Global Horizontal Irradiation in Sub-Saharan Africa.
The developing nations of Africa are popular locations for the application of renewable energy
technology. Currently, many nations already have small-scale solar,
wind, and geothermal devices in operation providing energy to urban and
rural populations. These types of energy production are especially
useful in remote locations because of the excessive cost of transporting
electricity from large-scale power plants. The applications of
renewable energy technology has the potential to alleviate many of the
problems that face Africans every day, especially if done in a sustainable manner that prioritizes human rights.
Access to energy is essential for the reduction of poverty and promotion of economic growth.
Communication technologies, education, industrialization, agricultural
improvement and expansion of municipal water systems all require
abundant, reliable, and cost-effective energy access.
Avoiding fossil fuels
By investing in the long-term energy solutions that alternative energy
sources afford, most African nations would benefit significantly in the
longer term by avoiding the pending economic problems developed
countries are currently facing.
Although in many ways fossil fuels
provide a simple, easy to use energy source that powered the
industrialization of most modern nations, the issues associated with the
widespread use of fossil fuels are now numerous, consisting of some of
the world's most difficult and large-scale global political, economic,
health and environmental problems. The looming energy crisis
results from consuming these fossil fuels at a rate which is
unsustainable, with the global demand for fossil fuels expected to
increase every year for the next several decades, compounding existing
problems.
While a great number of projects are currently underway to expand and connect the existing grid networks,
too many problems exist to make this a realistic option for the vast
majority of people in Africa, especially those who live in rural
locations. Distributed generation using renewable energy systems is the only practical solution to meet rural electrification needs.
There is a move towards energy decentralization in African nations,
with many looking towards variants of energy decentralization
frameworks, such as District Energy Officers, for example as described
in a recommendations paper for District Energy Officers for the country
of Malawi.
Renewable energy resources
Hydro-electric, wind and solar power all derive their energy from the Sun. The Sun emits more energy in one second (3.827 × 1026 J) than is available in all of the fossil fuels present on earth (3.9 × 1022 J),
and therefore has the potential to provide all of our current and
future global energy requirements. Since the solar source for renewable
energy is clean and free, African nations can protect their people,
their environment, and their future economic development by using
renewable energy sources To this end they have a number of possible options.
Solar resources
World map of global solar horizontal irradiation
Africa is the sunniest continent on Earth, especially as there are many perpetually sunny areas like the huge Sahara Desert.
It has much greater solar resources than any other continent. Desert
regions stand up as the most sunshiny while rain forests are
considerably cloudier but still get a good global solar irradiation
because of the proximity with the equator.
The distribution of solar resources across Africa is fairly
uniform, with more than 85% of the continent's landscape receiving at
least 2,000 kWh/(m² year). A recent study indicates that a solar
generating facility covering just 0.3% of the area comprising North
Africa could supply all of the energy required by the European Union. This is the same land area as the state of Maine.
Wave and wind resources
World map of wind power density.
Africa has a large coastline, where wind power and wave power resources are abundant and underutilized in the north and south. Geothermal power has potential to provide considerable amounts of energy in many eastern African nations.
Wind is far less uniformly distributed than solar resources, with
optimal locations positioned near special topographical funneling
features close to coastal locations, mountain ranges, and other natural
channels in the north and south. The availability of wind on the western
coast of Africa is substantial, exceeding 3,750 kW·h, and will
accommodate the future prospect for energy demands Central Africa has lower than average wind resources to work with.
Geothermal resources
The Rift Valley near Eldoret, Kenya
Geothermal power is mostly concentrated in eastern Africa, but there
are many fragmented spots of high intensity geothermal potential spread
across the continent. There is enormous potential for geothermal energy in the East African Rift which is roughly 5,900 kilometers in length and spans several countries in East Africa including Eritrea, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Kenya, Uganda, and Zambia.
Biomass
The use of biomass fuels endangers biodiversity
and risks further damaged or destruction to the landscape. 86% of
Africa’s biomass energy is used in the sub-Saharan region, excluding
South Africa.
