Lipoprotein

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipoprotein

Structure of a chylomicron (the largest lipoprotein).
ApoA, ApoB, ApoC, ApoE are apolipoproteins; green particles are phospholipids; T is triglyceride; C is cholesterol ester.

A lipoprotein is a biochemical assembly whose primary function is to transport hydrophobic lipid (also known as fat) molecules in water, as in blood plasma or other extracellular fluids. They consist of a triglyceride and cholesterol center, surrounded by a phospholipid outer shell, with the hydrophilic portions oriented outward toward the surrounding water and lipophilic portions oriented inward toward the lipid center. A special kind of protein, called apolipoprotein, is embedded in the outer shell, both stabilising the complex and giving it a functional identity that determines its role.

Plasma lipoprotein particles are commomly divided into five main classes, based on size, lipid composition, and apolipoprotein content: HDL, LDL, IDL, VLDL and chylomicrons. Subgroups of these plasma particles are primary drivers or modulators of atherosclerosis.

Many enzymes, transporters, structural proteins, antigens, adhesins, and toxins are sometimes also classified as lipoproteins, since they are formed by lipids and proteins.

Scope

Transmembrane lipoproteins

Some transmembrane proteolipids, especially those found in bacteria, are referred to as lipoproteins; they are not related to the lipoprotein particles that this article is about. Such transmembrane proteins are difficult to isolate, as they bind tightly to the lipid membrane, often require lipids to display the proper structure, and can be water-insoluble. Detergents are usually required to isolate transmembrane lipoproteins from their associated biological membranes.

Plasma lipoprotein particles

Because fats are insoluble in water, they cannot be transported on their own in extracellular water, including blood plasma. Instead, they are surrounded by a hydrophilic external shell that functions as a transport vehicle. The role of lipoprotein particles is to transport fat molecules, such as triglycerides, phospholipids, and cholesterol within the extracellular water of the body to all the cells and tissues of the body. The proteins included in the external shell of these particles, called apolipoproteins, are synthesized and secreted into the extracellular water by both the small intestine and liver cells. The external shell also contains phospholipids and cholesterol.

All cells use and rely on fats and cholesterol as building blocks to create the multiple membranes that cells use both to control internal water content and internal water-soluble elements and to organize their internal structure and protein enzymatic systems. The outer shell of lipoprotein particles have the hydrophilic groups of phospholipids, cholesterol, and apolipoproteins directed outward. Such characteristics make them soluble in the salt-water-based blood pool. Triglycerides and cholesteryl esters are carried internally, shielded from the water by the outer shell. The kind of apolipoproteins contained in the outer shell determines the functional identity of the lipoprotein particles. The interaction of these apolipoproteins with enzymes in the blood, with each other, or with specific proteins on the surfaces of cells, determines whether triglycerides and cholesterol will be added to or removed from the lipoprotein transport particles.

Characterization in human plasma

	Chylomicrons	VLDL	LDL	HDL
Electrophoretic mobility	Origin	Pre-Beta	Beta	Alpha
Density	less than 0.96	0.96-1.006	1.006-1.063	1.063-1.21
Diameter (nm)	100-1000	30-90	20-25	10-20
Apolipoproteins	B48, Al, All	B100 CI, CII	B100	AI, AII, CI
Composition (% of total content)
· Protein	2	10	20	40
· Lipid	98	90	80	60
Lipid component (% of total lipid content)
· Triglycerides	88	55	12	12
· Cholesteryl esters	4	24	59	40
· Phospholipids	8	20	28	47
· Free fatty acids	-	1	1	1

Structure

Lipoproteins are complex particles that have a central hydrophobic core of non-polar lipids, primarily cholesteryl esters and triglycerides. This hydrophobic core is surrounded by a hydrophilic membrane consisting of phospholipids, free cholesterol, and apolipoproteins. Plasma lipoproteins, found in blood plasma, are typically divided into five main classes based on size, lipid composition, and apolipoprotein content: HDL, LDL, IDL, VLDL and chylomicrons.

Functions

Metabolism

The handling of lipoprotein particles in the body is referred to as lipoprotein particle metabolism. It is divided into two pathways, exogenous and endogenous, depending in large part on whether the lipoprotein particles in question are composed chiefly of dietary (exogenous) lipids or whether they originated in the liver (endogenous), through de novo synthesis of triglycerides.

The hepatocytes are the main platform for the handling of triglycerides and cholesterol; the liver can also store certain amounts of glycogen and triglycerides. While adipocytes are the main storage cells for triglycerides, they do not produce any lipoproteins.

Exogenous pathway

Simplified flowchart showing the essentials of lipoprotein metabolism.

Bile emulsifies fats contained in the chyme, then pancreatic lipase cleaves triglyceride molecules into two fatty acids and one 2-monoacylglycerol. Enterocytes readily absorb the small molecules from the chymus. Inside of the enterocytes, fatty acids and monoacylglycerides are transformed again into triglycerides. Then these lipids are assembled with apolipoprotein B-48 into nascent chylomicrons. These particles are then secreted into the lacteals in a process that depends heavily on apolipoprotein B-48. As they circulate through the lymphatic vessels, nascent chylomicrons bypass the liver circulation and are drained via the thoracic duct into the bloodstream.

In the blood stream, nascent chylomicron particles interact with HDL particles, resulting in HDL donation of apolipoprotein C-II and apolipoprotein E to the nascent chylomicron. The chylomicron at this stage is then considered mature. Via apolipoprotein C-II, mature chylomicrons activate lipoprotein lipase (LPL), an enzyme on endothelial cells lining the blood vessels. LPL catalyzes the hydrolysis of triglycerides that ultimately releases glycerol and fatty acids from the chylomicrons. Glycerol and fatty acids can then be absorbed in peripheral tissues, especially adipose and muscle, for energy and storage.

The hydrolyzed chylomicrons are now called chylomicron remnants. The chylomicron remnants continue circulating the bloodstream until they interact via apolipoprotein E with chylomicron remnant receptors, found chiefly in the liver. This interaction causes the endocytosis of the chylomicron remnants, which are subsequently hydrolyzed within lysosomes. Lysosomal hydrolysis releases glycerol and fatty acids into the cell, which can be used for energy or stored for later use.

Endogenous pathway

The liver is the central platform for the handling of lipids: it is able to store glycerols and fats in its cells, the hepatocytes. Hepatocytes are also able to create triglycerides via de novo synthesis. They also produce the bile from cholesterol. The intestines are responsible for absorbing cholesterol. They transfer it over into the blood stream.

