A view of the pyramids at Giza from the plateau to the south of the complex. From left to right, the three largest are: the Pyramid of Menkaure, the Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Pyramid of Khufu. The three smaller pyramids in the foreground are subsidiary structures associated with Menkaure's pyramid.
The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt. As of November 2008, sources cite either 118 or 138 as the number of identified Egyptian pyramids. Most were built as tombs for the country's pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.
The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. The earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser, which was built c. 2630–2610 BC during the Third Dynasty. This pyramid and its surrounding complex were designed by the architect Imhotep, and are generally considered to be the world's oldest monumental structures constructed of dressed masonry.
The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever built. The Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.
Historical development
The Mastabat al-Fir’aun at Saqqara
By the time of the Early Dynastic Period, those with sufficient means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas.
The second historically-documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the pharaoh Djoser.
Imhotep is credited with being the first to conceive the notion of
stacking mastabas on top of each other, creating an edifice composed of a
number of "steps" that decreased in size towards its apex. The result
was the Pyramid of Djoser,
which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which the soul of
the deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens. Such was the
importance of Imhotep's achievement that he was deified by later
Egyptians.
The most prolific pyramid-building phase coincided with the greatest degree of absolutist rule. It was during this time of the Old Kingdom of Egypt that the most famous pyramids, the Giza pyramid complex,
were built. Over time, as authority became less centralized, the
ability and willingness to harness the resources required for construction on a massive scale decreased, and later pyramids were smaller, less well-built and often hastily constructed.
Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid-building occurred in what is present-day Sudan, after much of Egypt came under the rule of the Kingdom of Kush, which was then based at Napata.
While Napatan rule was brief, ending in 661 BC, Egyptian culture made
an indelible impression. The Meroitic period of Kushite history, when
the kingdom was centered on Meroƫ, (approximately in the period between 300 BCE and 300 CE), saw a full-blown pyramid-building revival,
which saw more than two hundred Egyptian-inspired indigenous royal
pyramid-tombs constructed in the vicinity of the kingdom's capital
cities.
Al-Aziz Uthman (1171–1198) tried to destroy the Giza pyramid complex. He gave up after damaging the Pyramid of Menkaure because the task proved too huge.
Pyramid symbolism
Diagram
of the interior structures of the Great Pyramid. The inner line
indicates the pyramid's present profile, the outer line indicates the
original profile.
The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound
from which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a
pyramid is thought to be representative of the descending rays of the
sun, and most pyramids were faced with polished, highly reflective white
limestone, in order to give them a brilliant appearance when viewed
from a distance. Pyramids were often also named in ways that referred to
solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent Pyramid at Dahshur was The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that of Senwosret at el-Lahun was Senwosret is Shining.
While it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments,
there is continued disagreement on the particular theological
principles that might have given rise to them. One suggestion is that
they were designed as a type of "resurrection machine."
The Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to revolve
was the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the narrow shafts
that extend from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the
Great Pyramid points directly towards the center
of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid may have been
designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased pharaoh's
soul directly into the abode of the gods.
All Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which, as the site of the setting sun, was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology.
Number and location of pyramids
In 1842, Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first modern list of pyramids – now known as the Lepsius list of pyramids
– in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been discovered.
As of November 2008, 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified.
The location of Pyramid 29, which Lepsius called the "Headless
Pyramid", was lost for a second time when the structure was buried by
desert sands after Lepsius's survey. It was found again only during an
archaeological dig conducted in 2008.
Many pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by
desert sands. If visible at all, they may appear as little more than
mounds of rubble. As a consequence, archaeologists are continuing to
identify and study previously unknown pyramid structures.
The most recent pyramid to be discovered was that of Sesheshet at Saqqara, mother of the Sixth Dynasty pharaoh Teti, announced on 11 November 2008.
All of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid
of Zawyet el-Amwat (or Zawyet el-Mayitin), are sited on the west bank of
the Nile,
and most are grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most
important of these are listed geographically, from north to south,
below.
Abu Rawash
The largely destroyed Pyramid of Djedefre
Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid (other than the ruins of Lepsius pyramid number one) — the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and successor of Khufu.
Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been completed,
but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it
completed, but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.
Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy
source of stone. Quarrying, which began in Roman times, has left little
apart from about 15 courses of stone superimposed upon the natural
hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small adjacent
satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation.
Giza
.svg)
Map of the Giza pyramid complex
Aerial view of the Giza pyramid complex
Giza is the location of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the "Great Pyramid" and the "Pyramid of Cheops"); the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren); the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of smaller satellite edifices known as "Queen's pyramids"; and the Great Sphinx of Giza.
Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original
polished limestone casing, near its apex. This pyramid appears larger
than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location,
and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction – it is, in
fact, smaller in both height and volume.
The Giza pyramid complex has been a popular tourist destination
since antiquity and was popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great
Pyramid was listed by Antipater of Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Today it is the only one of those wonders still in existence.
