities, and can also occur offline.
Open source software
There are a number of projects that aim to develop free and open source software
to use for social networking services. These technologies are often
referred to as social engine or social networking engine software.
Largest social networking services
The
following is a list of the largest social networking services, in order
by number of active users, as of January 2018, as published by Statista:
| Service | Active users (in millions) |
|---|---|
| 2,234 | |
| YouTube | 1,900 |
| 1,500 | |
| Facebook Messenger | 1,300 |
| 1,058 | |
| 1,000 | |
| 803 | |
| QZone | 548 |
| TikTok | 500 |
| Sina Weibo | 431 |
| 335 | |
| 330 | |
| 303 | |
| Baidu Tieba | 300 |
| Skype | 300 |
| Snapchat | 291 |
| Viber | 260 |
| 250 | |
| LINE | 203 |
| Telegram | 200 |
| Talkoon | 110 |
In the media
- In December 2010, Time Magazine named Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg as person of the year.
- Released in 2010, The Social Network is a film dramatizing the origin of Facebook.