In the hepatocytes, triglycerides and cholesteryl esters are assembled with apolipoprotein B-100 to form nascent VLDL particles. Nascent VLDL particles are released into the bloodstream via a process that depends upon apolipoprotein B-100.

In the blood stream, nascent VLDL particles bump with HDL particles; as a result, HDL particles donate apolipoprotein C-II and apolipoprotein E to the nascent VLDL particle. Once loaded with apolipoproteins C-II and E, the nascent VLDL particle is considered mature. VLDL particles circulate and encounter LPL expressed on endothelial cells. Apolipoprotein C-II activates LPL, causing hydrolysis of the VLDL particle and the release of glycerol and fatty acids. These products can be absorbed from the blood by peripheral tissues, principally adipose and muscle. The hydrolyzed VLDL particles are now called VLDL remnants or intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDLs). VLDL remnants can circulate and, via an interaction between apolipoprotein E and the remnant receptor, be absorbed by the liver, or they can be further hydrolyzed by hepatic lipase.

Hydrolysis by hepatic lipase releases glycerol and fatty acids, leaving behind IDL remnants, called low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which contain a relatively high cholesterol content (see native LDL structure at 37°C on YouTube). LDL circulates and is absorbed by the liver and peripheral cells. Binding of LDL to its target tissue occurs through an interaction between the LDL receptor and apolipoprotein B-100 on the LDL particle. Absorption occurs through endocytosis, and the internalized LDL particles are hydrolyzed within lysosomes, releasing lipids, chiefly cholesterol.

Possible role in oxygen transport

Plasma lipoproteins may carry oxygen gas. This property is due to the crystalline hydrophobic structure of lipids, providing a suitable environment for O₂ solubility compared to an aqueous medium.

Role in inflammation

Inflammation, a biological system response to stimuli such as the introduction of a pathogen, has an underlying role in numerous systemic biological functions and pathologies. This is a useful response by the immune system when the body is exposed to pathogens, such as bacteria in locations that will prove harmful, but can also have detrimental effects if left unregulated. It has been demonstrated that lipoproteins, specifically HDL, have important roles in the inflammatory process.

When the body is functioning under normal, stable physiological conditions, HDL has been shown to be beneficial in several ways. LDL contains apolipoprotein B (apoB), which allows LDL to bind to different tissues, such as the artery wall if the glycocalyx has been damaged by high blood sugar levels. If oxidised, the LDL can become trapped in the proteoglycans, preventing its removal by HDL cholesterol efflux. Normal functioning HDL is able to prevent the process of oxidation of LDL and the subsequent inflammatory processes seen after oxidation.

Lipopolysaccharide, or LPS, is the major pathogenic factor on the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria has a similar component named Lipoteichoic acid, or LTA. HDL has the ability to bind LPS and LTA, creating HDL-LPS complexes to neutralize the harmful effects in the body and clear the LPS from the body. HDL also has significant roles interacting with cells of the immune system to modulate the availability of cholesterol and modulate the immune response.

Under certain abnormal physiological conditions such as system infection or sepsis, the major components of HDL become altered, The composition and quantity of lipids and apolipoproteins are altered as compared to normal physiological conditions, such as a decrease in HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), phospholipids, apoA-I (a major lipoprotein in HDL that has been shown to have beneficial anti-inflammatory properties), and an increase in Serum amyloid A. This altered composition of HDL is commonly referred to as acute-phase HDL in an acute-phase inflammatory response, during which time HDL can lose its ability to inhibit the oxidation of LDL. In fact, this altered composition of HDL is associated with increased mortality and worse clinical outcomes in patients with sepsis.

Classification

By density

Lipoproteins may be classified as five major groups, listed from larger and lower density to smaller and higher density. Lipoproteins are larger and less dense when the fat to protein ratio is increased. They are classified on the basis of electrophoresis, ultracentrifugation and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy via the Vantera Analyzer.

• Chylomicrons carry triglycerides (fat) from the intestines to the liver, to skeletal muscle, and to adipose tissue.
• Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) carry (newly synthesised) triglycerides from the liver to adipose tissue.
• Intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) are intermediate between VLDL and LDL. They are not usually detectable in the blood when fasting.
• Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) carry 3,000 to 6,000 fat molecules (phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides, etc.) around the body. LDL particles are sometimes referred to as "bad" lipoprotein because concentrations of two kinds of LDL (sd-LDL and LPA), correlate with atherosclerosis progression. In healthy individuals, most LDL is large and buoyant (lb LDL).
  • large buoyant LDL (lb LDL) particles
  • small dense LDL (sd LDL) particles
  • Lipoprotein(a) (LPA) is a lipoprotein particle of a certain phenotype
• High-density lipoproteins (HDL) collect fat molecules from the body's cells/tissues and take them back to the liver. HDLs are sometimes referred to as "good" lipoprotein because higher concentrations correlate with low rates of atherosclerosis progression and/or regression.

For young healthy research subjects, ~70 kg (154 lb), these data represent averages across individuals studied, percentages represent % dry weight:

Density (g/mL)	Class	Diameter (nm)	% protein	% cholesterol & cholesterol ester	% phospholipid	% triglyceride
>1.063	HDL	5–15	33	30	29	4-8
1.019–1.063	LDL	18–28	25	46-50	21-22	8-10
1.006–1.019	IDL	25–50	18	29	22	31
0.95–1.006	VLDL	30–80	10	22	18	50
<0.95	Chylomicrons	75-1200	1-2	8	7	83-84

However, these data are not necessarily reliable for any one individual or for the general clinical population.

Alpha and beta

It is also possible to classify lipoproteins as "alpha" and "beta", according to the classification of proteins in serum protein electrophoresis. This terminology is sometimes used in describing lipid disorders such as abetalipoproteinemia.

Subdivisions

Lipoproteins, such as LDL and HDL, can be further subdivided into subspecies isolated through a variety of methods. These are subdivided by density or by the protein contents/ proteins they carry. While the research is currently ongoing, researchers are learning that different subspecies contain different apolipoproteins, proteins, and lipid contents between species which have different physiological roles. For example, within the HDL lipoprotein subspecies, a large number of proteins are involved in general lipid metabolism. However, it is being elucidated that HDL subspecies also contain proteins involved in the following functions: homeostasis, fibrinogen, clotting cascade, inflammatory and immune responses, including the complement system, proteolysis inhibitors, acute-phase response proteins, and the LPS-binding protein, heme and iron metabolism, platelet regulation, vitamin binding and general transport.

