Argentine president Néstor Kirchner and Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez discuss the Gran Gasoducto del Sur, an energy and trade integration project for South America. They met on November 21, 2005 in Venezuela.
Petroleum politics have been an increasingly important aspect of diplomacy since the rise of the petroleum industry in the Middle East
in the early 20th century. As competition continues for a vital
resource, the strategic calculations of major and minor countries alike
place prominent emphasis on the pumping, refining, transport, sale and
use of petroleum products. However, international climate policy and
unconventional oil and gas developments may change the balance of power
between petroleum exporting and importing countries with major negative
implications expected for the exporting states.
Quota agreements
The Achnacarry Agreement or "As-Is Agreement" was an early attempt to restrict petroleum production, signed in Scotland on 17 September 1928. The discovery of the East Texas Oil Field in the 1930s led to a boom in production that caused prices to fall, leading the Railroad Commission of Texas to control production. The Commission retained de facto control of the market until the rise of OPEC in the 1970s.
The Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement of 1944 tried to extend these restrictions internationally but was opposed by the industry in the United States and so Franklin Roosevelt withdrew from the deal.
Venezuela was the first country to move towards the establishment of OPEC by approaching Iran, Gabon, Libya, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia in 1949, but OPEC was not set up until 1960, when the United States forced import quotas on Venezuelan and Persian Gulf oil in order to support the Canadian and Mexican oil industries. OPEC first wielded its power with the 1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe.
Oil and international conflict
The term "petro-aggression" has been used to describe the tendency of oil-rich states to instigate international conflicts.
There are many examples including: Iraq’s invasion of Iran and Kuwait;
Libya’s repeated incursions into Chad in the 1970s and 1980s; Iran’s
long-standing suspicion of Western powers. Some scholars have also
suggested that oil-rich states are frequently the targets of "resource
wars."
Peak oil
In 1956, a Shell geophysicist named M. King Hubbert accurately predicted that U.S. oil production would peak in 1970.
In June 2006, former U.S. president Bill Clinton said in a speech:
...We may be at a point of peak oil production. You may see $100 a barrel oil in the next two or three years, but what still is driving this globalization is the idea that is you cannot possibly get rich, stay rich and get richer if you don’t release more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. That was true in the industrial era; it is simply factually not true. What is true is that the old energy economy is well organized, financed and connected politically.
In a 1999 speech, Dick Cheney, the US Vice President and former CEO of Halliburton (one of the world's largest energy services corporations), said:
By some estimates there will be an average of two per cent annual growth in global oil demand over the years ahead along with conservatively a three per cent natural decline in production from existing reserves. That means by 2010 we will need on the order of an additional fifty million barrels a day. So where is the oil going to come from?....While many regions of the world offer great oil opportunities, the Middle East with two thirds of the world's oil and the lowest cost, is still where the prize ultimately lies, even though companies are anxious for greater access there, progress continues to be slow.
Cheney went on to argue that the oil industry should become more active in politics:
Oil is the only large industry whose leverage has not been all that effective in the political arena. Textiles, electronics, agriculture all seem often to be more influential. Our constituency is not only oilmen from Louisiana and Texas, but software writers in Massachusetts and specialty steel producers in Pennsylvania. I am struck that this industry is so strong technically and financially yet not as politically successful or influential as are often smaller industries. We need to earn credibility to have our views heard.
Pipeline diplomacy in the Caspian Sea area
The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline was built to transport crude oil and the Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum pipeline was built to transport natural gas from the western side (Azerbaijani sector) of the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean Sea bypassing Russian pipelines and thus Russian control. Following the construction of the pipelines, the United States and the European Union proposed extending them by means of the proposed Trans-Caspian Oil Pipeline and the Trans-Caspian Gas Pipeline under the Caspian Sea to oil and gas fields on the eastern side (Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan
sectors) of the Caspian Sea. In 2007, Russia signed agreements with
Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan to connect their oil and gas fields to the
Russian pipeline system effectively killing the undersea route.
China has completed the Kazakhstan–China oil pipeline from the Kazakhstan oil fields to the Chinese Alashankou-Dushanzi Crude Oil Pipeline in China. China is also working on the Kazakhstan-China gas pipeline from the Kazakhstan gas fields to the Chinese West-East Gas Pipeline in China.
Politics of oil nationalization
Several countries have nationalised foreign-run oil businesses, often failing to compensate investors. Enrique Mosconi, the director of the Argentine state owned oil company Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales (YPF, which was the first state owned oil company in the world, preceding the French Compagnie française des pétroles (CFP, French Company of Petroleums), created in 1924 by the conservative Raymond Poincaré), advocated oil nationalization in the late 1920s among Latin American countries. The latter was achieved in Mexico during Lázaro Cárdenas's rule, with the Expropiación petrolera.