Even where other forms of energy are available, it is not harnessed and
utilized efficiently, underscoring the need to promote energy
efficiency where energy access is available.
There is, however, an urgent need to address the current levels
of respiratory illness from burning biomass in the home. Taking into
respect the cost differential between the biomass and fossil fuels, it
is far more cost-effective to improve the technology used to burn the
biomass than to use fossil fuels.
Horizontal integration potential
Solar
and wind power are extremely scalable, as there are systems available
from less than 1 watt to several megawatts. This makes it possible to
initialize the electrification of a home or village with minimal initial
capital. It also allows for dynamic and incremental scaling as load
demands increases. The component configuration of a wind or solar
installation also provides a level of functional redundancy, improving
the reliability of the system. If a single panel in a multi-panel solar
array is damaged, the rest of the system continues functioning
unimpeded. In a similar way, the failure of a single wind tower in a
multi-tower configuration does not cause a system-level failure.
Because solar and wind projects produce power where it is used,
they provide a safe, reliable and cost-effective solution. Because
transmission equipment is avoided, these systems are more secure, and
less vulnerable to attack.
This can be an important feature in regions prone to conflict. Wind and
solar power systems are simple to set up, easy to operate, easy to
repair, and durable. Wind resources and solar resource are abundant
enough to provide all of the electrical energy requirements of rural
populations, and this can be done in remote and otherwise fragmented
low-density areas that are impractical to address using conventional
grid-based systems.
Finance
Photo-voltaic
panels, wind turbines deep cycle batteries, meters, sockets cables, and
connectors are all expensive. Even when the relative difference in
buying power, materials cost, opportunity cost, labor cost and overhead
is factored in, renewable energy will remain expensive for people who
are living on less than US$1 per day. Many rural electrification
projects in the past use government subsidies to finance the
implementation of rural development programs. It is difficult for rural
electrification projects to be accomplished by for-profit companies; in
economically impoverished areas these programs must be run at a loss for
reasons of practicality. There are several theorized ways in which specific African nations can rally the resources for such projects.
Potential funding sources
European
countries that consume oil refined from African countries have the
opportunity to subsidize the costs of individual level, village level,
or community level alternative energy systems through emissions trading
credits. It has been proposed that for every unit of African origin
carbon consumed by the European market, a predetermined amount green
credits or carbon credits would be yielded.
The European partners could then either supply parts, components, or
systems directly, an equivalent amount of investment capital, or lend
credits to finance the distribution of renewable energy services,
knowledge or equipment.
International relief targeted at poverty reduction could also be
redirected towards subsidizing renewable energy projects. Because of the
integral role that electrification plays in supporting economic and
social development, funding of rural electrification can be seen as the
core method for addressing poverty. Radios, televisions, telephones,
computer networks, and computers all rely on an access to electricity.
Because information services allow for the proliferation of education
resources, funding the electric backbone to such systems has a
derivative effect on their development. In this way, access to
communications and education plays a major role in reducing poverty.
Additionally, international efforts that supply equipment and services
rather than money, are more resistant to resource misappropriation issue
that pose problems in less stable governments.
UNEP has developed a loan program to stimulate renewable energy market
forces with attractive return rates, buffer initial deployment costs
and entice consumers to consider and purchase renewable technology.
After a successful solar loan program sponsored by UNEP that helped 100,000 people finance solar power systems in developing countries like India, UNEP started similar schemes in other parts of the developing world like Africa - Tunisia, Morocco, and Kenya projects are already functional and many projects in other African nations are in the pipeline.
In Africa, UNEP assistance to Ghana, Kenya, and Namibia has resulted in
the adoption of draft National Climate Awareness Plans, publications in
local languages, radio programs and seminars.
The Rural Energy Enterprise Development (REED) initiative is another
flagship UNEP effort focused on enterprise development and seed
financing for clean energy entrepreneurs in developing countries of West
and Southern Africa.