Research

High levels of lipoprotein(a) are a significant risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases via mechanisms associated with inflammation and thrombosis. The links of mechanisms between different lipoprotein isoforms and risk for cardiovascular diseases, lipoprotein synthesis, regulation, and metabolism, and related risks for genetic diseases are under active research, as of 2022.

Triglyceride

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triglyceride

Example of an unsaturated fat triglyceride (C₅₅H₉₈O₆). Left part: glycerol; right part, from top to bottom: palmitic acid, oleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid.

A triglyceride (TG, triacylglycerol, TAG, or triacylglyceride) is an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids (from tri- and glyceride). Triglycerides are the main constituents of body fat in humans and other vertebrates, as well as vegetable fat. They are also present in the blood to enable the bidirectional transference of adipose fat and blood glucose from the liver, and are a major component of human skin oils.

Many types of triglycerides exist. One specific classification focuses on saturated and unsaturated types. Saturated fats have no C=C groups; unsaturated fats feature one or more C=C groups. Unsaturated fats tend to have a lower melting point than saturated analogues; as a result, they are often liquid at room temperature.

Chemical structure

Example of a natural mixed triglyceride with residues of three different fatty acids. The first fatty acid residue is saturated (blue highlighted), the second fatty acid residue contains one double bond within the carbon chain (green highlighted). The third fatty acid residue (a polyunsaturated fatty acid residue, highlighted in red) contains three double bonds within the carbon chain. All carbon-carbon double bonds shown are cis isomers.

The three fatty acids substituents can be the same, but they are usually different. Many triglycerides are known because many fatty acids are known and their combinations are even more numerous. The chain lengths of the fatty acids in naturally occurring triglycerides vary, but most contain 16, 18, or 20 carbon atoms. Bacteria, however, possess the ability to synthesise odd- and branched-chain fatty acids. As a result, ruminant animal fat contains odd-numbered fatty acids, such as 15, due to the action of bacteria in the rumen. Many fatty acids are unsaturated; some are polyunsaturated (e.g., those derived from linoleic acid).

Most natural fats contain a complex mixture of individual triglycerides. Because of their heterogeneity, they melt over a broad range of temperatures. Cocoa butter is unusual in that it is composed of only a few triglycerides, derived from palmitic, oleic, and stearic acids in the 1-, 2-, and 3-positions of glycerol, respectively.

The simplest triglycerides are those where the three fatty acids are identical. Their names indicate the fatty acid: stearin derived from stearic acid, palmitin derived from palmitic acid, etc. These compounds can be obtained in three crystalline forms (polymorphs): α, β, and β′, the three forms differing in their melting points.

A triglyceride containing different fatty acids is known as a mixed triglyceride. If the first and third fatty acids on the glycerol differ, then the mixed triglyceride is chiral.

Biosynthesis

Triglycerides are tri-esters derived from the condensation reaction of glycerol with three fatty acids. Their formation can be summarised by the following overall equation:

CH(OH)(CH₂OH)₂ + RCOOH + R'COOH + R"COOH → RC(O)OCH₂−CH(OC(O)R')−CH₂C(O)OR" + 3H₂O

In nature, the formation of triglycerides is not random; rather, specific fatty acids are selectively condensed with the hydroxyl functional groups of glycerol. Animal fats typically have unsaturated fatty acid residues on carbon atoms 1 and 3. Extreme examples of non-random fats are cocoa butter (mentioned above) and lard, which contains about 20% triglyceride with palmitic acid on carbon 2 and oleic acid on carbons 1 and 3. An early step in the biosynthesis is the formation of the glycerol-1-phosphate:

CH(OH)(CH₂OH)₂ + H₂PO−4 → HOCH₂−CH(OH)−CH₂−OPO₃H⁻ + H₂O

The three oxygen atoms in this phosphate ester are differentiated, setting the stage for regiospecific formation of triglycerides, as the diol reacts selectively with coenzyme-A derivatives of the fatty acids, RC(O)S–CoA:

HOCH₂−CH(OH)−CH₂−OPO₃H⁻ + RC(O)S−CoA + R'C(O)S−CoA → RC(O)O−CH₂−CH(−OC(O)R')−CH₂−OPO₃H⁻ + 2HS−CoA

The phosphate ester linkage is then hydrolysed to make way for the introduction of a third fatty acid ester:

RC(O)O−CH₂−CH(−OC(O)R')−CH₂−OPO₃H⁻ + H₂O → RC(O)O−CH₂−CH(−OC(O)R')−CH₂OH + H₂PO−4

RC(O)O−CH₂−CH(−OC(O)R')−CH₂OH + R"C(O)S−CoA → RC(O)O−CH₂−CH(−OC(O)R')−CH₂−OC(O)R" + HS−CoA

Nomenclature

Common fat names

Fats are usually named after their source (like olive oil, cod liver oil, shea butter, tail fat) or have traditional names of their own (like butter, lard, ghee, and margarine). Some of these names refer to products that contain substantial amounts of other components besides fats proper.

Chemical fatty acid names

Triglycerides are then commonly named as esters of those acids, as in glyceryl 1,2-dioleate 3-palmitate, the name for a brood pheromone of the honey bee. Where the fatty acid residues in a triglyceride are all the same, names like olein (for glyceryl trioleate) and palmitin (for glyceryl tripalmitate) are common.

IUPAC

In the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry's (IUPAC's) general chemical nomenclature for organic compounds, any organic structure can be named by starting from its corresponding hydrocarbon and then specifying differences so as to describe its structure completely. For fatty acids, for example, the position and orientation of carbon-carbon double bonds is specified counting from the carboxyl functional group. Thus, oleic acid is formally named (9Z)-octadec-9-enoic acid, which describes that the compound has:

• an 18 carbon chain ("octadec-") with the carbon of the carboxyl ("-oic acid") given the number 1
• all carbon-carbon bonds are single except for the double bond then joins carbon 9 ("9-en") to carbon 10
• the chain connects to each of the carbons of the double bond on the same side (hence, cis, or "(9Z)" - the "Z" being an abbreviation for the German word zusammen, meaning together).

IUPAC nomenclature can also handle branched chains and derivatives where hydrogen atoms are replaced by other chemical groups. Triglycerides take formal IUPAC names according to the rule governing naming of esters. For example, the formal name propane-1,2,3-tryl 1,2-bis((9Z)-octadec-9-enoate) 3-(hexadecanoate) applies to the pheromone informally named as glyceryl 1,2-dioleate-3-palmitate, and also known by other common names including 1,2-dioleoyl-3-palmitoylglycerol, glycerol dioleate palmitate, and 3-palmito-1,2-diolein.

