Human enhancement (HE) can be described as the natural, artificial, or technological alteration of the human body in order to enhance physical or mental capabilities.
Technologies
Existing technologies
Gene therapy using an adenovirus vector.
Three forms of human enhancement currently exist: reproductive, physical, and mental. Reproductive enhancements include embryo selection by preimplantation genetic diagnosis, cytoplasmic transfer, and in vitro-generated gametes. Physical enhancements include cosmetics (plastic surgery & orthodontics), Drug-induced (doping & performance-enhancing drugs), functional (prosthetics & powered exoskeletons), Medical (implants (e.g. pacemaker) & organ replacements ( e.g. bionic lenses)), and strength training (weights (e.g. barbells) & dietary supplement)). Examples of mental enhancements are nootropics, neuro-stimulation, and supplements that improve mental functions. Computers, mobile phones, and Internet can also be used to enhance cognitive efficiency. Notable efforts in human augmentation are driven by the interconnected Internet of Things (IoT) devices,
including wearable electronics (e.g., augmented reality glasses, smart
watches, smart textile), personal drones, on-body and in-body
nanonetworks.
Emerging technologies
Many
different forms of human enhancing technologies are either on the way
or are currently being tested and trialed. A few of these emerging
technologies include: human genetic engineering (gene therapy), neurotechnology (neural implants and brain–computer interfaces), cyberware, Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence, nanomedicine, and 3D bioprinting.
Speculative technologies
A few hypothetical human enhancement technologies are under speculation, such as: Mind uploading, Exocortex, and endogenous artificial nutrition.
Mind uploading is the hypothetical process of
"transferring"/"uploading" or copying a conscious mind from a brain to a
non-biological substrate by scanning and mapping a biological brain in
detail and copying its state into a computer system or another
computational device. Exocortex can be defined as a theoretical
artificial external information processing system that would augment a
brain's biological high-level cognitive processes. Endogenous artificial
nutrition can be similar to having a radioisotope generator that
resynthesizes glucose (similarly to photosynthesis), amino acids and
vitamins from their degradation products, theoretically availing for
weeks without food if necessary.
Nootropics
There are many substances that are purported to have promise in
augmenting human cognition by various means. These substances are called
nootropics and can potentially benefit individuals with cognitive
decline and many different disorders, but may also be capable of
yielding results in cognitively healthy persons. Some examples of these
include Huperzine A, Phosphatidylserine, Bacopa monnieri, Gotu Kola, Acetyl-L-carnitine, Uridine monophosphate, L-theanine, Rhodiola rosea, and Pycnogenol which are all forms of dietary supplement. There are also nootropic drugs such as the common racetams Piracetam and Noopept (Omberacetam) along with the neuroprotective Semax, and N-Acetyl Semax.
There are also nootropics related to naturally occurring substances but
that are either modified in a lab or are analogs such as Vinpocetine and Sulbutiamine. Additionally, some substances can be inhaled for a potential nootropic benefit such as Rosemary essential oil which shows potential for aiding memory and affecting mood.
Ethics
Much debate surrounds the topic of human enhancement and the means used to achieve one's enhancement goals.
An ethical agenda of human enhancement can depend on many factors such
as religious affiliation, age, gender, ethnicity, a culture of origin,
and nationality.
In some circles the expression "human enhancement" is roughly synonymous with human genetic engineering, but most often it is referred to the general application of the convergence of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology and cognitive science (NBIC) to improve human performance.
Since the 1990s, several academics (such as some of the fellows of the Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies) have risen to become advocates of the case for human enhancement while other academics (such as the members of President Bush's Council on Bioethics) have become outspoken critics.
Advocacy of the case for human enhancement is increasingly becoming synonymous with "transhumanism",
a controversial ideology and movement which has emerged to support the
recognition and protection of the right of citizens to either maintain
or modify their own minds and bodies; so as to guarantee them the freedom of choice and informed consent of using human enhancement technologies on themselves and their children. Their common understanding of the world can be seen from a physicist perspective rather than a biological perspective. Based on the idea of technological singularity, human enhancement is merging with technological innovation that will advance post humanism.
Neuromarketing consultant Zack Lynch argues that neurotechnologies will have a more immediate effect on society than gene therapy and will face less resistance as a pathway of radical human enhancement. He also argues that the concept of "enablement" needs to be added to the debate over "therapy" versus "enhancement".
Although many proposals of human enhancement rely on fringe science, the very notion and prospect of human enhancement has sparked public controversy.
The main question to the ethical debate on human enhancement mainly
involves whether there should be no restriction, some restrictions or a
full ban to the entire concept.
