There are two types of interplanetary contamination:
Forward contamination is the transfer of life and other forms of contamination from Earth to another celestial body.
Back contamination is the introduction of extraterrestrial organisms and other forms of contamination into Earth's biosphere.
It also covers infection of humans and human habitats in space and on
other celestial bodies by extraterrestrial organisms, if such organisms
exist.
The main focus is on microbial life and on potentially invasive species.
Non-biological forms of contamination have also been considered,
including contamination of sensitive deposits (such as lunar polar ice
deposits) of scientific interest. In the case of back contamination, multicellular life is thought
unlikely but has not been ruled out. In the case of forward
contamination, contamination by multicellular life (e.g. lichens) is
unlikely to occur for robotic missions, but it becomes a consideration
in crewed missions to Mars.
Current space missions are governed by the Outer Space Treaty and the COSPAR guidelines for planetary protection. Forward contamination is prevented primarily by sterilizing the spacecraft. In the case of sample-return missions,
the aim of the mission is to return extraterrestrial samples to Earth,
and sterilization of the samples would make them of much less interest.
So, back contamination would be prevented mainly by containment, and
breaking the chain of contact between the planet of origin and Earth. It
would also require quarantine procedures for the materials and for anyone who comes into contact with them.
Overview
Most of the Solar System
appears hostile to life as we know it. No extraterrestrial life has
ever been discovered. But if extraterrestrial life exists, it may be
vulnerable to interplanetary contamination by foreign microorganisms.
Some extremophiles
may be able to survive space travel to another planet, and foreign life
could possibly be introduced by spacecraft from Earth. If possible,
some believe this poses scientific and ethical concerns.
Locations within the Solar System where life might exist today include the oceans of liquid water beneath the icy surface of Europa, Enceladus,
and Titan (its surface has oceans of liquid ethane / methane, but it may also have liquid water below the surface and ice volcanoes).
There are multiple consequences for both forward- and
back-contamination. If a planet becomes contaminated with Earth life, it
might then be difficult to tell whether any lifeforms discovered
originated there or came from Earth. Furthermore, the organic chemicals produced by the introduced life would confuse sensitive searches for biosignatures
of living or ancient native life. The same applies to other more
complex biosignatures. Life on other planets could have a common origin
with Earth life, since in the early Solar System there was much exchange
of material between the planets which could have transferred life as
well. If so, it might be based on nucleic acids too (RNA or DNA).
The majority of the species isolated are not well understood or
characterized and cannot be cultured in labs, and are known only from
DNA fragments obtained with swabs. On a contaminated planet, it might be difficult to distinguish the DNA
of extraterrestrial life from the DNA of life brought to the planet by
the exploring. Most species of microorganisms on Earth are not yet well
understood or DNA sequenced. This particularly applies to the
unculturable archaea,
and so are difficult to study. This can be either because they depend
on the presence of other microorganisms, are slow growing, or depend on
other conditions not yet understood. In typical habitats, 99% of microorganisms are not culturable. Introduced Earth life could contaminate resources of value for future human missions, such as water.
Invasive species could outcompete native life or consume it, if there is life on the planet. However, the experience on earth shows that species moved from one
continent to another may be able to out compete the native life adapted
to that continent. Additionally, evolutionary processes on Earth might have developed
biological pathways different from extraterrestrial organisms, and so
may be able to outcompete it. The same is also possible the other way
around for contamination introduced to Earth's biosphere.
In addition to science research concerns, there are also attempts
to raise ethical and moral concerns regarding intentional or
unintentional interplanetary transport of life.
Evidence for possible habitats outside Earth
Enceladus and Europa show the best evidence for current habitats, mainly due to the possibility of their hosting liquid water and organic compounds.
There is ample evidence to suggest that Mars once offered habitable conditions for microbial life. It is therefore possible that microbial life may have existed on Mars, although no evidence has been found.
It is thought that many bacterial spores (endospores) from Earth were transported on Mars spacecraft. Some may be protected within Martian rovers and landers on the shallow surface of the planet. In that sense, Mars may have already been contaminated.