Fatty acid code

A notation specific for fatty acids with unbranched chain, that is as precise as the IUPAC one but easier to parse, is a code of the form "{N}:{D} cis-{CCC} trans-{TTT}", where {N} is the number of carbons (including the carboxyl one), {D} is the number of double bonds, {CCC} is a list of the positions of the cis double bonds, and {TTT} is a list of the positions of the trans bonds. Either or both cis and trans lists and their labels are omitted if there are no multiple bonds with that geometry. For example, the codes for stearic, oleic, elaidic, and vaccenic acids are "18:0", "18:1 cis-9", "18:1 trans-9", and "18:1 trans-11", respectively. Catalpic acid, (9E,11E,13Z)-octadeca-9,11,13-trienoic acid according to IUPAC nomenclature, has the code "18:3 cis-13 trans-9,11".

Saturated and unsaturated fats

For human nutrition, an important classification of fats is based on the number and position of double bonds in the constituent fatty acids. Saturated fat has a predominance of saturated fatty acids, without any double bonds, while unsaturated fat has predominantly unsaturated acids with double bonds. (The names refer to the fact that each double bond means two fewer hydrogen atoms in the chemical formula. Thus, a saturated fatty acid, having no double bonds, has the maximum number of hydrogen atoms for a given number of carbon atoms – that is, it is "saturated" with hydrogen atoms.)

Unsaturated fatty acids are further classified into monounsaturated (MUFAs), with a single double bond, and polyunsaturated (PUFAs), with two or more. Natural fats usually contain several different saturated and unsaturated acids, even on the same molecule. For example, in most vegetable oils, the saturated palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) acid residues are usually attached to positions 1 and 3 (sn1 and sn3) of the glycerol hub, whereas the middle position (sn2) is usually occupied by an unsaturated one, such as oleic (C18:1, ω–9) or linoleic (C18:2, ω–6).)

	Stearic acid (saturated, C18:0)
	Palmitoleic acid (mono-unsaturated, C16:1 cis-9, omega-7)
	Oleic acid (mono-unsaturated, C18:1 cis-9, omega-9)
	α-Linolenic acid (polyunsaturated, C18:3 cis-9,12,15, omega-3)
	γ-Linolenic acid (polyunsaturated, C18:3 cis-6,9,12, omega-6)

While it is the nutritional aspects of polyunsaturated fatty acids that are generally of greatest interest, these materials also have non-food applications. They include the drying oils, such as linseed (flax seed), tung, poppyseed, perilla, and walnut oil, which polymerize on exposure to oxygen to form solid films, and are used to make paints and varnishes.

Saturated fats generally have a higher melting point than unsaturated ones with the same molecular weight, and thus are more likely to be solid at room temperature. For example, the animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids. Olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid. Unsaturated fats are prone to oxidation by air, which causes them to become rancid and inedible [butyric acid -- DJS].

The double bonds in unsaturated fats can be converted into single bonds by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst. This process, called hydrogenation, is used to turn vegetable oils into solid or semisolid vegetable fats like margarine, which can substitute for tallow and butter and (unlike unsaturated fats) can be stored indefinitely without becoming rancid. However, partial hydrogenation also creates some unwanted trans acids from cis acids.

In cellular metabolism, unsaturated fat molecules yield slightly less energy (i.e., fewer calories) than an equivalent amount of saturated fat. The heats of combustion of saturated, mono-, di-, and tri-unsaturated 18-carbon fatty acid esters have been measured as 2859, 2828, 2794, and 2750 kcal/mol, respectively; or, on a weight basis, 10.75, 10.71, 10.66, and 10.58 kcal/g – a decrease of about 0.6% for each additional double bond.

The greater the degree of unsaturation in a fatty acid (i.e., the more double bonds in the fatty acid) the more vulnerable it is to lipid peroxidation (rancidity). Antioxidants can protect unsaturated fat from lipid peroxidation.

Industrial uses

Linseed oil and related oils are important components of useful products used in oil paints and related coatings. Linseed oil is rich in di- and tri-unsaturated fatty acid components, which tend to harden in the presence of oxygen. This heat-producing hardening process is peculiar to these so-called drying oils. It is caused by a polymerization process that begins with oxygen molecules attacking the carbon backbone.

Triglycerides are also split into their components via transesterification during the manufacture of biodiesel. The resulting fatty acid esters can be used as fuel in diesel engines. The glycerin has many uses, such as in the manufacture of food and in the production of pharmaceuticals.

Staining

Staining for fatty acids, triglycerides, lipoproteins, and other lipids is done through the use of lysochromes (fat-soluble dyes). These dyes can allow the qualification of a certain fat of interest by staining the material a specific color. Some examples: Sudan IV, Oil Red O, and Sudan Black B.

Cultural influence of Star Trek

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_influence_of_Star_Trek

 

A group photo of people costumed as Star Trek characters at San Diego Comic-Con 2008

The science fiction multimedia franchise of Star Trek since its original debut in 1966 has been one of the most successful television series in science fiction television history and has been considered by many to have had a large influence in popular culture as a result.

The original series, which aired in the late 1960s, has since spawned nine successor series and thirteen movies as of August 2020, merchandise, and a multibillion-dollar industry collectively known as the Star Trek franchise. The franchise is owned by CBS Studios, which currently owns television properties previously held by Paramount Pictures, the studio that produced Star Trek for many decades. Paramount Global continues to hold DVD rights to the television series, and the rights to produce feature films.

Two films, Galaxy Quest (1999) and Free Enterprise (1999), and a television series, The Orville, have been inspired by the cultural influence of Star Trek.

Star Trek: The Original Series

The fact is, never in the history of any entertainment medium has there ever been a story, an idea, a situation, a set of characters, or a theme that has approached the magnitude or impact of Star Trek.

— A Vision of the Future (1998)

Gene Roddenberry sold Star Trek in 1964 to NBC as a classic adventure drama, calling it a "Wagon Train to the Stars". But Roddenberry wanted to tell more sophisticated stories, using futuristic situations as analogies for current problems on Earth and showing how they could be rectified through humanism and optimism. The series' writers frequently addressed moral and social issues such as slavery, warfare, and discrimination. The opening line "to boldly go where no man has gone before" is almost verbatim from a US White House booklet on space produced after the Sputnik flight in October 1957.