Dale Carrico wrote that "human enhancement" is a loaded term which has eugenic overtones because it may imply the improvement of human hereditary traits to attain a universally accepted norm of biological fitness (at the possible expense of human biodiversity and neurodiversity), and therefore can evoke negative reactions far beyond the specific meaning of the term. Michael Selgelid terms this as a phase of "neugenics" suggesting that gene enhancements occurring now have already revived the idea of eugenics in our society. Practices of prenatal diagnosis, selective abortion and in-vitro fertilization aims to improve human life allowing for parents to decide via genetic information if they want to continue or terminate the pregnancy.
Even though these practices hold eugenic connotations, most are already
deemed morally acceptable in today's society. "Neugenics" deems to
alter the focus of what eugenics
was termed to be in society due to devastating historical events in
order to understand that current advancements of enhancement are more of
a benefit rather than a form of destruction from a moral perspective.
However, the most common criticism of human enhancement is that it is or will often be practiced with a reckless and selfish
short-term perspective that is ignorant of the long-term consequences
on individuals and the rest of society, such as the fear that some
enhancements will create unfair physical or mental advantages to those
who can and will use them, or unequal access to such enhancements can
and will further the gulf between the "haves" and "have-nots". Futurist Ray Kurzweil
has shown some concern that, within the century, humans may be required
to merge with this technology in order to compete in the marketplace. Enhanced individuals have a better chance of being chosen for better opportunities in careers, entertainment and resources.
For example, life extending technologies can increase the average
individual life span affecting the distribution of pension throughout
the society. Increasing lifespan will affect human population further
dividing limited resources such as food, energy, monetary resources and
habitat.
Other critics of human enhancement fear that such capabilities would
change, for the worse, the dynamic relations within a family. Given the
choices of superior qualities, parents make their child as opposed to
merely birthing it, and the newborn becomes a product of their will
rather than a gift of nature to be loved unconditionally.
Effects on Identity
Human enhancement technologies can impact human identity by affecting one's self-conception.
The argument does not necessarily come from the idea of improving the
individual but rather changing who they are and becoming someone new.
Altering an individual identity affects their personal story,
development and mental capabilities. The basis of this argument comes
from two main points : the charge of inauthenticity and the charge of
violating an individual's core characteristics. Gene therapy has the ability to alter one mental capacity and through this argument, has the ability to affect their narrative identity. An individual's core characteristics may include internal psychological style, personality, general intelligence, necessity to sleep, normal aging, gender and being homo sapiens. Technologies threaten to alter the self fundamentally to the point where the result is a different person. For example, extreme changes in personality may affect the individual's relationships because others can no longer relate to the new person.
The capability approach focuses on a normative framework that can
be applied to how human enhancement technologies affects human
capabilities.
The ethics of this does not necessarily focus on the make up of the
individual but rather what it allows individuals to do in today's
society. This approach was first termed by Amartya Sen,
where he mainly focused on the objectives of the approach rather than
the aim for those objectives which entail resources, technological
processes, and economic arrangement. The central human capabilities include life, bodily health, bodily integrity, sense, emotions, practical reason, affiliation, other species,
play, and control over one's environment. This normative framework
recognizes that human capabilities are always changing and technology
has already played a part in this.
Enhancement Rhetoric (HER)
In
his essay "Mapping human enhancement rhetoric", Thayer (2014) states
that the growth of Human Enhancement Technology (HET) means a
corresponding growth in the discourse of HET, so he suggests inventing a
new classification called Human Enhancement Rhetoric (HER). To
establish this classification, Thayer focuses on answering four
existential questions: (1) what is HER?, (2) how can HER be mapped?, (3)
what does this project of mapping HER accomplish?, and (4) what global issues
or ethical concerns are raised, or can be further understood, by
mapping HER? These foundational questions serve to introduce Thayer's
newly conceived boundaries, definitions, nomenclature, and ethical
arguments as he works to create a discourse that industry professionals
and academics can study, navigate, and grow.
Human nature and existential risks
Human
enhancement will bring forward unprecedented ethical dilemmas and
existential risks. In addition to issues related to meritocracy,
fairness and social disruptions, enhancements will inevitably touch upon
deeper philosophical questions. Prof Nayef Al-Rodhan
from Oxford University cautions against the inevitability of pursuing
enhancements to the point that they lead humanity on the way to trans-
and post-humanism. This inevitable course, he argues, is rooted in our
own human nature, which seeks neurochemical gratification and is driven
by five powerful motivators, which he calls the Neuro P5: power, profit,
pleasure, pride and permanency. When a technology appears that promises
to enhance one or all of these motivators, humans will pursue those
technologies even if that may prove to be dangerous in the long run.
Before that critical turning point in human evolution, other
ethical and philosophical issues may be more stringent, however, at
least in the short term. In another work, Al-Rodhan
takes issue with another fundamental aspect of enhancement and
artificial neuromodulation. He cautions against the risks posed by such
interventions to the authenticity of the human experience and to the
very notion of identity, and the loss of free will.