The Government of South Africa has set up the South African Renewables Initiative (SARi)
to develop a financing arrangement that would enable a critical mass of
renewables to be developed in South Africa, through a combination of
international loans and grants, as well as domestic funding. This has
been a highly successful program now known as the REIPPP (Renewable
Energy Independent Power Producer Program) with four rounds of
allocations already completed. In Round 1, 19 projects were allocated,
in Round 2, 28 projects were allocated, in Round 3, 17 projects were
allocated and in Round 4, 26 projects were allocated. Over 6100MW has
been allocated with a total of R194 billion (US$16 billion) being
invested in this program. It is important to note that this investment
figure represents full funding from private entities and banks - there
are no government subsidies for this program.
Energy sector regulators as facilitators
The
funding of renewable energy (RE) projects is dependent on the
credibility of the institutions developing and implementing RE policy.
This places a particular burden on the energy regulators in Africa,
whose professional staff may be few in number and who have track records
of only a decade or so. Rules (micro policies) made by regulators are
subsidiary to overall government RE policy and depend on some delegation
of authority from the state. Nevertheless, there are instances when the
sector regulator can pro-active on behalf of customer and utility
concerns—providing facts, reports, and public statements that build a
case for care in the design of public policy towards RE. Clean and
renewable energy is likely to be of concern to a number of
organizations. Interaction between multiple authorities requires
coordination to align policies, incentives, and administrative processes
(including licensing and permitting). Of course, the making of policy
by regulators is incidental to and inherent in their duty to decide
specific cases or disputes. This micro policy-making role is derived
from the fact that macro RE policy cannot reasonably be expected to
anticipate all aspects of policy that will have to evolve for the
regulatory process to be fully functional. This point is particularly
important in the area of renewable energy, with its rapidly changing
technologies and ever-changing public (and political) attitudes. Gaps
will have to be filled and it is the regulators, with their functional
responsibilities, technical expertise, and hands-on experience that are
best positioned to accomplish that task in developing countries. Thus,
for designing auctions for purchasing power, for establishing feed-in
tariffs, or other instruments promoting RE, the energy sector regulator
has a significant impact on the penetration of RE in Africa and other
regions.
Renewable energy use
Solar power
Global Horizontal Irradiation in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Several large-scale solar power facilities are under development in Africa including projects in South Africa and Algeria.
Although solar power technology has the potential to supply energy to
large numbers of people, and has been used to generate power on a large
scale in developed nations, its greatest potential in Africa may be to
provide power on a smaller scale and to use this energy to help with
day-to-day needs such as small-scale electrification, desalination, water pumping, and water purification.
The first utility-scale solar farm in Sub-Saharan Africa is the 8.5MW plant at Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, in the Rwamagana District, Eastern Province of Rwanda. It leased 20 hectares (49 acres) of land from the village which is a charity to house and educate Rwandan genocide victims. The plant uses 28,360 photovoltaic panels
and produces 6% of total electrical supply of the country. The project
was built with U.S., Israeli, Dutch, Norwegian, Finnish and UK funding
and expertise.
There are several examples of small grid-linked solar power stations in Africa, including the photovoltaic 250 kW Kigali Solaire station in Rwanda. Under the South Africa Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Program, several projects have been developed, including the 96MW(DC) Jasper Solar Energy Project, the 75MW(DC) Lesedi PV project, and the 75MW(DC) Letsatsi PV Project, all developed by the American company SolarReserve and completed in 2014.
Power Up Gambia, a non-profit operating in The Gambia,
uses solar power technology to provide power to Gambian health care
facilities, providing a reliable source of electricity for lighting,
diagnostic testing, treatments, and water pumping. Energy For Opportunity (EFO),
a non-profit working in West Africa, uses solar power for Schools,
Health Clinics and Community Charging Stations, as well as teaches
Photovoltaic installation classes at local technical institutes. So far
its work has been mainly in Sierra Leone.