Similarly Venezuela nationalized its oil industry in 1976.
Politics of alternative fuels
Vinod Khosla (a well known investor in IT firms and alternative energy) has argued
that the political interests of environmental advocates, agricultural
businesses, energy security advocates (such as ex-CIA director James
Woolsey) and automakers, are all aligned for the increased production of
ethanol. He pointed out that from 2003 to 2006, ethanol fuel in Brazil
replaced 40% of its gasoline consumption while flex fuel vehicles went
from 3% of car sales to 70%. Brazilian ethanol, which is produced using
sugarcane, reduces greenhouse gases by 60-80% (20% for corn-produced
ethanol). Khosla also said that ethanol was about 10% cheaper per given
distance. There are currently ethanol subsidies in the United States
but they are all blender's credits, meaning the oil refineries receive
the subsidies rather than the farmers. There are indirect subsidies due
to subsidising farmers to produce corn. Vinod says after one of his
presentations in Davos, a senior Saudi oil official came up to him and threatened: "If biofuels start to take off, we will drop the price of oil."
Since then, Vinod has come up with a new recommendation that oil should
be taxed if it drops below $40.00/barrel in order to counter price
manipulation.
Ex-CIA director James Woolsey and U.S. Senator Richard Lugar are also vocal proponents of ethanol.
In 2005, Sweden announced plans to end its dependence on fossil fuels by the year 2020.
Geopolitics of oil money
Multibillion-dollar inflows and outflows of petroleum money have worldwide macroeconomic consequences, and major oil exporters can gain substantial influence from their petrodollar recycling activities.
Key oil producing countries
Canada
As development in the Alberta oil sands, deep sea drilling in the North Atlantic and the prospects of arctic oil
continue to grow Canada increasingly grows as a global oil exporter.
There are currently three major pipelines under proposal that would ship
oil to the pacific, atlantic and gulf ports. These projects have
stirred internal controversy, receiving fierce opposition from First
Nations groups and environmentalists.
Iran
Discovery of oil in 1908 at Masjed Soleiman in Iran initiated the quest for oil in the Middle East. The Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) was founded in 1909.
In 1951, Iran nationalized its oil fields initiating the Abadan Crisis.
The United States of America and Great Britain thus punished Iran by
arranging coup against its democratically elected prime minister,
Mosaddeq, and brought the former Shah's son, a dictator, to power. In
1953 the US and GB arranged the arrest of the Prime Minister Mosaddeq.
Iran exports oil to China and Russia.
Iraq
Iraq holds the world's second-largest proven oil reserves, with increasing exploration expected to enlarge them beyond 200 billion barrels (3.2×1010 m3) of "high-grade crude, extraordinarily cheap to produce." Organizations such as the Global Policy Forum (GPF) have asserted that Iraq's oil is "the central feature of the political landscape" there, and that as a result of the 2003 invasion,"'friendly'
companies expect to gain most of the lucrative oil deals that will be
worth hundreds of billions of dollars in profits in the coming decades."
According to GPF, U.S. influence over the 2005 Constitution of Iraq has made sure it "contains language that guarantees a major role for foreign companies."
Mexico
Mexico has a largely oil-based economy, being the seventh largest
producer of petroleum. Though Mexico has gradually explored different
types of electricity, oil is still crucial, recently generating 10% of
revenue.
Before 1938, all petroleum companies in Mexico were foreign
based, often from the United States or Europe. The petroleum industry
was nationalized in the late 1930s to early 1940s by then-president Lázaro Cárdenas, creating PEMEX.
Mexico's oil industry still remains heavily nationalized. Though oil
production has fallen in recent years, Mexico still remains in seventh
place.
Nigeria
Petroleum in Nigeria was discovered in 1955 at Oloibiri in the Niger Delta.
High oil prices were the driving force behind Nigeria’s
economic growth in 2005. The country’s real gross domestic product
(GDP) grew approximately 4.5 percent in 2005 and was expected to grow by
6.2 percent in 2006. The Nigerian economy is heavily dependent on the
oil sector, which accounts for 95 percent of government revenues. Even
with the substantial oil wealth, Nigeria ranks as one of the poorest
countries in the world, with a $1,000 per capita income and more than 70
percent of the population living in poverty. In October 2005, the
15-member Paris Club announced that it would cancel 60 percent of the
debt owed by Nigeria. However, Nigeria must still pay $12.4 billion in
arrears among meeting other conditions. In March 2006, phase two of
the Paris Club agreement will include an additional 34 percent debt cancellation,
while Nigeria will be responsible for paying back any remaining
eligible debts to the lending nations. The International Monetary Fund
(IMF), which recently praised the Nigerian government for adopting
tighter fiscal policies, will be allowed to monitor Nigeria without
having to disburse loans to the country.