Certain lichens from the arctic permafrost are able to photosynthesize
and grow in the absence of any liquid water, simply by using the
humidity from the atmosphere. They are also highly tolerant of UV radiation, using melanin and other more specialized chemicals to protect their cells.
Although numerous studies point to resistance to some of Mars
conditions, they do so separately, and none have considered the full
range of Martian surface conditions, including temperature, pressure,
atmospheric composition, radiation, humidity, oxidizing regolith, and
others, all at the same time and in combination. Laboratory simulations show that whenever multiple lethal factors are combined, the survival rates plummet quickly.
Other studies have suggested the potential for life to survive using deliquescing salts.
These, similarly to the lichens, use the humidity of the atmosphere. If
the mixture of salts is right, the organisms may obtain liquid water at
times of high atmospheric humidity, with salts capturing enough to be
capable of supporting life.
Research published in July 2017 shows that when irradiated with a simulated Martian UV flux, perchlorates become even more lethal to bacteria (bactericide effect). Even dormant spores lost viability within minutes. In addition, two other compounds of the Martian surface, iron oxides and hydrogen peroxide,
act in synergy with irradiated perchlorates to cause a 10.8-fold
increase in cell death when compared to cells exposed to UV radiation
after 60 seconds of exposure. It was also found that abraded silicates (quartz and basalt) lead to the formation of toxic reactive oxygen species. The researchers concluded that "the surface of Mars is lethal to
vegetative cells and renders much of the surface and near-surface
regions uninhabitable." This research demonstrates that the present-day surface is more uninhabitable than previously thought, and reinforces the notion to inspect at least a few meters into the
ground to ensure the levels of radiation would be relatively low.
Enceladus
The Cassini spacecraftdirectly sampled the plumes escaping from Enceladus.
Measured data indicates that these geysers are made primarily of salt
rich particles with an 'ocean-like' composition, which is thought to
originate from a subsurface ocean of liquid saltwater, rather than from the moon's icy surface. Data from the geyser flythroughs also indicate the presence of organic
chemicals in the plumes. Heat scans of Enceladus's surface also indicate
higher temperatures around the fissures where the geysers originate,
with temperatures reaching −93 °C (−135 °F), which is 115 °C (207 °F)
warmer than the surrounding surface regions.
Europa
Europa has much indirect evidence for its sub-surface ocean. Models of how Europa is affected by tidal heating
require a subsurface layer of liquid water in order to accurately
reproduce the linear fracturing of the surface. Indeed, observations by
the Galileo spacecraft of how Europa's magnetic field interacts with Jupiter's field strengthens the case for a liquid, rather than solid, layer; an electrically conductive fluid deep within Europa would explain these results. Observations from the Hubble Space Telescope in December 2012 appear to show an ice plume spouting from Europa's surface, which would immensely strengthen the case for a liquid subsurface
ocean. As was the case for Enceladus, vapour geysers would allow for
easy sampling of the liquid layer. Unfortunately, there appears to be little evidence that geysering is a
frequent event on Europa due to the lack of water in the space near
Europa.
Forward contamination is prevented by sterilizing space probes
sent to sensitive areas of the Solar System. Missions are classified
depending on whether their destinations are of interest for the search
for life, and whether there is any chance that Earth life could
reproduce there.
NASA made these policies official with the issuing of Management Manual NMI-4-4-1, NASA Unmanned Spacecraft Decontamination Policy on September 9, 1963. Prior to NMI-4-4-1 the same sterilization requirements were required
on all outgoing spacecraft regardless of their target. Difficulties in
the sterilization of Ranger probes sent to the Moon are the primary
reasons for NASA's change to a target-by-target basis in assessing the
likelihood forward contamination.
Some destinations such as Mercury
need no precautions at all. Others such as the Moon require
documentation but nothing more, while destinations such as Mars require
sterilization of the rovers sent there.
Back contamination would be prevented by containment or
quarantine. However, there have been no sample-returns thought to have
any possibility of a back contamination risk since the Apollo missions. The Apollo regulations have been rescinded and new regulations have yet to be developed. See suggested precautions for sample-returns.
