| International English | |
|---|---|
Early forms
| |
| Latin (English alphabet) | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-1 | en |
| ISO 639-2 | eng |
| ISO 639-3 | eng |
| Linguasphere | 52-ABA |
International English is the concept of the English language as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and the movement towards an international standard for the language. It is also referred to as Global English, World English, Common English, Continental English, General English, Engas (English as associate language), or Globish. Sometimes, these terms refer simply to the array of varieties of English spoken throughout the world.
Sometimes, "international English" and the related terms above refer to a desired standardisation, i.e., Standard English;
however, there is no consensus on the path to this goal. There have
been many proposals for making International English more accessible to
people from different nationalities. Basic English is an example, but it failed to make progress. More recently, there have been proposals for English as a lingua franca (ELF) in which non-native speakers take a highly active role in the development of the language.
It has also been argued that International English is held back by its
traditional spelling. There has been slow progress in adopting alternate
spellings.
Historical context
The modern concept of International English does not exist in isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language.
The English language evolved in England, from a set of West Germanic dialects spoken by the Angles and Saxons, who arrived from continental Europe in the 5th century. Those dialects became known as Englisc (literally "Anglish"), the language today referred to as Anglo-Saxon or Old English (the language of the poem Beowulf). However, less than a quarter of the vocabulary of Modern English is derived from the shared ancestry with other West Germanic languages because of extensive borrowings from Norse, Norman, Latin, and other languages. It was during the Viking invasions of the Anglo-Saxon period that Old English was influenced by contact with Norse, a group of North Germanic dialects spoken by the Vikings, who came to control a large region in the North of England known as the Danelaw. Vocabulary items entering English from Norse (including the pronouns they, and them) are thus attributable to the on-again-off-again Viking occupation of Northern England during the centuries prior to the Norman Conquest (see, e.g., Canute the Great). Soon after the Norman Conquest of 1066, the Englisc language ceased being a literary language (see, e.g., Ormulum) and was replaced by Anglo-Norman
as the written language of England. During the Norman Period, English
absorbed a significant component of French vocabulary (approximately
one-third of the vocabulary of Modern English). With this new vocabulary, additional vocabulary borrowed from Latin (with Greek, another approximately one-third of Modern English
vocabulary, though some borrowings from Latin and Greek date from later
periods), a simplified grammar, and use of the orthographic conventions
of French instead of Old English orthography, the language became Middle English (the language of Chaucer). The "difficulty" of English as a written language thus began in the High Middle Ages,
when French orthographic conventions were used to spell a language
whose original, more suitable orthography had been forgotten after
centuries of nonuse. During the late medieval period, King Henry V of England
(lived 1387–1422) ordered the use of the English of his day in
proceedings before him and before the government bureaucracies. That led
to the development of Chancery English, a standardised form used in the government bureaucracy. (The use of so-called Law French in English courts continued through the Renaissance, however.)
The emergence of English as a language of Wales
results from the incorporation of Wales into England and also dates
from approximately this time period. Soon afterward, the development of
printing by Caxton and others accelerated the development of a standardised form of English. Following a change in vowel pronunciation
that marks the transition of English from the medieval to the
Renaissance period, the language of the Chancery and Caxton became Early Modern English (the language of Shakespeare's day) and with relatively moderate changes eventually developed into the English language of today. Scots,
as spoken in the lowlands and along the east coast of Scotland,
developed largely independent of Modern English, and is based on the
Northern dialects of Anglo-Saxon, particularly Northumbrian, which also serve as the basis of Northern English dialects such as those of Yorkshire and Newcastle upon Tyne.
Northumbria was within the Danelaw and therefore experienced greater
influence from Norse than did the Southern dialects. As the political
influence of London grew, the Chancery version of the language developed into a written standard across Great Britain, further progressing in the modern period as Scotland became united with England as a result of the Acts of Union of 1707.
English was introduced to Ireland twice—a medieval introduction that led to the development of the now-extinct Yola dialect, and a modern introduction in which Hibernian English largely replaced Irish as the most widely spoken language during the 19th century, following the Act of Union of 1800. Received Pronunciation (RP) is generally viewed as a 19th-century development and is not reflected in North American English dialects (except the affected Transatlantic accent), which are based on 18th-century English.
The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in North America in 1607 was a major step towards the globalisation of the language. British English
was only partially standardised when the American colonies were
established. Isolated from each other by the Atlantic Ocean, the
dialects in England and the colonies began evolving independently.
