An electromagnetic pulse (EMP), also sometimes called a transient electromagnetic disturbance, is a short burst of electromagnetic energy. Such a pulse's origination may be a natural occurrence or man-made and can occur as a radiated, electric, or magnetic field or a conducted electric current, depending on the source.
EMP interference is generally disruptive or damaging to electronic equipment, and at higher energy levels a powerful EMP event such as a lightning strike can damage physical objects such as buildings and aircraft structures. The management of EMP effects is an important branch of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) engineering.
Weapons have been developed to deliver the damaging effects of high-energy EMP.
EMP interference is generally disruptive or damaging to electronic equipment, and at higher energy levels a powerful EMP event such as a lightning strike can damage physical objects such as buildings and aircraft structures. The management of EMP effects is an important branch of electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) engineering.
Weapons have been developed to deliver the damaging effects of high-energy EMP.
General characteristics
An
electromagnetic pulse is a short burst of electromagnetic energy. Its
short duration means that it will be spread over a range of frequencies.
Pulses are typically characterized by:
- The type of energy (radiated, electric, magnetic or conducted).
- The range or spectrum of frequencies present.
- Pulse waveform: shape, duration and amplitude.
The last two of these, the frequency spectrum and the pulse waveform, are interrelated via the Fourier transform and may be seen as two different ways of describing the same pulse.
Types of energy
EMP energy may be transferred in any of four forms:
Due to Maxwell's equations,
a pulse of any one form of electromagnetic energy will always be
accompanied by the other forms, however in a typical pulse one form will
dominate.
In general, only radiation acts over long distances, with the
others acting over short distances. There are a few exceptions, such as a
solar magnetic flare.
Frequency ranges
A
pulse of electromagnetic energy typically comprises many frequencies
from DC (zero Hz) to some upper limit depending on the source. The range
defined as EMP, sometimes referred to as "DC to daylight", excludes the
highest frequencies comprising the optical (infrared, visible,
ultraviolet) and ionizing (X and gamma rays) ranges.
Some types of EMP events can leave an optical trail, such as
lightning and sparks, but these are side effects of the current flow
through the air and are not part of the EMP itself.
Pulse waveforms
The
waveform of a pulse describes how its instantaneous amplitude (field
strength or current) changes over time. Real pulses tend to be quite
complicated, so simplified models are often used. Such a model is
typically described either in a diagram or as a mathematical equation.
Rectangular Pulse
Double exponential pulse
Most electromagnetic pulses have a very sharp leading edge, building
up quickly to their maximum level. The classic model is a
double-exponential curve which climbs steeply, quickly reaches a peak
and then decays more slowly. However, pulses from a controlled switching
circuit often approximate the form of a rectangular or "square" pulse.
EMP events usually induce a corresponding signal in the
surrounding environment or material. Coupling usually occurs most
strongly over a relatively narrow frequency band, leading to a
characteristic damped sine wave.
Visually it is shown as a high frequency sine wave growing and decaying
within the longer-lived envelope of the double-exponential curve. A
damped sinewave typically has much lower energy and a narrower frequency
spread than the original pulse, due to the transfer characteristic of
the coupling mode. In practice, EMP test equipment often injects these
damped sinewaves directly rather than attempting to recreate the
high-energy threat pulses.
In a pulse train, such as from a digital clock circuit, the
waveform is repeated at regular intervals. A single complete pulse cycle
is sufficient to characterise such a regular, repetitive train.
Types
An EMP
arises where the source emits a short-duration pulse of energy. The
energy is usually broadband by nature, although it often excites a
relatively narrow-band damped sine wave response in the surrounding environment. Some types are generated as repetitive and regular pulse trains.
Different types of EMP arise from natural, man-made, and weapons effects.
Types of natural EMP event includes:
- Lightning electromagnetic pulse (LEMP). The discharge is typically an initial huge current flow, at least mega-amps, followed by a train of pulses of decreasing energy.
- Electrostatic discharge (ESD), as a result of two charged objects coming into close proximity or even contact.
- Meteoric EMP. The discharge of electromagnetic energy resulting from either the impact of a meteoroid with a spacecraft or the explosive breakup of a meteoroid passing through the Earth's atmosphere.
- Coronal mass ejection (CME). A burst of plasma and accompanying magnetic field, ejected from the solar corona and released into the solar wind. Sometimes referred to as a Solar EMP.
Types of (civil) man-made EMP event include:
- Switching action of electrical circuitry, whether isolated or repetitive (as a pulse train).
- Electric motors can create a train of pulses as the internal electrical contacts make and break connections as the armature rotates.
- Gasoline engine ignition systems can create a train of pulses as the spark plugs are energized or fired.