A major inspiration for Star Trek was the science fiction film Forbidden Planet (1956), whose influence is especially apparent in the pilot episode "The Cage". Previous sophisticated science fiction television series included anthology series such as The Twilight Zone and the British Quatermass serials, but Star Trek was the first American science fiction series with a continuing cast that was aimed at adults, telling modern morality tales with complex narratives.

Earlier British science fiction series with marionettes and soap operas had interracial casting, but this was the first American live-action series to do this. At a time when there were few non-white or foreign roles in American television dramas, Roddenberry created a multi-ethnic crew for the Enterprise, including an African woman (Uhura), a Scotsman (Montgomery Scott), an Asian man (Hikaru Sulu), and—most notably—an alien, the half-Vulcan Spock. In the second season, reflecting the contemporaneous Cold War, Roddenberry added a Russian crew member, Pavel Chekov (played by Walter Koenig). The original series is also credited with American television's first interracial kiss, between a white man and an African-American woman, although this had happened earlier in a British medical soap opera, Emergency – Ward 10. Also, the spy series I Spy featured a scripted, unedited interracial kiss between Robert Culp (white) and France Nuyen (Vietnamese) in the episode "The Tiger"; a kiss that would not gain the controversy or attention as the Star Trek kiss did.

Star Trek's contributions to television history include giving women jobs of respect, most notably through the casting of Nichelle Nichols, a black actress, as Uhura, the ship's communications officer. Black actresses at that time on television were almost always cast as servants. In fact, Whoopi Goldberg recalled that the first time she saw Uhura, she excitedly told her mother: "Mama, there's a black woman on television and she ain't no maid!" In an interview, Nichelle Nichols, who played the black female communications officer, said that the day after she told Roddenberry she planned to leave the show, she was at a fund-raiser at the NAACP and was told there was a big fan who wanted to meet her. Nichols said,

I thought it was a Trekkie, and so I said, 'Sure.' I looked across the room, and there was Dr. Martin Luther King walking towards me with this big grin on his face. He reached out to me and said, 'Yes, Ms. Nichols, I am your greatest fan.' He said that Star Trek was the only show that he, and his wife Coretta, would allow their three little children to stay up and watch. [She told King about her plans to leave the series.] I never got to tell him why, because he said, 'You can't. You're part of history.'

When she told Roddenberry what King had said, he cried.

The Original Series has later received some criticism for its portrayal of women, particularly its visual aesthetics. Women's crew uniforms, which consisted of miniskirts, high heeled boots, and heavy makeup, have been pointed-to as degrading to women for highlighting their frequent role as sexual objects. Researchers have pointed out that this was not necessarily the way the wardrobe, or the overall femininity of female characters in the series, was viewed by contemporary female viewers. Cited are the concerns of women of the time period with the perceived upsetting of traditional gender roles for women of the future, with the women of the show's feminine behavior acting to reaffirm that women's sexuality and traditional femininity would not be lost. This fear was manifested by the media's criticisms of Valentina Tereshkova, the first female astronaut to go to space, as masculine and "mannish". The uniform's usage of the miniskirt was also considered progressive by some at the time, as the miniskirt, at that time, was a symbol of the modern woman's economic and sexual independence.

Computer engineer and entrepreneur Steve Wozniak credited watching Star Trek and attending Star Trek conventions while in his youth as a source of inspiration for him co-founding Apple Inc. in 1976, which would later become the world's largest technology company by revenue and the world's third-largest mobile phone manufacturer.

The series gained multiple Emmy Award nominations during its run, but never won. Despite a restricted budget, the series' special effects were superior to contemporary television series, its stories were often written by prominent science fiction authors (though often re-written by the series' regular writers), and many of its production values—such as costuming and set design—were of high caliber for the series' low budget. Some of the production staff of The Outer Limits worked on Star Trek and often made creative re-use of props from the earlier series.

During its network run from 1966 to 1969, TOS ratings were mediocre. A letter-writing campaign by fans, unprecedented in size, contributed to NBC's decision to renew the series for a third season, but the network put the series in a disadvantageous timeslot, and TOS was finally canceled after its third season.

Cancellation and aftermath

In 1976, a letter-writing campaign compelled NASA to name the inaugural (and test) space shuttle Enterprise after the fictional starship. In this image, Enterprise is rolled out of the Palmdale manufacturing facilities with Star Trek television cast members and creator Gene Roddenberry in attendance.

After its cancellation, through reruns Star Trek became more popular and reached a much wider audience than when it had originally aired. Known as "trekkies" or "trekkers", the series' fans formed clubs and organized conventions. In 1976, following another fan-organized letter-writing campaign, NASA named its first space shuttle orbiter, Enterprise (OV-101), after the fictional starship.

After the series, Nichelle Nichols, who played Uhura, used her public standing to speak for women and people of colour and against their exclusion from the human space program of the United States. NASA reacted by asking her to find people for its future Space Shuttle program. Nichols proceeded and successfully brought the first people of colour and women into the US space program, working in this role for NASA from the late 1970s until the late 1980s.

Film reception

See also: List of Star Trek films

In the mid-1970s, encouraged by the burgeoning fanbase for the series, Roddenberry sought to start a second television series (Star Trek: Phase II); this abortive attempt morphed into Star Trek: The Motion Picture in 1979. The movie did sufficiently well at the box office, grossing more than $80 million in the United States and $139 million worldwide, to spawn several more movies during the 1980s. In 1987, Roddenberry created a second television series, Star Trek: The Next Generation (TNG), which was set aboard the fifth starship USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D) more than seventy years after events in the earlier series and related movies. Unlike TOS—which often reflected a bold, interventionist American philosophy—TNG had a less aggressive and more socially liberal message. Unlike its progenitor, this series entered syndicated, rather than a nationwide network, from the beginning, and was sold to individual local television stations. It became the number one syndicated television, lasting seven seasons, spawned two sequels, a prequel, four movies, and a vast marketing franchise.

