Mating disruption (MD) is a pest management technique designed to control certain insect pests by introducing artificial stimuli that confuse the individuals and disrupt mate localization and/or courtship, thus preventing mating and blocking the reproductive cycle. It usually involves the use of synthetic sex pheromones, although other approaches, such as interfering with vibrational communication, are also being developed.
History
La confusion sexuelle or mating disruption, was first discussed by the Institut national de la recherche agronomique in 1974 in Bordeaux, France.
Winemakers in France, Switzerland, Spain, Germany, and Italy were
the first to use the method to treat vines against the larvae of the
moth genus Cochylis.
Mechanism
In many insect species of interest to agriculture, such as those in the order Lepidoptera,
females emit an airborne trail of a specific chemical blend
constituting that species' sex pheromone. This aerial trail is referred
to as a pheromone plume.
Males of that species use the information contained in the pheromone plume to locate the emitting female
(known as a “calling” female). Mating disruption exploits the male
insects' natural response to follow the plume by introducing a synthetic
pheromone into the insects’ habitat.
The synthetic pheromone is a volatile organic chemical designed to
mimic the species-specific sex pheromone produced by the female insect.
The general effect of mating disruption is to confuse the male insects
by masking the natural pheromone plumes, causing the males to follow
“false pheromone trails” at the expense of finding mates, and affecting
the males’ ability to respond to “calling" females. Consequently, the
male population experiences a reduced probability of successfully
locating and mating with females, which leads to the eventual cessation
of breeding and collapse of the insect infestation. The California Department of Pesticide Regulation, the California Department of Food and Agriculture, and the United States Environmental Protection Agency consider mating disruption to be among the most environmentally friendly treatments used to eradicate pest infestations.
Mating disruption works best if large areas are treated with
pheromones. Ten acres is a good minimum size for a successful MD
program, but larger areas are preferable.
Advantages of mating disruption
Pheromone
programs are most effective when controlling low to moderate pest
population densities. MD has also been identified as a pest control
method in which the insect does not become resistant. The
scientific community, together with governmental agencies throughout the
world, understands the benefits of mating disruption using
species-specific sex pheromones, and consider sex-pheromone-based insect
control programs among the most environmentally friendly treatments to
be used to manage and control insect pest populations. Insect pheromone
has been successfully used as an effective tool to slow the spread and
to eradicate pests from very large areas in the US; for example to
control the Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar), a devastating forestry pest,
and to eradicate the boll weevil and pink bollworm, two of the most
damaging pest of cotton. Conventional pesticide
based control methods, kill insects directly, whereas mating disruption
confuses male insects from accurately locating a mating partner,
leading to the eventual collapse of the mating cycle.
Mating disruption, due to the specificity of the sex pheromone of the
insect species, has the benefit of only affecting the males of that
species, while leaving other non target species unaffected.
This allows for very targeted pest management, promoting the
suppression of a single pest species, leaving the populations of
beneficial insects (pollinators and natural enemies) intact. Mating
disruption, like most pest management strategies, is a useful technique,
but should not be considered a stand-alone treatment program
for it targets only a single species in plant production systems that
usually have several pests of concern. Mating disruption is a valuable
tool that should be used in Integrated Pest Management(IPM) programs.
Pheromone programs have been used for several decades around the
globe and to date (2009) there is no documented public health evidence
to suggest that agricultural use of synthetic pheromones is harmful to
humans or to any other non-target species. However, continuing research
is being conducted.
Disadvantages of mating disruption
Over
the decades that pheromone pest programs have been used several
disadvantages have been argued when compared to the use of conventional
pesticides. Most pheromones target a single species, so a specific
mating disruption formulation controls only the species that uses that
pheromone blend; whereas pesticides usually kill indiscriminately a
plethora of species, including multiple species with a single
application. Some synthetic pheromones have high developmental and
production costs, causing the mating disruption technique to be too
costly to be adopted by conventional commercial growers. Furthermore
most commercial pheromone mating disruption formulations must be applied
by hand, which can be an expensive and time consuming. Novel pheromone
formulations recently developed to be mechanically applied provide long
lasting mating disruption effects (e.g., depending on the target pest a
single application of SPLAT controls the target pest for a complete reproductive cycle, or for the entire season.
Methods of dispersal
Microencapsulated pheromones
Microencapsulated pheromones (MECs) are small droplets of pheromone enclosed within polymer
capsules. The capsules control the release rate of the pheromone into
the surrounding environment. The capsules are small enough to be applied
in the same method as used to spray insecticides.
The effective field longevity of the microencapsulated pheromone
formulations ranges from a few days to slightly more than a week,
depending on climatic conditions, capsule size and chemical properties.
Microcapsules in the pheromone formulations are usually kept above a
prescribed diameter to avoid the risk of inhalation by humans.