- Continual switching actions of digital electronic circuitry.
- Power line surges. These can be up to several kilovolts, enough to damage electronic equipment that is insufficiently protected.
Types of military EMP include:
- Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP), as a result of a nuclear explosion. A variant of this is the high altitude nuclear EMP (HEMP), which produces a secondary pulse due to particle interactions with the Earth's atmosphere and magnetic field.
- Non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NNEMP) weapons.
Lightning
Lightning is unusual in that it typically has a preliminary "leader"
discharge of low energy building up to the main pulse, which in turn may
be followed at intervals by several smaller bursts.
Electrostatic discharge (ESD)
ESD events are characterised by high voltages of many kV but small
currents and sometimes cause visible sparks. ESD is treated as a small,
localised phenomenon, although technically a lightning flash is a very
large ESD event. ESD can also be man-made, as in the shock received from
a Van de Graaff generator.
An ESD event can damage electronic circuitry by injecting a
high-voltage pulse, besides giving people an unpleasant shock. Such an
ESD event can also create sparks, which may in turn ignite fires or
fuel-vapour explosions. For this reason, before refueling an aircraft
or exposing any fuel vapor to the air, the fuel nozzle is first
connected to the aircraft to safely discharge any static.
Switching pulses
The
switching action of an electrical circuit creates a sharp change in the
flow of electricity. This sharp change is a form of EMP.
Simple electrical sources include inductive loads such as relays,
solenoids, and the brush contacts in electric motors. Typically these
send a pulse down any electrical connections present, as well as
radiating a pulse of energy. The amplitude is usually small and the
signal may be treated as "noise" or "interference". The switching off or
"opening" of a circuit causes an abrupt change in the current flowing.
This can in turn cause a large pulse in the electric field across the
open contacts, causing arcing and damage. It is often necessary to
incorporate design features to limit such effects.
Electronic devices such as vacuum tubes or valves, transistors
and diodes can also switch on and off very quickly, causing similar
issues. One-off pulses may be caused by solid-state switches and other
devices used only occasionally. However, the many millions of
transistors in a modern computer may switch repeatedly at frequencies
above 1 GHz, causing interference which appears to be continuous.
Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP)
A nuclear electromagnetic pulse is the abrupt pulse of electromagnetic radiation resulting from a nuclear explosion. The resulting rapidly changing electric fields and magnetic fields may couple with electrical/electronic systems to produce damaging current and voltage surges.
The intense gamma radiation
emitted can also ionize the surrounding air, creating a secondary EMP
as the atoms of air first lose their electrons and then regain them.
NEMP
weapons are designed to maximize such EMP effects as the primary damage
mechanism, and some are capable of destroying susceptible electronic
equipment over a wide area.
A high-altitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP) weapon is a NEMP
warhead designed to be detonated far above the Earth's surface. The
explosion releases a blast of gamma rays into the mid-stratosphere,
which ionizes as a secondary effect and the resultant energetic free
electrons interact with the Earth's magnetic field to produce a much
stronger EMP than is normally produced in the denser air at lower
altitudes.
Non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NNEMP)
Non-nuclear
electromagnetic pulse (NNEMP) is a weapon-generated electromagnetic
pulse without use of nuclear technology. Devices that can achieve this
objective include a large low-inductance capacitor bank discharged into a single-loop antenna, a microwave generator, and an explosively pumped flux compression generator. To achieve the frequency characteristics of the pulse needed for optimal coupling into the target, wave-shaping circuits or microwave generators are added between the pulse source and the antenna. Vircators are vacuum tubes that are particularly suitable for microwave conversion of high-energy pulses.
NNEMP generators can be carried as a payload of bombs, cruise missiles (such as the CHAMP missile) and drones, with diminished mechanical, thermal and ionizing radiation effects, but without the consequences of deploying nuclear weapons.
The range of NNEMP weapons is much less than nuclear EMP. Nearly
all NNEMP devices used as weapons require chemical explosives as their
initial energy source, producing only 10−6 (one millionth) the energy of nuclear explosives of similar weight.
The electromagnetic pulse from NNEMP weapons must come from within the
weapon, while nuclear weapons generate EMP as a secondary effect.
These facts limit the range of NNEMP weapons, but allow finer target
discrimination. The effect of small e-bombs has proven to be sufficient
for certain terrorist or military operations.
Examples of such operations include the destruction of electronic
control systems critical to the operation of many ground vehicles and
aircraft.
The concept of the explosively pumped flux compression generator
for generating a non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse was conceived as
early as 1951 by Andrei Sakharov in the Soviet Union, but nations kept work on non-nuclear EMP classified until similar ideas emerged in other nations.