Crewed spacecraft
Crewed spacecraft
are of particular concern for interplanetary contamination because of
the impossibility to sterilize a human to the same level as a robotic
spacecraft. Therefore, the chance of forwarding contamination is higher
than for a robotic mission. Humans are typically host to a hundred trillion microorganisms in ten thousand species in the human microbiome
which cannot be removed while preserving the life of the human.
Containment seems the only option, but effective containment to the same
standard as a robotic rover appears difficult to achieve with
present-day technology. In particular, adequate containment in the event
of a hard landing is a major challenge.
Human explorers may be potential carriers back to Earth of microorganisms acquired on Mars, if such microorganisms exist. Another issue is the contamination of the water supply by Earth
microorganisms shed by humans in their stools, skin and breath, which
could have a direct effect on the long-term human colonization of Mars.
Historical examples of measures taken to prevent planetary
contamination of the moon include the inclusion of an anti-bacterial
filter in the Apollo Lunar Module, from Apollo 13
and onward. This was placed on the cabin relief valve in order to
prevent contaminants from the cabin being released into the lunar
environment during the depressurization of the crew compartment, prior
to EVA.
The Moon
The Apollo 11 missions incited public concern about the possibility of microbes on the Moon, creating fears about a plague being brought to Earth when the astronauts returned. NASA received thousands of letters from Americans concerned with the potential for back contamination.
As a testbed
The Moon
has been suggested as a testbed for new technology to protect sites in
the Solar System, and astronauts, from forward and back contamination.
Currently, the Moon has no contamination restrictions because it is
considered to be "not of interest" for prebiotic chemistry and origins of life. Analysis of the contamination left by the Apollo program astronauts could also yield useful ground truth for planetary protection models.
Non-contaminating exploration methods
Telerobotics exploration on Mars and Earth
One of the most reliable ways to reduce the risk of forward and back
contamination during visits to extraterrestrial bodies is to use only robotic spacecraft. Humans in close orbit around the target planet could control equipment
on the surface in real time via telepresence, so bringing many of the
benefits of a surface mission, without its associated increased forward
and back contamination risks.
Back contamination issues
Since
the Moon is now generally considered to be free from life, the most
likely source of contamination would be from Mars during either a Mars sample-return mission or as a result of a crewed mission to Mars.
The possibility of new human pathogens, or environmental disruption due
to back contamination, is considered to be of extremely low probability
but cannot yet be ruled out.
NASA and ESA are actively developing a Mars Sample Return Program
to return samples collected by the Perseverance Rover to Earth. The
European Space Foundation report cites many advantages of a Mars
sample-return. In particular, it would permit extensive analyses on
Earth, without the size and weight constraints for instruments sent to
Mars on rovers. These analyses could also be carried out without the
communication delays for experiments carried out by Martian rovers. It
would also make it possible to repeat experiments in multiple
laboratories with different instruments to confirm key results.
Carl Sagan was first to publicise back contamination issues that might follow from a Mars sample-return. In Cosmic Connection (1973) he wrote:
Precisely because Mars is an
environment of great potential biological interest, it is possible that
on Mars there are pathogens, organisms which, if transported to the
terrestrial environment, might do enormous biological damage.
Later in Cosmos (1980) Carl Sagan wrote:
Perhaps Martian samples can be
safely returned to Earth. But I would want to be very sure before
considering a returned-sample mission.
NASA and ESA views are similar. The findings were that with
present-day technology, Martian samples can be safely returned to Earth
provided the right precautions are taken.
Suggested precautions for sample-returns
NASA
has already had experience with returning samples thought to represent a
low back contamination risk when samples were returned for the first
time by Apollo 11.
At the time, it was thought that there was a low probability of life on
the Moon, so the requirements were not very stringent. The precautions
taken then were inadequate by current standards, however. The
regulations used then have been rescinded, and new regulations and
approaches for a sample-return would be needed.
