The term identity politics has been in use in various
forms since the 1960s or 1970s, but has been applied with, at times,
radically different meanings by different populations.
It has gained currency with the emergence of social movements such as
the women's movement, the civil rights movement in the U.S., the LGBTQ
movement, as well as nationalist and postcolonial movements.
Examples include identity politics based on age, religion, social class or caste, culture, deafhood, dialect, disability, education, ethnicity, language, nationality, sex, gender identity, generation, occupation, profession, race, political party affiliation, sexual orientation, settlement, urban and rural habitation, and veteran status.
Examples include identity politics based on age, religion, social class or caste, culture, deafhood, dialect, disability, education, ethnicity, language, nationality, sex, gender identity, generation, occupation, profession, race, political party affiliation, sexual orientation, settlement, urban and rural habitation, and veteran status.
History
The term identity politics has been used in political discourse since at least the 1970s.
One aim of identity politics has been for those feeling oppressed by
and actively suffering under systemic social inequities to articulate
their suffering and felt oppression in terms of their own experience by
processes of consciousness-raising and collective action. One of the older written examples of it can be found in the April 1977 statement of the black feminist group, Combahee River Collective, which was subsequently reprinted in a number of anthologies, and Barbara Smith and the Combahee River Collective have been credited with coining the term. For example, in their terminal statement, they said:
[A]s children we realized that we were different from boys and that we were treated different—for example, when we were told in the same breath to be quiet both for the sake of being 'ladylike' and to make us less objectionable in the eyes of white people. In the process of consciousness-raising, actually life-sharing, we began to recognize the commonality of our experiences and, from the sharing and growing consciousness, to build a politics that will change our lives and inevitably end our oppression....We realize that the only people who care enough about us to work consistently for our liberation are us. Our politics evolve from a healthy love for ourselves, our sisters and our community which allows us to continue our struggle and work. This focusing upon our own oppression is embodied in the concept of identity politics. We believe that the most profound and potentially most radical politics come directly out of our own identity, as opposed to working to end somebody else's oppression.
— Zillah R. Eisenstein (1978), The Combahee River Collective Statement,
Identity politics, as a mode of categorizing, are closely connected
to the ascription that some social groups are oppressed (such as women, ethnic minorities, and sexual minorities);
that is, the claim that individuals belonging to those groups are, by
virtue of their identity, more vulnerable to forms of oppression such as
cultural imperialism, violence, exploitation of labour, marginalization, or powerlessness.
Therefore, these lines of social difference can be seen as ways to gain
empowerment or avenues through which to work towards a more equal
society.
Some groups have combined identity politics and Marxist social class analysis and class consciousness — the most notable example being the Black Panther Party — but this is not necessarily characteristic of the form. Another example is MOVE, members of which mixed black nationalism with anarcho-primitivism (a radical form of green politics based on the idea that civilization is an instrument of oppression, advocating the return to a hunter gatherer society). Identity politics can be left wing or right wing, with examples of the latter being Ulster Loyalism, Islamism and Christian Identity movements.
During the 1980s, the politics of identity became very prominent and it was linked to a new wave of social movement activism.
The mid-2010s have seen a marked rise of identity politics, including white identity politics in the United States.
This phenomenon is attributed to increased demographic diversity and
the prospect of whites becoming a minority in America. Such shifts have
driven many to affiliate with conservative causes including those not
related to diversity. This includes the presidential election of Donald Trump, who was supported by prominent white supremacists such as David Duke and Richard B. Spencer (which Trump disavowed).
Debates and criticism
Nature of the movement
The term identity politics has been applied and misapplied retroactively to varying movements that long predate its coinage. Historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. discussed identity politics extensively in his 1991 book The Disuniting of America. Schlesinger, a strong supporter of liberal conceptions of civil rights, argues that a liberal democracy requires a common basis for culture and society
to function. Rather than seeing civil society as already fractured
along lines of power and powerless (according to race, ethnicity,
sexuality, etc), Schlesinger suggests that basing politics on group
marginalization is itself what fractures the civil polity, and that
identity politics therefore works against creating real opportunities
for ending marginalization. Schlesinger believes that "movements for
civil rights should aim toward full acceptance and integration of
marginalized groups into the mainstream culture, rather
than...perpetuating that marginalization through affirmations of
difference".
Brendan O'Neill
has similarly suggested that identity politics causes (rather than
simply recognizes and acts on) political schisms along lines of social
identity. Thus, he contrasts the politics of gay liberation and identity politics by saying "... [Peter] Tatchell
also had, back in the day, ... a commitment to the politics of
liberation, which encouraged gays to come out and live and engage. Now,
we have the politics of identity, which invites people to stay in, to
look inward, to obsess over the body and the self, to surround
themselves with a moral forcefield to protect their worldview—which has
nothing to do with the world—from any questioning."
In these and other ways, a political perspective oriented to one's own
well being can be recast as causing the divisions that it insists upon
making visible.
In this same vein, author Owen Jones argues that identity politics often marginalize the working class, saying that:
In the 1950s and 1960s, left-wing intellectuals who were both inspired and informed by a powerful labour movement wrote hundreds of books and articles on working-class issues. Such work would help shape the views of politicians at the very top of the Labour Party. Today, progressive intellectuals are far more interested in issues of identity. ... Of course, the struggles for the emancipation of women, gays, and ethnic minorities are exceptionally important causes. New Labour has co-opted them, passing genuinely progressive legislation on gay equality and women's rights, for example. But it is an agenda that has happily co-existed with the sidelining of the working class in politics, allowing New Labour to protect its radical flank while pressing ahead with Thatcherite policies.