Russia
High-priced oil allowed the Soviet Union to subsidize the struggling economies of the Soviet bloc for a time, and the loss of petrodollar income during the 1980s oil glut contributed to the bloc's collapse in 1989.
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
is an oil-based economy with strong government controls over major
economic activities. It possesses both the world's largest known oil
reserves, which are 25% of the world's proven reserves, and produces the
largest amount of the world's oil. As of 2005, Ghawar field accounts for about half of Saudi Arabia's total oil production capacity.
Saudi Arabia ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum, and
plays a leading role in OPEC, its decisions to raise or cut production
almost immediately impact world oil prices.
It is perhaps the best example of a contemporary energy superpower, in
terms of having power and influence on the global stage (due to its
energy reserves and production of not just oil, but natural gas as
well). Saudi Arabia is often referred to as the world's only "oil
superpower".
United States
In 1998, about 40% of the energy consumed by the United States came from oil.
The United States is responsible for 25% of the world's oil
consumption, while having only 3% of the world's proven oil reserves and
less than 5% of the world's population. In January 1980, President Jimmy Carter explicitly declared:
"An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf
region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the
United States."
Venezuela
According to the Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ), Venezuela has 77.2 billion barrels (1.227×1010 m3)
of proven conventional oil reserves, the largest of any country in the
Western Hemisphere. In addition it has non-conventional oil deposits
similar in size to Canada's - at 1,200 billion barrels (1.9×1011 m3) approximately equal to the world's reserves of conventional oil. About 267 billion barrels (4.24×1010 m3) of this may be producible at current prices using current technology. Venezuela's Orinoco tar sands are less viscous than Canada's Athabasca oil sands – meaning they can be produced by more conventional means, but are buried deeper – meaning they cannot be extracted by surface mining. In an attempt to have these extra heavy
oil reserves recognized by the international community, Venezuela has
moved to add them to its conventional reserves to give nearly 350
billion barrels (5.6×1010 m3) of total oil reserves. This would give it the largest oil reserves in the world, even ahead of Saudi Arabia.
Venezuela nationalized its oil industry in 1975–1976, creating Petróleos de Venezuela S.A. (PdVSA),
the country's state-run oil and natural gas company. Along with being
Venezuela's largest employer, PdVSA accounts for about one-third of the
country’s GDP, 50 percent of the government’s revenue and 80 percent of
Venezuela’s exports earnings. In recent years, under the influence of
President Chavez, the Venezuelan government has reduced PdVSA’s previous
autonomy and amended the rules regulating the country’s hydrocarbons
sector.
In the 1990s, Venezuela opened its upstream oil sector to private
investment. This collection of policies, called apertura, facilitated
the creation of 32 operating service agreements (OSA) with 22 separate
foreign oil companies, including international oil majors like Chevron,
BP, Total, and Repsol-YPF. Hugo Chávez, the President of Venezuela
sharply diverged from previous administrations' economic policies.
PDVSA is now used as a cash-cow and as an employer-of-last-resort; foreign oil businesses were nationalised and the government refused to pay compensation.
Estimates of Venezuelan oil production vary. Venezuela claims its oil production is over 3 million barrels per day (480,000 m3/d),
but oil industry analysts and the U.S. Energy Information
Administration believe it to be much lower. In addition to other
reporting irregularities,
much of its production is extra-heavy oil, which may or may not be
included with conventional oil in the various production estimates. The
U.S. Energy Information Agency estimated Venezuela's oil production in
December 2006 was only 2.5 million barrels per day (400,000 m3/d), a 24% decline from its peak of 3.3 million in 1997.
Recently, Venezuela has pushed the creation of regional oil initiatives for the Caribbean (Petrocaribe),
the Andean region (Petroandino), and South America (Petrosur), and
Latin America (Petroamerica). The initiatives include assistance for oil
developments, investments in refining capacity, and preferential oil
pricing. The most developed of these three is the Petrocaribe
initiative, with 13 nations signing a preliminary agreement in 2005.
Under Petrocaribe, Venezuela will offer crude oil and petroleum products
to Caribbean nations under preferential terms and prices, with Jamaica
as the first nation to sign on in August 2005.