Chain of contact
A
sample-return mission would be designed to break the chain of contact
between Mars and the exterior of the sample container, for instance, by
sealing the returned container inside another larger container in the
vacuum of space before it returns to Earth. In order to eliminate the risk of parachute failure, the capsule could
fall at terminal velocity and the impact would be cushioned by the
capsule's thermal protection system. The sample container would be
designed to withstand the force of the impact.
Receiving facility
Working inside a BSL-4 laboratory with air hoses providing positive air pressure to their suits
To receive, analyze and curate extraterrestrial soil samples, NASA
has proposed to build a biohazard containment facility, tentatively
known as the Mars Sample Return Receiving Facility (MSRRF). This future facility must be rated biohazard level 4 (BSL-4). While existing BSL-4 facilities deal primarily with fairly well-known
organisms, a BSL-4 facility focused on extraterrestrial samples must
pre-plan the systems carefully while being mindful that there will be
unforeseen issues during sample evaluation and curation that will
require independent thinking and solutions.
The facility's systems must be able to contain unknown
biohazards, as the sizes of any putative Martian microorganisms are
unknown. In consideration of this, additional requirements were
proposed. Ideally it should filter particles of 0.01 μm or larger, and
release of a particle 0.05 μm or larger is unacceptable under any
circumstance.
The reason for this extremely small size limit of 0.01 μm is for consideration of gene transfer agents (GTAs) which are virus-like particles that are produced by some microorganisms that package random segments of DNA capable of horizontal gene transfer. These randomly incorporate segments of the host genome and can transfer
them to other evolutionarily distant hosts, and do that without killing
the new host. In this way many archaea and bacteria can swap DNA with
each other. This raises the possibility that Martian life, if it has a
common origin with Earth life in the distant past, could swap DNA with
Earth microorganisms in the same way. In one experiment reported in 2010, researchers left GTAs (DNA
conferring antibiotic resistance) and marine bacteria overnight in
natural conditions and found that by the next day up to 47% of the
bacteria had incorporated the genetic material from the GTAs. Another reason for the 0.05 μm limit is because of the discovery of ultramicrobacteria as small as 0.2 μm across.
The BSL-4 containment facility must also double as a cleanroom
to preserve the scientific value of the samples. A challenge is that,
while it is relatively easy to simply contain the samples once returned
to Earth, researchers would also want to remove parts of the sample and
perform analyses. During all these handling procedures, the samples
would need to be protected from Earthly contamination. A cleanroom
is normally kept at a higher pressure than the external environment to
keep contaminants out, while a biohazard laboratory is kept at a lower
pressure to keep the biohazards in. This would require
compartmentalizing the specialized rooms in order to combine them in a
single building. Solutions suggested include a triple walled containment
facility, and extensive robotic handling of the samples.
The facility would be expected to take 7 to 10 years from design to completion, and an additional two years recommended for the staff to become accustomed to the facilities.
Dissenting views on back contamination
Robert Zubrin, from the Mars Society,
maintains that the risk of back contamination is negligible. He
supports this using an argument based on the possibility of transfer of
life from Earth to Mars on meteorites.
Legal process of approval for Mars sample-return
Margaret Race has examined in detail the legal process of approval for a MSR. She found that under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
(which did not exist in the Apollo era), a formal environment impact
statement is likely to be required, and public hearings during which all
the issues would be aired openly. This process is likely to take up to
several years to complete.
During this process, she found, the full range of worst accident
scenarios, impact, and project alternatives would be played out in the
public arena. Other agencies such as the Environment Protection Agency,
Occupational Health and Safety Administration, etc., might also get
involved in the decision-making process.
The laws on quarantine would also need to be clarified as the
regulations for the Apollo program were rescinded. In the Apollo era,
NASA delayed announcement of its quarantine regulations until the day
Apollo was launched, bypassing the requirement for public debate -
something that would likely not be tolerated today.
It is also probable that the presidential directive NSC-25 would
apply, requiring a review of large scale alleged effects on the
environment to be carried out subsequent to other domestic reviews and
through a long process, leading eventually to presidential approval of
the launch.