Star Trek and its spin-offs have proved highly popular in television repeats, in the United States and throughout the world. The Star Trek franchise is similarly prolific. Only Star Wars has had as significant an influence as a science fiction and popular culture phenomenon. According to Forbes magazine, as of 2005:

• the five live-action Star Trek series to date had garnered 31 Emmy Awards and 140 nominations. At least nine specials have been produced
• the first eleven movies cumulatively grossed US$2.145 billion at the box office: the most successful movie was Star Trek (2009) grossing $385 million worldwide and after a combined nine nominations for four films, it was the first Star Trek film to win an Academy Award. Having been nominated in four categories, it received the award for Best Make-up
• at least 120 compact discs and 40 video games contained "Star Trek" in their titles; the CDs are mostly soundtracks and audiobooks but also Klingon language instruction
• about 70 million books were in print
• the franchise entailed a merchandising business with a total lifetime gross of about $4 billion from companies including the Mego Corporation, Playmates Toys, Hallmark Cards and Hasbro
• resorts included rides and attractions at Paramount-owned amusement parks as well as Star Trek: The Experience formerly at the Las Vegas Hilton

Even-odd popularity

Fans commonly considered the films to follow a "curse" that even-numbered films were better than the odd-numbered installments. This is partially borne out by review aggregator statistics. For example, prior to the release of the 13th film the odd-numbered entries averaged 57% on the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes while the even-numbered entries averaged 79%. However, this perceived difference in quality is not reflected in box-office performance with the odd and even numbered entries having a virtually identical attendance in the United States and Canada on average.

The tenth film, Star Trek: Nemesis, was considered the even film that defied the curse. Its failure and the subsequent success of Star Trek (2009) were considered to have broken the trend. The curse has been mentioned often in popular culture. One of the best known examples occurred in a 1999 episode of the Channel 4 sitcom Spaced, where it was referenced by Tim Bisley, played by Simon Pegg; Pegg, quite conscious of the irony, played Scotty in the eleventh and subsequent films.

Fandom

A cosplayer in a Klingon costume with a bat'leth

Star Trek conventions have been popular, but are waning and are now often meshed with conventions of other genres. Fans coined the terms "Trekkies" and "Trekkers" to describe themselves, and produce an abundance of material like fanzines with fiction, art and songs.

The series' cultural influence goes far beyond its longevity and profitability. An entire subculture grew up around the series and, anecdotally, there are indications that Star Trek has influenced many people's lives. Many scientists and engineers claim that their professional and life choices were influenced by Star Trek. An article in Columbia asserted that the starship captains of the Star Trek franchise are consistently among the best father figures on television, inspiring real fathers to embrace their responsibilities and act with "selfless authority". The inventor of the first non-vehicular cell phone, Martin Cooper, states he was motivated to develop it from watching Star Trek. Others have also been inspired by Star Trek when designing new technology, such as Dr. Peter Jansen, who invented a functional tricorder, and several computer scientists at the University of Illinois, who have created a prototypical version of Star Trek's famous Holodeck.

Some fans were drawn to a franchise that stood out for being unusually hopeful about the future, compared with most other works of science fiction. Rolling Stone credited its appeal to "sunny assurances": "Optimism. Respect for diversity. Faith that reason shall triumph over ignorance. Confidence that our destructive emotions can be mastered without denying us the benefits of more saintly ones like loyalty and love." Rejecting mainstream cynicism, the franchise presented the future Earth as a peaceful, egalitarian planet. The original series presented a utopian future for humanity, to the point that conflict and allegory often had to be inserted through encounters with less "enlightened" nonhuman races that stood in, from the series' perspective, as didactic proxies for disfavored aspects of 20th-century culture.

Some fans took the egalitarian nature of the show a step further. The unofficial homosexual pairing “Kirk/Spock” (or “K/S”) slowly became popular within fan spaces, particularly with female fans. This led to the production of an abundance of fanworks centered around the pairing, including stories, poems, and art. Most widely believed to be the first K/S fan fiction is a 40-page privately-circulated novel written in 1968 by Jennifer Guttridge titled “The Ring of Soshern,” which was later printed in the highly controversial fanzine “Alien Brothers” without the author’s knowledge and soared in popularity and notoriety within the fandom. The genre of “slash fiction” is considered to have originated or at least been popularized by the K/S fanbase, with the “slash” in the pairing lending itself to the genre’s name. Over time, slash fiction has spread to other fandoms and remains popular in fan spaces to this day.

Well-known phrases like "Beam me up, Scotty", "Resistance is futile" (from the Borg), and Treknobabble have also managed to enter the English vernacular. Beyond this, "Trekkie" is the only fan label listed in the Oxford English Dictionary, and words from the series including Klingon have also been added to that dictionary.

Klingon has actually spawned a life of its own, going on to garner its own grammar and vocabulary and dedicated speakers from across the globe.

A broad consensus amongst fans is that the Star Trek franchise became formulaic and mediocre in the 1990s on account of over-exploitation of the franchise by Paramount and production of multiple spin-offs and movies, though fans do not necessarily agree as to when this began (some adult viewers of TOS felt it also could be formulaic and repetitive). The release in May 2009 of Star Trek, a reboot involving characters from the original series and set in an alternate timeline, was developed with the partial hope to resurrect the franchise.

Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly, in reviewing the new film states that the Star Trek franchise had "devolved into a near-irrelevant cultural joke, likely to inspire giggles and unprintable curses from even its most ardent supporters." Leonard Nimoy wondered in 2003 whether or not the franchise "had run its course". Director J. J. Abrams said, "People [may not] even understand what Star Trek means anymore," and joked that a parody like Galaxy Quest which "mocks the paradigm" made the task of producing a credible Star Trek film that much more challenging. Even on set, Abrams felt nervous "with all these tattooed faces and pointy ears, bizarre weaponry and Romulan linguists, with dialogue about 'Neutral Zones' and 'Starfleet'". In covering the relaunch film, Jensen remarked the series' optimistic nature ran counter to an increasingly cynical culture, and that the film had been delayed from December 2008 to May 2009 to "rehab" the series' image.

Upon release, the film was a major critical and box office success, sparking comments by fans and critics that the franchise has a bright renewed future.

Star Trek is the only media franchise that's clearly referenced in the Unicode emoji standard. The 🖖 emoji has an American English short name of "vulcan salute".

"When I was in high school, I'd smoke a joint in my closet in Yonkers, New York, and watch Star Trek," recalled Aerosmith front-man Steven Tyler. "I knew Sulu. When Uhura said, 'Open all hailing frequencies,' I picked up my phone."

The music of Star Trek

Main article: List of Star Trek composers and music

The opening fanfare of Star Trek: The Original Series, written by Alexander Courage, is one of the most culturally-recognized musical memes in existence. Also included as the opening fanfare to Star Trek: The Next Generation and the Star Trek film series, it has come to iconically symbolize Star Trek to even the casual viewer. Michael Giacchino has written a well-received distinctive new fanfare for the reboot Star Trek movie and its sequels, Star Trek Into Darkness and Star Trek Beyond.