Zawyet el-Aryan
This site, halfway between Giza and Abusir, is the location for two
unfinished Old Kingdom pyramids. The northern structure's owner is
believed to be pharaoh Nebka, while the southern structure, known as the Layer Pyramid, may be attributable to the Third Dynasty pharaoh Khaba, a close successor of Sekhemkhet.
If this attribution is correct, Khaba's short reign could explain the
seemingly unfinished state of this step pyramid. Today it stands around
17 m (56 ft) high; had it been completed, it is likely to have exceeded
40 m (130 ft).
Abusir
The Pyramid of Sahure at Abusir, viewed from the pyramid's causeway
There are a total of fourteen pyramids at this site, which served as the main royal necropolis during the Fifth Dynasty.
The quality of construction of the Abusir pyramids is inferior to those
of the Fourth Dynasty – perhaps signaling a decrease in royal power or a
less vibrant economy. They are smaller than their predecessors, and are
built of low-quality local limestone.
The three major pyramids are those of Niuserre, which is also the best preserved, Neferirkare Kakai and Sahure. The site is also home to the incomplete Pyramid of Neferefre.
Most of the major pyramids at Abusir were built using similar
construction techniques, comprising a rubble core surrounded by steps of
mud bricks with a limestone outer casing. The largest of these Fifth
Dynasty pyramids, the Pyramid of Neferirkare Kakai, is believed to have
been built originally as a step pyramid some 70 m (230 ft) high and then
later transformed into a "true" pyramid by having its steps filled in
with loose masonry.
Saqqara
Major pyramids located here include the Pyramid of Djoser – generally identified as the world's oldest substantial monumental structure to be built of dressed stone – the Pyramid of Userkaf, the Pyramid of Teti and the Pyramid of Merikare, dating to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. Also at Saqqara is the Pyramid of Unas,
which retains a pyramid causeway that is one of the best-preserved in
Egypt. Together with the pyramid of Userkaf, this pyramid was the
subject of one of the earliest known restoration attempts, conducted by Khaemweset, a son of Ramesses II. Saqqara is also the location of the incomplete step pyramid of Djoser's successor Sekhemkhet, known as the Buried Pyramid. Archaeologists believe that had this pyramid been completed, it would have been larger than Djoser's.
South of the main pyramid field at Saqqara is a second collection of later, smaller pyramids, including those of Pepi I, Djedkare Isesi, Merenre, Pepi II and Ibi. Most of these are in a poor state of preservation.
The Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Shepseskaf
either did not share an interest in, or have the capacity to undertake
pyramid construction like his predecessors. His tomb, which is also
sited at south Saqqara, was instead built as an unusually large mastaba
and offering temple complex. It is commonly known as the Mastabat al-Fir’aun.
A previously unknown pyramid was discovered at north Saqqara in
late 2008. Believed to be the tomb of Teti's mother, it currently stands
approximately 5 m (16 ft) high, although the original height was closer
to 14 m (46 ft).
Dahshur
This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt
outside Giza and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible
due to its location within a military base and was relatively unknown
outside archaeological circles.
The southern Pyramid of Sneferu, commonly known as the Bent Pyramid,
is believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid intended by its builders
to be a "true" smooth-sided pyramid from the outset; the earlier pyramid
at Meidum had smooth sides in its finished state – but it was conceived
and built as a step pyramid, before having its steps filled in and
concealed beneath a smooth outer casing of dressed stone. As a true
smooth-sided structure, the Bent Pyramid was only a partial success –
albeit a unique, visually imposing one; it is also the only major
Egyptian pyramid to retain a significant proportion of its original
smooth outer limestone casing intact. As such it serves as the best
contemporary example of how the ancient Egyptians intended their
pyramids to look. Several kilometres to the north of the Bent Pyramid is
the last – and most successful – of the three pyramids constructed
during the reign of Sneferu; the Red Pyramid
is the world's first successfully completed smooth-sided pyramid. The
structure is also the third largest pyramid in Egypt – after the
pyramids of Khufu and Khafra at Giza.
Also at Dahshur is one of two pyramids built by Amenemhat III, known as the Black Pyramid, as well as a number of small, mostly ruined subsidiary pyramids.
Mazghuna
Located to the south of Dahshur, several mudbrick pyramids were built in this area in the late Middle Kingdom, perhaps for Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu.
Lisht
The Pyramid of Amenemhet I at Lisht
Two major pyramids are known to have been built at Lisht – those of Amenemhat I and his son, Senusret I.
The latter is surrounded by the ruins of ten smaller subsidiary
pyramids. One of these subsidiary pyramids is known to be that of
Amenemhat's cousin, Khaba II. The site which is in the vicinity of the oasis of the Faiyum, midway between Dahshur and Meidum, and about 100 kilometres south of Cairo, is believed to be in the vicinity of the ancient city of Itjtawy (the precise location of which remains unknown), which served as the capital of Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty.