— Owen Jones, Chavs: The Demonization of the Working Class
LGBT issues
The gay liberation movement of the late 1960s through the mid-1980s urged lesbians and gay men to engage in radical direct action, and to counter societal shame with gay pride. In the feminist spirit of the personal being political, the most basic form of activism was an emphasis on coming out to family, friends and colleagues, and living life as an openly lesbian or gay person.
While the 1970s were the peak of "gay liberation" in New York City and
other urban areas in the United States, "gay liberation" was the term
still used instead of "gay pride" in more oppressive areas into the
mid-1980s, with some organizations opting for the more inclusive,
"lesbian and gay liberation". While women and transgender activists had lobbied for more inclusive names from the beginning of the movement, the initialism LGBT, or "Queer" as a counterculture shorthand for LGBT,
did not gain much acceptance as an umbrella term until much later in
the 1980s, and in some areas not until the '90s or even '00s.
During this period in the United States, identity politics were largely
seen in these communities in the definitions espoused by writers such
as self-identified, "black, dyke, feminist, poet, mother" Audre Lorde's view, that lived experience
matters, defines us, and is the only thing that grants authority to
speak; that, "If I didn't define myself for myself, I would be crunched
into other people's fantasies for me and eaten alive."
By the 2000s, in some areas of postmodern queer studies, notably those around gender,
the idea of "identity politics" began to shift away from that of naming
and claiming lived experience, and authority arising from lived
experience, to one emphasizing choice and performance. Some who draw on the work of authors like Judith Butler,
stress the importance of not assuming an already existing identity, but
of remaking and unmaking identities through "performance". Writers in the field of Queer theory
have at times taken this to the extent as to now argue that "queer",
despite generations of specific use, no longer needs to refer to any
specific sexual orientation at all; that it is now only about disrupting
the mainstream, with author David M. Halperin arguing that straight people may now also self-identify as "queer," which some believe, is a form of cultural appropriation
which robs gays and lesbians of their identity and makes invisible and
irrelevant the actual, lived experience that causes them to be
marginalized in the first place. "It desexualizes identity, when the
issue is precisely about a sexual identity."
There are also supporters of identity politics who have developed their stances on the basis of Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's work (namely, "Can the Subaltern Speak?") and have described some forms of identity politics as strategic essentialism, a form which has sought to work with hegemonic discourses to reform the understanding of "universal" goals.
Critiques of identity politics
The Industrial Workers of the World poster "Pyramid of Capitalist System" (1911)
Some critics argue that groups based on a particular shared identity
(e.g. race, or gender identity) can divert energy and attention from
more fundamental issues, similar to the history of divide and rule strategies. Sociologist Charles Derber
asserts that the American left is "largely an identity-politics party"
and that it "offers no broad critique of the political economy of
capitalism. It focuses on reforms for blacks and women and so forth. But
it doesn’t offer a contextual analysis within capitalism." Both he and David North of the Socialist Equality Party posit that these fragmented and isolated identity movements which permeate the left have allowed for a far-right resurgence. Critiques of identity politics have also been expressed on other grounds by writers such as Eric Hobsbawm, Todd Gitlin, Michael Tomasky, Richard Rorty, Sean Wilentz, Robert W. McChesney,[citation needed] and Jim Sleeper.
Hobsbawm, in particular, has criticized nationalisms, and the principle
of national self-determination adopted internationally after World War I,
since national governments are often merely an expression of a ruling
class or power, and their proliferation was a source of the wars of the
20th century. Hence, Hobsbawm argues that identity politics, such as queer nationalism, Islamism, Cornish nationalism or Ulster loyalism are just other versions of bourgeois nationalism.
The view that identity politics rooted in challenging racism, sexism,
and the like actually obscures class inequality is widespread in the
United States and many other Western nations; however, this framing
ignores how class-based politics are identity politics themselves.
Intersectional critiques
In her journal article Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics and Violence against Women of Color, Kimberle Crenshaw
treats identity politics as a process that brings people together based
on a shared aspect of their identity. Crenshaw applauds identity
politics for bringing African Americans (and other non-white people),
gays and lesbians, and other oppressed groups together in community and
progress.
However, Crenshaw also points out that frequently groups come together
based on a shared political identity but then fail to examine
differences among themselves within their own group: "The problem with
identity politics is not that it fails to transcend differences, as some
critics charge, but rather the opposite—that it frequently conflates or
ignores intragroup differences." Crenshaw argues that when society thinks "black", they think black male, and when society thinks feminism, they think white woman.
When considering black women, at least two aspects of their identity
are the subject of oppression: their race and their sex. Crenshaw proposes instead that identity politics are useful but that we must be aware of intersectionality and the role it plays in identity politics. Nira Yuval-Davis supports Crenshaw's critiques in Intersectionality and Feminist Politics and explains that "Identities are individual and collective narratives that answer the question 'who am/are I/we?"
In her journal article Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics and Violence against Women of Color, Crenshaw provides the example of the Clarence Thomas/Anita Hill controversy
to expand on her point. Anita Hill came forward and accused Supreme
Court Justice Nominee Clarence Thomas of sexual harassment; Clarence
Thomas would be the second African American to serve on the Supreme
Court. Crenshaw argues that when Anita Hill came forward she was deemed
anti-black in the movement against racism, and though she came forward
on the feminist issue of sexual harassment, she was excluded because
when considering feminism, it is the narrative of white middle-class
women that prevails.
Crenshaw concludes that acknowledging intersecting categories when
groups unite on the basis of identity politics is better than ignoring
categories altogether.
Examples
A Le Monde/IFOP
poll in January 2011 conducted in France and Germany found that a
majority felt Muslims are "scattered improperly"; an analyst for IFOP
said the results indicated something "beyond linking immigration with
security or immigration with unemployment, to linking Islam with a
threat to identity".