The British colonisation of Australia starting in 1788 brought the English language to Oceania. By the 19th century, the standardisation of British English was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this relatively well-established English was brought to Africa, Asia and New Zealand.
It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from
Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on
speakers of other languages in the various parts of the British Empire. The first form can be seen in New Zealand English, and the latter in Indian English. In Europe, English received a more central role particularly since 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was composed not only in French,
the common language of diplomacy at the time, but, under special
request from American president Woodrow Wilson, also in English – a
major milestone in the globalisation of English.
The English-speaking regions of Canada and the Caribbean
are caught between historical connections with the UK and the
Commonwealth and geographical and economic connections with the U.S. In
some things they tend to follow British standards, whereas in others,
especially commercial, they follow the U.S. standard.
English as a global language
Braj Kachru divides the use of English into three concentric circles.
The inner circle is the traditional base of English and includes countries such as the United Kingdom and Ireland and the anglophone populations of the former British colonies of the United States, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and various islands of the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean.
In the outer circle are those countries where English has
official or historical importance ("special significance"). This
includes most of the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations (the former British Empire), including populous countries such as India, Pakistan, and Nigeria; and others, such as the Philippines, under the sphere of influence of English-speaking countries. Here English may serve as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups. Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce, and so on, may all be carried out predominantly in English.
The expanding circle refers to those countries where
English has no official role, but is nonetheless important for certain
functions, e.g., international business and tourism. By the twenty-first
century, non-native English speakers have come to outnumber native
speakers by a factor of three, according to the British Council. Darius Degher, a professor at Malmö University in Sweden, uses the term decentered English to describe this shift, along with attendant changes in what is considered important to English users and learners.
Research on English as a lingua franca in the sense of "English
in the Expanding Circle" is comparatively recent. Linguists who have
been active in this field are Jennifer Jenkins, Barbara Seidlhofer, Christiane Meierkord and Joachim Grzega.
English as a lingua franca in foreign language teaching
English as an additional language (EAL) is usually based on the
standards of either American English or British English as well as
incorporating foreign terms. English as an international language (EIL)
is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in
particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to
communicate internationally. Roger Nunn
considers different types of competence in relation to the teaching of
English as an International Language, arguing that linguistic competence
has yet to be adequately addressed in recent considerations of EIL.
Several models of "simplified English" have been suggested for teaching English as a foreign language:
- Basic English, developed by Charles Kay Ogden (and later also I. A. Richards) in the 1930s; a recent revival has been initiated by Bill Templer
- Threshold Level English, developed by van Ek and Alexander
- Globish, developed by Jean-Paul Nerrière
- Basic Global English, developed by Joachim Grzega
Furthermore, Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein thought about a Nuclear English, which, however, has never been fully developed.
With reference to the term "Globish", Robert McCrum has used this
to mean "English as global language". Jean-Paul Nerriere uses it for a
constructed language.
Basic Global English
Basic Global English, or BGE, is a concept of global English initiated by German linguist Joachim Grzega.
It evolved from the idea of creating a type of English that can be
learned more easily than regular British or American English and that
serves as a tool for successful global communication. BGE is guided by
creating "empathy and tolerance" between speakers in a global context.
This applies to the context of global communication, where different
speakers with different mother tongues come together. BGE aims to
develop this competence as quickly as possible.
English language teaching is almost always related to a
corresponding culture, e. g., learners either deal with American English
and therefore with American culture, or British English and therefore
with British culture. Basic Global English seeks to solve this problem
by creating one collective version of English. Additionally, its
advocates promote it as a system suited for self-teaching as well as
classroom teaching.
BGE is based on 20 elementary grammar rules that provide a
certain degree of variation. For example, regular as well as irregular
formed verbs are accepted. Pronunciation rules are not as strict as in
British or American English, so there is a certain degree of variation
for the learners. Exceptions that cannot be used are pronunciations that
would be harmful to mutual understanding and therefore minimize the
success of communication.
Basic Global English is based on a 750-word vocabulary.
Additionally, every learner has to acquire the knowledge of 250
additional words. These words can be chosen freely, according to the
specific needs and interests of the learner.
BGE provides not only basic language skills, but also so called
"Basic Politeness Strategies". These include creating a positive
atmosphere, accepting an offer with "Yes, please" or refusing with "No,
thank you", and small talk topics to choose and to avoid.