Star Trek: Voyager and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine received their own distinctive opening fanfares. In a departure from the tradition of sweeping classical themes symbolizing the various incarnations of Star Trek, the opening theme to Star Trek: Enterprise is the (pre-existing) pop song "Faith of the Heart", by Diane Warren (Star Trek: Enterprise episodes close with the orchestral "Archer's Theme" epilogue, a piece which is more similar to the preceding Star Trek themes than "Faith of the Heart").

Some of the most prominent composers of 20th- and 21st-century film music have written film scores and television scores for Star Trek. These include Jay Chattaway, Cliff Eidelman, Michael Giacchino, Jerry Goldsmith, James Horner, Dennis McCarthy and Leonard Rosenman.

A subgenre of Star Trek fandom has developed, specifically for the music of Star Trek, which includes music lovers who are not otherwise interested in Star Trek fandom. Dozens of commercially produced musical recordings of performances of Star Trek music exist—unrelated to the performance of screen Star Trek itself—evidencing the intrinsic cultural value and influence of the music of Star Trek.

A concert series, Star Trek: The Music, by Erich Kunzel and the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra, played in several US and Canadian cities between 2007 and 2010.

Science fiction, fantasy and television

The first television series with comparable storyline and set-up to Star Trek (aside from the genre rival Doctor Who) was the 1990s series Babylon 5. When pitching the series, the producer J. Michael Straczynski had hoped that television executives would think Trek had opened up the market for science-fiction on television. However, he was told that Star Trek only created a market for more Star Trek and that the prospects for non-Trek related science fiction were seen as bleak. Eventually, Babylon 5 was greenlit. Three script writers who had worked for the original Trek series were to write for Babylon 5 (including D. C. Fontana who had written for three different Trek series), and Star Trek actor Walter Koenig was cast in a recurring role. All this, and the strong similarities of the series' premise to Star Trek: Deep Space Nine invited comparison to Star Trek. In addition, Babylon 5 was the first television series since Star Trek to get nominated for or win the Hugo award for best science fiction drama, which had only recognized feature films in the media category since Star Trek. Gene Roddenberry's widow and Star Trek actress, Majel Barrett-Roddenberry, publicly stated that her decision to do a guest star appearance on Babylon 5 was to stop the feuding and bickering among hardline fans of the two series, which broke out occasionally at science fiction conventions. Ultimately, the series ran for its intended length of five seasons, making it the longest running American space oriented futuristic television series outside of the Star Trek franchise.

Star Trek fandom in fiction

Some television series feature major or supporting characters whose love of Star Trek affects the storyline of the series.

"The Replacement", a Season 5 episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, features two versions of the character Xander, a huge Star Trek fan, which is a simultaneous tribute to the original series episode "The Enemy Within", in which there are two Captain Kirks.

In crossover casting, two other television series have cast actors from Star Trek in series in which other characters are Star Trek fans who frequently refer to Trek moments or cite Trek storylines. The character Hiro Nakamura on NBC's Heroes likes to describe his ability to teleport as "like Star Trek", and has often performed Mr. Spock's Vulcan salute. His father is played by George Takei, who played Hikaru Sulu on the original series. Additionally, Nichelle Nichols, who played Nyota Uhura on the original series also appears on the series.

Over a dozen actors from various Star Trek series have made guest appearances on one or the other of the Stargate series. In those series, Colonel Jack O'Neill makes unsuccessful pitches to name new space vessels after the Enterprise, and also gives the Vulcan salute in tribute to Trek. In an earlier episode of Stargate: SG-1, O'Neill travels back in time to the 1960s and during an interrogation by an Air Force officer he refers to himself as "James T. Kirk, captain of the federation starship Enterprise". Another Trek reference is made when a character questions whether or not another team member can be "beamed up". The response is "What am I, Scotty"? Later on the series, advanced alien technology allows team members to "beam" up and down in manner similar to that seen on Star Trek.

In the Cold War submarine film Crimson Tide (1995), in a moment of crisis, the USS Alabama's executive officer (played by Denzel Washington) gives a pep talk to his young radioman, urging him to repair the ship's radio by referring to Captain Kirk telling Scotty they need "more power". The Trek fandom of Noel, a recurring character on the sitcom Frasier, plays a role in several episodes, including "Star Mitzvah", in which he deceives Frasier into believing a speech is written in Hebrew when it is really in the Klingon language.

The main characters from the sitcom The Big Bang Theory, especially Sheldon Cooper, make various references to and are huge fans of Star Trek, with Sheldon even citing Starfleet regulations during an argument in one episode and the main characters dressing up as Data, Worf, Captain Picard and a Borg drone, respectively, in another. Also the series features Wil Wheaton in a recurring role as a fictionalized version of himself plus guest appearances from Brent Spiner, LeVar Burton and William Shatner, and a voice-only cameo from Leonard Nimoy, who voices a Mr. Spock action figure talking to Sheldon in his dreams. There was also an appearance of a Gorn in one episode.

The Gorn captain's fight to the death with Captain Kirk in the original series episode, "Arena", was the subject of an episode of the television series MythBusters, in which the viability of Kirk's improvised bamboo cannon was put to the test.

Parodies and tributes

ISS-42 astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti pays tribute to actor Leonard Nimoy, who played Spock with Vulcan salute

Star Trek has been the subject of a large number of parodies and tributes.

Prominent among film parodies is Galaxy Quest, as it parodied the original Star Trek series, elements of Star Trek: The Next Generation, and the whole Trekkie phenomenon.

On television, the animated series Futurama makes frequent references to Star Trek and parodies some of its better known plot elements on a regular basis, including the character Zapp Brannigan who is based on a combination of Captain Kirk and William Shatner, and cast members of the original series have taken part in one episode. Prominent examples in other television series include multiple episodes of The Simpsons and Family Guy. The children's series The Backyardigans has an episode titled "Garbage Trek" that is an homage to the original series. Joss Whedon has cited Star Trek as being the father of his cult series Firefly and its film Serenity (2005).

The direct-to-video series VeggieTales features two Star Trek parodies, including "The Gourds Must Be Crazy" (from Are You My Neighbor?) and Veggies in Space: The Fennel Frontier which serves as a sequel to the other. The character Scooter is based on Montgomery Scott.