Hand applied dispensers
- Hollow tube dispensers are plastic twist-tie type dispensers, plastic hollow fibers or plastic hollow microfibers fibers, filled with synthetic sex pheromone and placed throughout the area to be protected.
- Pheromone Baits and Stations are a stationary, attract and kill type of dispensers. Some are relatively large platform, containing a pheromone lure inside a glue board that ensnares the attracted insect. Other pheromone bait stations contain a pheromone lure in conjunction with a surface containing a dose of insecticide that reduces the attracted insect's fitness, thus reducing its ability to mate and reproduce.
- High-emission dispensers There are several very high dose pheromone dispensers, some do it passively, like pheromone sachets and large dollops of SPLAT pheromone formulations, others do it be actively releasing bursts of sex pheromone at timed intervals.
Monolithic Flowable dispensers
A
new, effective and economical concept in pheromone delivery using a
flowable formulation to create long lasting monolithic pheromone
dispensers has been brought to the market in the past decade.
These novel SPLAT pheromone mating disruption formulations can provide
effective season long suppression effect (e.g., depending on the target
pest a single application of SPLAT controls the target pest for a
complete reproductive cycle, or for the entire season)
and can be manually or mechanically applied. Although mechanical
dispersal techniques require specialized off-the-shelf application
technology and/or equipment, once the application system is made to work
it allows protection of extensive areas using pheromones, one of the
most benign and effective pest management techniques available today. A
benefit of SPLAT is that the dollop anchors where it lands, avoiding
unwanted drift of the formulation once applied in the field, and,
depending on the mode of application, the cured dollops are retrievable.
Aerial dispersal
In
November 2007, a controversial aerial approach was used to spray
microencapsulated LBAM pheromone in urban and rural areas of the
counties of Santa Cruz and Monterey California to combat the invasive light brown apple moth.
Usually the effect of disruption of orientation of the male moths to
females (or monitoring pheromone traps) can be detected by the reduction
in moth capture in monitoring pheromone traps. The government campaign
using areawide aerial microencapsulated pheromone applications failed
to show any sign of mating disruption on the light brown apple moth
populations in the treated area. It was found that the first aerial
campaign was performed using an incomplete (the wrong) pheromone blend
of the light brown apple moth (the wrong blend decreased tremendously
the likelihood of success of the mating disruption program), and the
LBAM microencapsulated formulation was untested, and finally,
microencapsule formulations are notoriously known for their short field
life, weak and erratic performance. Furthermore it is possible that the
LBAM microencapsulated formulation used in the government campaign was
unfit for aerial delivery in urban areas; although pheromone is safe,
the formulation used had microcapsules of very small diameter which made
it into a possible inhalation hazard that seems to be linked to an
increase in allergenic reactions of the population in the target area.
This set of LBAM mating disruption aerial applications done by the
government has created tremendous dissent of the public in general as
well as of several sectors of the scientific community. Now, several
years later, the affected communities as well as the nascent US
pheromone industry (which provides safer, yet very effective,
alternatives to the use of conventional pesticides) are still suffering
the ripple effects of these disastrous Bay Area LBAM eradication
campaigns.
But there are numerous, successful pest suppression programs that
rely on aerial dispersal of pheromone mating disruptants. One of the
largest pheromone mating disruption programs in the globe is the Gypsy
Moth Slow the Spread. Gypsy Moth Slow the Spread has been implemented across the 1,200-mile (1,900 km) gypsy moth
frontier from Wisconsin to North Carolina. The program area is located
ahead of the advancing front of the gypsy moth population. The STS
program focuses on early detection and suppression of the low–level
populations along this advancing front, disrupting the natural progress
of population buildup and spread. Every year hundreds of thousands of
acres are aerially sprayed with two pheromone Gypsy moth pheromone
mating disruption formulations, Flakes and SPLAT. A single mating
disruption formulation application promotes season-long suppression of
gypsy moth in the treated areas. With a crew of 8 people it was possible
to aerially treat with SPLAT GM over 20,000 acres (81 km2) of forest in a single day. The consortium of Federal and State participants have been able to do the following:
• decrease the new territory invaded by the gypsy moth each year from 15,600 square miles (40,000 km2) to 6,000 square miles (16,000 km2);
• protect forests, forest–based industries, urban and rural parks, and private property; and
• avoid at least $22 million per year in damage and management costs.
It seems that the tremendous success of the Gypsy Moth Slow the
Spread program is related to extremely well planned campaigns, which
involves communication, transparency and clarity of objectives: in
advance to an application STS holds meetings that include the area
population in general, concerned citizens, public officials, scientists
and technical personnel to discuss strategies of management of Gypsy
moth in the areas of concern. There is a movement requesting that new
government invasive species eradication campaigns model their pest
suppression actions on the existing successful suppression programs like
GM STS, and embrace a more effective policy of communication,
transparency and clarity of objectives. With the involvement and
education of the public, areawide eradication campaigns will be better
planned and more able to deliver decisive end effective pest eradication
actions.