Basic Global English has been tested in two elementary schools in
Germany. For the practical test of BGE, 12 lessons covered half of a
school year. After the BGE teaching, students could answer questions
about themselves, their family, their hobbies etc. Additionally they
could form questions themselves about the same topics. Besides that,
they also learned the numbers from 1 to 31 and vocabulary including
things in their school bag and in their classroom. The students as well
as the parents had a positive impression of the project.
Varying concepts
Universality and flexibility
International
English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and
developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers,
but by all those who come to use it.
Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching English as an International Language'), and especially when the language is considered as a whole in contrast with British English, American English, South African English, and the like. — McArthur (2002, p. 444–445)
It especially means English words and phrases generally understood
throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The
importance of non-native English language skills can be recognised
behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science
and technology is broken English.
Neutrality
International English reaches toward cultural neutrality. This has a practical use:
What could be better than a type of English that saves you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets! Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an attractive idea — both often concerned that their English should be neutral, without American or British or Canadian or Australian coloring. Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard' forms.
According to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of
English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial imperialism of Victorian Britain or the cultural imperialism of the 20th century United States. While British colonialism
laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International
English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much
attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but
conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic
transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and
British colonial influence.
The development of International English often centres on academic and scientific communities,
where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative use of the
language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry
into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general.
Opposition
The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by authors such as Alistair Pennycook as a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.
Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his Linguistic Imperialism (1992).
Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English are in fact faced
with the dual standard of American English and British English, and
other less known standard Englishes (including Australian, Scottish and
Canadian).
Edward Trimnell, author of Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One
(2005) argues that the international version of English is only
adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and
business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication
tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that
native English-speakers have become "dependent on the language skills
of others" by placing their faith in international English.
Appropriation theory
Some reject both what they call "linguistic imperialism" and David Crystal's
theory of the neutrality of English. They argue that the phenomenon of
the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of appropriation
(e.g., Spichtinger 2000), that is, English used for local purposes
around the world. Demonstrators in non-English speaking countries often
use signs in English to convey their demands to TV-audiences around the
globe, for example.
In English-language teaching, Bobda shows how Cameroon
has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching
English and has gradually appropriated teaching material to a
Cameroonian context. This includes non-Western topics, such as the rule
of Emirs, traditional medicine, and polygamy (1997:225). Kramsch and
Sullivan (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been
appropriated to suit local Vietnamese culture. The Pakistani textbook "Primary Stage English" includes lessons such as Pakistan My Country, Our Flag, and Our Great Leader
(Malik 1993: 5,6,7), which might sound jingoistic to Western ears.
Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between
English Language Teaching (ELT), patriotism, and Muslim faith is seen as
one of the aims of ELT. The Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The
board ... takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a
love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological
frontiers of your [the students] home lands." (Punjab Text Book Board
1997).
Many Englishes
Many
difficult choices must be made if further standardisation of English is
pursued. These include whether to adopt a current standard, or move
towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English
might supplant both current American and British English as a variety
of English for international communication, leaving these as local
dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard
British English with admixture of other varieties of English and would
generally replace all these varieties of English.
We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two standard Englishes—the one which gives us our national and local identity, and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the human race. In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own language. — David Crystal (1988: p. 265)
This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess
a "non-standard" dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also
learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect.
(This phenomenon is known in linguistics as diglossia.)
Many academics often publish material in journals requiring different
varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary without
great difficulty.
As far as spelling is concerned, the differences between American
and British usage became noticeable due to the first influential lexicographers (dictionary writers) on each side of the Atlantic. Samuel Johnson's dictionary of 1755 greatly favoured Norman-influenced spellings such as centre and colour; on the other hand, Noah Webster's first guide to American spelling, published in 1783, preferred spellings like center and the Latinate color.
The difference in strategy and philosophy of Johnson and Webster are
largely responsible for the main division in English spelling that
exists today. However, these differences are extremely minor. Spelling
is but a small part of the differences between dialects
of English, and may not even reflect dialect differences at all (except
in phonetically spelled dialogue). International English refers to much
more than an agreed spelling pattern.
Dual standard
Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and inclusive approach and the new dialect approach.
The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors
to write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions)
and to accept the validity of differences. The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English,
published in 1999, is a descriptive study of both American and British
English in which each chapter follows individual spelling conventions
according to the preference of the main editor of that chapter.
The new dialect approach appears in The Cambridge Guide to English Usage
(Peters, 2004), which attempts to avoid any language bias and
accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of mixed
American and British forms (but tending to prefer the American English
spellings).