Electromagnetic forming
The large forces generated by electromagnetic pulses can be used to
shape or form objects as part of their manufacturing process.
Effects
Minor
EMP events, and especially pulse trains, cause low levels of electrical
noise or interference which can affect the operation of susceptible
devices. For example, a common problem in the mid-twentieth century was
interference emitted by the ignition systems of gasoline engines, which
caused radio sets to crackle and TV sets to show stripes on the screen.
Laws were introduced to make vehicle manufacturers fit interference
suppressors.
At a high voltage level an EMP can induce a spark, for example
from an electrostatic discharge when fueling a gasoline engine
vehicle. Such sparks have been known to cause fuel-air explosions and
precautions must be taken to prevent them.
A large and energetic EMP can induce high currents and voltages
in the victim unit, temporarily disrupting its function or even
permanently damaging it.
A powerful EMP can also directly affect magnetic materials and corrupt the data stored on media such as magnetic tape and computer hard drives. Hard drives are usually shielded by heavy metal casings. Some IT asset disposition service providers and computer recyclers use a controlled EMP to wipe such magnetic media.
A very large EMP event such as a lightning strike is also capable
of damaging objects such as trees, buildings and aircraft directly,
either through heating effects or the disruptive effects of the very
large magnetic field generated by the current. An indirect effect can be
electrical fires caused by heating. Most engineered structures and
systems require some form of protection against lightning to be designed
in.
The damaging effects of high-energy EMP have led to the
introduction of EMP weapons, from tactical missiles with a small radius
of effect to nuclear bombs tailored for maximum EMP effect over a wide
area.
Control
EMP simulator HAGII-C testing a Boeing E-4 aircraft.
EMPRESS I (antennas along shoreline) with USS Estocin (FFG-15) moored in the foreground for testing.
Like any electromagnetic interference, the threat from EMP is subject to control measures. This is true whether the threat is natural or man-made.
Therefore, most control measures focus on the susceptibility of equipment to EMP effects, and hardening
or protecting it from harm. Man-made sources, other than weapons, are
also subject to control measures in order to limit the amount of pulse
energy emitted.
The discipline of ensuring correct equipment operation in the
presence of EMP and other RF threats is known as electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC).
Test simulation
To test the effects of EMP on engineered systems and equipment, an EMP simulator may be used.
Induced pulse simulation
Induced
pulses are of much lower energy than threat pulses and so are more
practicable to create, but they are less predictable. A common test
technique is to use a current clamp
in reverse, to inject a range of damped sine wave signals into a cable
connected to the equipment under test. The damped sine wave generator is
able to reproduce the range of induced signals likely to occur.
Threat pulse simulation
Sometimes
the threat pulse itself is simulated in a repeatable way. The pulse may
be reproduced at low energy in order to characterize the victim's
response prior to damped sinewave injection, or at high energy to
recreate the actual threat conditions.
A small-scale ESD simulator may be hand-held.
Bench- or room-sized simulators come in a range of designs, depending on the type and level of threat to be generated.
At the top end of the scale, large outdoor test facilities
incorporating high-energy EMP simulators have been built by several
countries.
The largest facilities are able to test whole vehicles including ships
and aircraft for their susceptibility to EMP. Nearly all of these large
EMP simulators used a specialized version of a Marx generator.
Examples include the huge wooden-structured ATLAS-I simulator (also known as TRESTLE) at Sandia National Labs, New Mexico, which was at one time the world's largest EMP simulator. Papers on this and other large EMP simulators used by the United States during the latter part of the Cold War,
along with more general information about electromagnetic pulses, are
now in the care of the SUMMA Foundation, which is hosted at the
University of New Mexico.
The US Navy also has a large facility called the Electro Magnetic Pulse
Radiation Environmental Simulator for Ships I (EMPRESS I).
Safety
High-level
EMP signals can pose a threat to human safety. In such circumstances,
direct contact with a live electrical conductor should be avoided. Where
this occurs, such as when touching a Van de Graaf generator
or other highly-charged object, care must be taken to release the
object and then discharge the body through a high resistance, in order
to avoid the risk of a harmful shock pulse when stepping away.
Very high electric field strengths can cause breakdown of the air
and a potentially lethal arc current similar to lightning to flow,
however electric field strengths of up to 200 kV/m (Kilovolts per metre)
are regarded as safe.
Magnetic pulses are generally safe, although extremely high pulse levels can affect brain activity, as in transcranial magnetic stimulation.
In popular culture
The popular media often depict EMP effects incorrectly, causing
misunderstandings among the public and even professionals. Official
efforts have been made in the U.S. to disprove these misconceptions.