Meidum
The pyramid at Meidum
The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu, and is believed by some to have been started by that pharaoh's father and predecessor, Huni.
However, that attribution is uncertain, as no record of Huni's name has
been found at the site. It was constructed as a step pyramid, and then
later converted into the first "true" smooth-sided pyramid when the
steps were filled in, and an outer casing added. The pyramid suffered
several catastrophic collapses in ancient and medieval times; medieval
Arab writers described it as having seven steps – although today only
the three uppermost of these remain, giving the structure its odd,
tower-like appearance. The hill on which the pyramid is situated is not a
natural landscape feature – it is the small mountain of debris created
when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid gave way.
Hawara
The Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Hawara
Amenemhat III
was the last powerful ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty, and the pyramid he
built at Hawara, near the Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called
"Black Pyramid" built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawara
pyramid that is believed to have been Amenemhet's final resting place.
el-Lahun
The Pyramid of Senusret II. The pyramid's natural limestone core is clearly visible as the yellow stratum at its base.
The pyramid of Senusret II at el-Lahun
is the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid structure in Egypt. Its builders
reduced the amount of work necessary to construct it by ingeniously
using as its foundation and core a 12-meter-high natural limestone hill.
El-Kurru
Piye, the king of Kush who became the first ruler of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, built a pyramid at El-Kurru. He was the first Egyptian pharaoh to be buried in a pyramid in centuries.
Nuri
Taharqa, a Kushite ruler of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, built his pyramid at Nuri. It was the largest in the area (North Sudan).
Construction dates and heights
Drawing
showing transportation of a colossus. The water poured in the path of
the sledge, long dismissed by Egyptologists as ritual, but now confirmed
as feasible, served to increase the stiffness of the sand, and likely
reduced by 50% the force needed to move the statue.
The following table lays out the chronology of the construction of
most of the major pyramids mentioned here. Each pyramid is identified
through the pharaoh who ordered it built, his approximate reign, and its
location.
| Pyramid / Pharaoh | Reign | Field | Height |
|---|---|---|---|
| Djoser | c. 2670 BC | Saqqara | 62 meters (203 feet) |
| Sneferu | c. 2612–2589 BC | Dashur | 104 meters (341 feet) |
| Sneferu | c. 2612–2589 BC | Meidum | 65 meters (213 feet) (ruined)
*Would have been 91.65 meters (301 feet) or 175 Egyptian Royal cubits.
|
| Khufu | c. 2589–2566 BC | Giza | 146.7 meters (481 feet) or 280 Egyptian Royal cubits |
| Djedefre | c. 2566–2558 BC | Abu Rawash | 60 meters (197 feet) |
| Khafre | c. 2558–2532 BC | Giza | 136.4 meters (448 feet)
*Originally: 143.5 m or 471 feet or 274 Egyptian Royal cubits
|
| Menkaure | c. 2532–2504 BC | Giza | 65 meters (213 feet) or 125 Egyptian Royal cubits |
| Userkaf | c. 2494–2487 BC | Saqqara | 48 meters (161 feet) |
| Sahure | c. 2487–2477 BC | Abusir | 47 meters (155 feet) |
| Neferirkare Kakai | c. 2477–2467 BC | Abusir | 72.8 meters (239 feet) |
| Nyuserre Ini | c. 2416–2392 BC | Abusir | 51.68 m (169.6 feet) or 99 Egyptian Royal cubits |
| Amenemhat I | c. 1991–1962 BC | Lisht | 55 meters (181 feet) |
| Senusret I | c. 1971–1926 BC | Lisht | 61.25 meters (201 feet) |
| Senusret II | c. 1897–1878 BC | el-Lahun | 48.65 m (159.6 ft; 93 Egyptian Royal cubits) or
47.6 m (156 ft; 91 Egyptian Royal cubits)
|
| Amenemhat III | c. 1860–1814 BC | Hawara | 75 meters (246 feet) |
| Khendjer | c. 1764–1759 BC | Saqqara | 37.35 m (122.5 feet), now 1 m (3.3 feet) |
| Piye | c. 721 BC | El-Kurru | 20 meters (66 feet) or
30 meters (99 feet)
|
| Taharqa | c. 664 BC | Nuri | 40 meters (132 feet) or
50 meters (164 feet)
|
Construction techniques
Constructing the pyramids involved moving huge quantities of stone.
Papyri discovered at the Egyptian desert near the Red Sea, in 2013 by
archaeologist Pierre Tallet, revealed the journal of Merer, an official
of Egypt involved in transporting limestone along the Nile River. These
papyri reveal processes in the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza,
the tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu, just outside modern Cairo.
Rather than overland transport of the limestone used in building the
pyramid, there is evidence that limestone blocks were transported along
the Nile River, in the journal of Merer, preserved remnants of ancient
canals, and transport boats discovered.
It is possible that quarried blocks were then transported to the
construction site by wooden sleds, with sand in front of the sled wetted
to reduce friction. Droplets of water created bridges between the grains of sand, helping them stick together.