In particular its solar powered Community Charging Stations have been
recognized as an innovative model to provide electricity to rural
communities in the region.
Some plans exist to build solar farms in the deserts of North Africa to supply power for Europe. The Desertec project, backed by several European energy companies and banks, planned to generate renewable electricity in the Sahara
desert and distribute it through a high-voltage grid for export to
Europe and local consumption in North-Africa. Ambitions seek to provide
continental Europe with up to 15% of its electricity. The TuNur project would supply 2GW of solar generated electricity from Tunisia to the UK.
Solar water pumping
One of the most immediate and lethal problems facing many third world countries is the availability of clean drinking water.
Solar powered technologies can help alleviate this problem with minimal
cost using a combination of solar powered well pumping, a water tower
or other holding tank, and a solar powered water purifier. These
technologies require minimal maintenance, have low operational costs,
and once set up, will help provide clean water for drinking and
agriculture. With large enough reservoirs
for the water that has been pumped and purified with solar powered
technology, a community will be better able to withstand drought or
famine. This reservoir water could be consumed by humans, livestock, or
used to irrigate community gardens and fields, thus improving crop
yields and community health. A solar powered water purification system
can be used to clean many pathogens and germs from groundwater and runoff.
A group of these devices, filtering the water from wells or runoff
could help with poor sanitation and controlling the spread of waterborne illnesses.
Kenya may be a good candidate for testing out these systems
because of its progressive and relatively well-funded department of
agriculture, including the Kenya Agricultural Research Center, which
provides funding and oversight to many projects investigating
experimental methods and technologies.
Even though this solar technology may have a higher starting cost
than that of conventional fossil fuel, the low maintenance and
operation cost and the ability to operate without fuel makes the solar
powered systems cheaper to keep running. A small rural community could
use a system like this indefinitely, and it would provide clean drinking
water at a negligible cost after the initial equipment purchase and
setup. In a larger community, it could at least contribute to the water
supply and reduce pressures of daily survival. This technology is
capable of pumping hundreds of gallons of water per day, and is limited
only by the amount of water available in the water table.
With a minimum of training in operation and maintenance, solar
powered water pumping and purification systems have the potential to
help rural Africans fulfill one of their most basic needs for survival.
Further field test are in progress by organizations like KARI and the
many corporations that manufacture the products needed, and these
small-scale applications of solar technology are promising. Combined
with sustainable agricultural practices and conservation of natural
resources, solar power is a prime candidate to bring the benefits of
technology to the parched lands of Africa.
Supplementing the well water would be collection of runoff
rainwater during the rainy season for later use in drought. Southern
Africa has its own network of information sharing called SEARNET, which
informs farmers of techniques to catch and store rainwater, with some seeing increased yields and additional harvests.
This new network of farmers sharing their ideas with each other has led
to a spread of both new and old ideas, and this has led to greater
sustainability of water resources in the countries of Botswana, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
This water could be used for agriculture or livestock, or could be fed
through a purifier to yield water suitable for human consumption.
Examples
A solar powered water pump and holding system was installed in Kayrati, Chad, in 2004 as compensation for land lost to oil development.
This system utilizes a standard well pump powered by a photovoltaic
panel array. The pumped water is stored in a water tower, providing the
pressure needed to deliver water to homes in the area. This use of oil
revenue to build infrastructure is an example of using profits to
advance the standard of living in rural areas.
Hundreds of solar water pumping stations in Sudan fulfill a
similar role, involving various applications of different systems for
pumping and storage. Over the past 10 years approximately. 250 photovoltaic
water pumps have been installed in Sudan. Considerable progress has
been made and the present generation of systems appear to be reliable
and cost–effective under certain conditions. A photovoltaic pumping
system to pump 25 cubic metres per day requires a solar array of approx.