There are many other parodies in comic strips, music and computer games, such as Eminem's song "We Made You". In the music video, Eminem was dressed as Mr. Spock and Dr. Dre as Captain Kirk.

In 1995, MTV's animated series Beavis and Butt-Head parodied the series with Beavis as Captain Picard and Butt-Head as Commander Riker.

An entire Finnish parody series Star Wreck was produced starting in 1992, culminating with Star Wreck: In the Pirkinning in 2005, all available as legal downloads on the web. Star Wreck: In the Pirkinning is a fan-made parody of both Star Trek and Babylon 5.

NASA and other institutions have paid explicit tribute to the series in the use of names of ships and characters from the series. Subtle acknowledgments in media and real life include the use of Star Trek ships' registry numbers, especially the Enterprise's NCC-1701.

Two episodes of Eek! The Cat parodied Star Trek (with the main character as a Captain Kirk-esque character; one episode featured William Shatner voicing the villain Captain Berserk).

In August 2010, the members of the Internal Revenue Service created a six-minute Star Trek themed training video for an agency conference. The video featured a mock set of the Enterprise in one of the agency's studios. The project cost 62 hours of staff time and cost $3,100. Revealed to the public in 2013, the spoof along with parodies of other media franchises was cited as an example of the misuse of taxpayer funds and "insulting the beloved sci-fi TV show".

Animaniacs has made an obvious parody of Star Trek, calling it Star Truck. Another Star Trek band, Warp 11, has released several studio albums.

Actor William Shatner re-enacted his battle fighting the Gorn, for an advertisement for the 2013 Star Trek video game (Kelvin Timeline). In the spot they have similar fight, but it takes place in a modern day living room starts with the two playing a console video game together in co-op mode.

The Orville

Main article: The Orville

Starting in 2017, Seth MacFarlane produced a TV series heavily inspired by the original Star Trek and its Next Generation successor, titled The Orville. Like the series it pays homage too, The Orville is set in the 25th century, features an interstellar alliance of Earth and many other planets, and follows an exploratory space vessel interacting with various monocultures.

Locations

Canada

A limited number of Famous Players theatres in Canada house large replicas of the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-A). They can be found in the cities of Thunder Bay, Windsor, Ottawa, Winnipeg and Richmond. In the Greater Toronto Area, replicas can be seen in the Yorkdale Shopping Centre, and in the SilverCity in Richmond Hill.

In addition, a replica of the Sovereign-class USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-E) can be found in Laser Planet in Oakville, Ontario as well as in the Colossus theatres, in Langley, British Columbia and Laval, Québec.

The coincidentally-named Vulcan, Alberta hosts Trek-related memorabilia and events.

United States

Plaque honoring the future birthplace of Captain James T. Kirk in Riverside, Iowa.

 

Exit sign for Warp Drive in Dulles, Virginia, one of many Trek-inspired roads in the United States.

Riverside, Iowa has proclaimed itself the future birthplace of Captain James T. Kirk. Gene Roddenberry, the creator of Star Trek, asserts in the book The Making of Star Trek by Stephen Whitfield, that the character Kirk had been born in the state of Iowa. In March 1985, when the town was looking for a theme for its annual town festival, Steve Miller, a member of the Riverside City Council who had read Roddenberry's book, suggested to the council that Riverside should proclaim itself to be the future birthplace of Kirk. Miller's motion passed unanimously. The council later wrote to Roddenberry for his permission to be designated as the official birthplace of Kirk, and Roddenberry agreed. In the reboot Star Trek movie, Riverside is depicted as having a Starfleet shipyard on its outskirts, where the USS Enterprise (NCC-1701) was built.

The city of Garland, Texas is the first city known to have an official place name based on the television series: "Star Trek Lane", located off of Apollo Road and east of North Jupiter Road (32.953°N 96.681°W).

The city of Birmingham, Alabama also boasts a "Star Trek Lane" and "Star Trek Circle", in the Sunrise East subdivision of its Roebuck neighborhood.

The unincorporated Sky Parkway area of South Sacramento, California has a number of space-themed street names, including Klingon Court and Romulan Court.

An unincorporated area near the Las Vegas Strip contains a residential street named "Roddenberry Avenue". While the mailing address lists the avenue as being located in Las Vegas, Nevada, the physical address is an unincorporated township called "Enterprise". There is no indication that the township's name has any connection with the Star Trek series, and it is unknown whether or not the street name is a deliberate tribute to the Star Trek creator.

Turlock, California has a subdivision with several Trek-themed road names including Picard Lane, Warp Drive, Impulse Lane, Crusher Avenue, and Federation Court.

Northern Virginia has a few Star Trek-inspired locations including Warp Drive at the headquarters of local space company Orbital ATK, named such at the request of the company; and the Intelligence and Security Command's Information Dominance Center, whose interior was designed to mimic the bridge of the Enterprise by a Hollywood set designer. The Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center annex of the National Air and Space Museum occasionally hosts set pieces and movie screenings.

Star Trek and space exploration

The series greatly influenced public interest in the U.S. Space Program and in education on the topic of space exploration. Star Trek: The Original Series ran from 1966 to 1969 benefited from the popularity of the televised Apollo 11 moon landing. The association between Star Trek and NASA grew stronger over time – the first NASA orbiter shuttle, Space Shuttle Enterprise, was named after the USS Enterprise of Star Trek fame. The IXS Enterprise, NASA's conceptual design for a superluminal spacecraft, was similarly named after the USS Enterprise in 2014.

This connection remained solid throughout the 1990s, when many of the cast members began narrating documentaries about the franchise's content and space exploration. Some of these documentaries were produced in cooperation with NASA itself, most notably the IMAX title Destiny in Space (1994), narrated by Leonard Nimoy. In 2013, NASA produced a 30-second ad to accompany the theatrical release of Star Trek Into Darkness in an effort to bolster support for its space program.

In addition, NASA has named a number of asteroids after people or elements connected to the Star Trek franchise:

• 2309 Mr. Spock
• 4659 Roddenberry
• 7307 Takei
• 9777 Enterprise
• 26733 Nanavisitor
• 26734 Terryfarrell
• 68410 Nichols
• 155142 Tenagra

Star Trek and government activities

In addition to space exploration, other government activities have been influenced by Star Trek. In 2020, the United States effort to develop a vaccine to protect against COVID-19 was named Operation Warp Speed, which is the brainchild of a huge Star Trek fan, Dr. Peter Marks. Dr. Marks leads the unit at the Food and Drug Administration which approves vaccines and therapies.