800 Wp. Such a pump would cost US$6000, since the total system
comprises the cost of modules, pump, motor, pipework, wiring, control
system and array support structure. PV water pumping has been promoted
successfully in Kordofan state in Sudan. It shows favorable economics as
compared to diesel pumps, and is free from the need to maintain a
regular supply of fuel. The only maintenance problems with PV pumping
[are] due to the breakdown of pumps and not the failure of the PV
devices.
The Solar Water Purifier, developed and manufactured by an
Australian company, is a low-maintenance, low operational cost solution
that is able to purify large amounts of water, even seawater, to levels
better than human consumption standards set by the World Health Organization. This device works through the processes of evaporation and UV radiation.
Light passes through the top layer of glass to the black plastic layer
underneath. Heat from the solar radiation is trapped by the water and by
the black plastic. This plastic layer is a series of connected troughs
that separate the water as it evaporates and trickles down through the
levels. The water is also subjected to UV radiation for an extended
period of time as it moves through the device, which kills many
bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. In a sunny, equatorial area like
much of Africa, this device is capable of purifying up to 45 liters per
day from a single array. Additional arrays may be chained together for
more capacity.
The Water School uses SODIS solar disinfection currently in
target areas of Kenya and Uganda to help people drink water free of
pathogens and disease causing bacteria. SODIS is a UV process that kills
microorganisms in the water to prevent water borne disease. The science
of the SODIS system is proven with over 20 years of research.
Wind power
Darling Wind Farm in South Africa
Wind Speed in Sub-Saharan Africa.
The Koudia Al Baida Farm in Morocco, is the largest wind farm in the continent. Two other large wind farms are under construction in Tangier and Tarfaya.
Kenya is building a wind farm, the Lake Turkana Wind Power (LTWP), in Marsabit County.
As Africa’s largest wind farm, the project will increase the national
electricity supply while creating jobs and reducing greenhouse gas
emissions. LTWP is planned to produce 310 MW of wind power at full
capacity.
In January 2009, the first wind turbine in West Africa was erected in Batokunku, a village in The Gambia. The 150 kilowatt turbine provides electrical power for the 2,000-person village.
The South African REIPPP has resulted in several wind farms
already in commercial operation in the country. These wind farms are
currently in operation in the provinces of the Eastern, Northern and
Western Cape. It is estimated that 10 farms are already under
construction or in operation, with 12 more being approved with the 4th
Round of the REIPPP.
Geothermal power
So far, only Kenya has exploited the geothermal potential of the Great Rift Valley. Kenya has been estimated to contain 10,000 MWe of potential geothermal energy, and has twenty potential drilling sites marked for survey in addition to three operational geothermal plants.
Kenya was the first country in Africa to adopt geothermal energy, in
1956, and houses the largest geothermal power plant on the continent, Olkaria II, operated by Kengen, who also operate Olkaria I. A further plant, Olkaria III, is privately owned and operated.
Ethiopia is home to a single binary-cycle plant but does not
utilize its full potential energy output for lack of experience in its
operation. Zambia has several sites planned for construction but their projects have stalled due to lack of funds.
Eritrea, Djibouti and Uganda have undertaken preliminary exploration
for potential geothermal sources but have not constructed any type of
power plant.
Geothermal power has been used in agricultural projects in Africa. The Oserian
flower farm in Kenya utilizes several steam wells abandoned by Kengen
to power its greenhouse. In addition, the heat involved in the
geothermal process is used to maintain stable greenhouse temperatures.
The heat can also be utilized in cooking, which would help eliminate the
dependence on wood burning.
Finance
Exploration and construction of future geothermal plants present a high cost for poor countries.
Drilling potential sites alone costs millions of dollars and can
result in zero energy return if the consistency of the heat and steam is
unreliable.
Return on investments into geothermal power are not as quick as those
into fossil fuels and may take years to pay off; however,
low-maintenance cost and the renewable nature of geothermal energy mean
more benefits in the long term.
As an early and successful adopter of geothermal power, Kenya now has significant financial backing from the World Bank.
The country hosts development conferences between representatives of
the UN Environment Program and various African governments.