Apart from those domestic legal hurdles, there would be numerous
international regulations and treaties to be negotiated in the case of a
Mars sample-return, especially those relating to environmental
protection and health. Race concluded that the public of necessity has a
significant role to play in the development of the policies governing
Mars sample-return.
Alternatives to sample-returns
Several
exobiologists have suggested that a Mars sample-return is not necessary
at this stage, and that it is better to focus more on in situ studies
on the surface first. Although it is not their main motivation, this
approach of course also eliminates back contamination risks.
Some of these exobiologists advocate more in situ studies
followed by a sample-return in the near future. Others go as far as to
advocate in situ study instead of a sample-return at the present state
of understanding of Mars.
Their reasoning is that life on Mars is likely to be hard to
find. Any present day life is likely to be sparse and occur in only a
few niche habitats. Past life is likely to be degraded by cosmic
radiation over geological time periods if exposed in the top few meters
of the Mars surface. Also, only certain special deposits of salts or
clays on Mars would have the capability to preserve organics for
billions of years. So, they argue, there is a high risk that a Mars
sample-return at our current stage of understanding would return samples
that are no more conclusive about the origins of life on Mars or
present day life than the Martian meteorite samples we already have.
Another consideration is the difficulty of keeping the sample
completely free from Earth life contamination during the return journey
and during handling procedures on Earth. This might make it hard to show
conclusively that any biosignatures detected does not result from
contamination of the samples.
Instead they advocate sending more sensitive instruments on Mars
surface rovers. These could examine many different rocks and soil types,
and search for biosignatures on the surface and so examine a wide range
of materials which could not all be returned to Earth with current
technology at reasonable cost.
A sample-return to Earth would then be considered at a later
stage, once we have a reasonably thorough understanding of conditions on
Mars, and possibly have already detected life there, either current or
past life, through biosignatures and other in situ analyses.
Instruments under development for in situ analyses
NASA
Marshall Space Flight Center is leading a research effort to develop a
Miniaturized Variable Pressure Scanning Electron Microscope (MVP-SEM)
for future lunar and Martian missions.
Several teams, including Jonathan Rothberg, and J. Craig Venter,
are separately developing solutions for sequencing alien DNA directly
on the Martian surface itself.
Levin is working on updated versions of the Labeled Release
instrument flown on Viking. For instance versions that rely on detecting
chirality. This is of special interest because it can enable detection
of life even if it is not based on standard life chemistry.
The Urey Mars Organic and Oxidant Detector instrument for detection
of biosignatures has been descoped, but was due to be flown on ExoMars in 2018. It is designed with much higher levels of sensitivity for biosignatures than any previous instruments.
Study and analyses from orbit
During
the “Exploration Telerobotics Symposium" in 2012, experts on
telerobotics from industry, NASA, and academics met to discuss
telerobotics and its applications to space exploration. Amongst other
issues, particular attention was given to Mars missions and a Mars
sample-return.
They came to the conclusion that telerobotic approaches could
permit direct study of the samples on the Mars surface via telepresence
from Mars orbit, permitting rapid exploration and use of human cognition
to take advantage of chance discoveries and feedback from the results
obtained.
They found that telepresence exploration of Mars has many
advantages. The astronauts have near real-time control of the robots,
and can respond immediately to discoveries. It also prevents
contamination both ways and has mobility benefits as well.
Finally, return of the sample to orbit has the advantage that it
permits analysis of the sample without delay, to detect volatiles that
may be lost during a voyage home.
Telerobotics exploration of Mars
Similar methods could be used to directly explore other biologically sensitive moons such as Europa, Titan, or Enceladus, once human presence in the vicinity becomes possible.
In August 2019, scientists reported that a capsule containing tardigrades (a resilient microbial animal) in a cryptobiotic state may have survived for a while on the Moon after the April 2019 crash landing of Beresheet, a failed Israeli lunar lander.
Existential crises are inner conflicts characterized by the impression that life lacks meaning and by confusion about one's personal identity. They are accompanied by anxiety and stress, often to such a degree that they disturb one's normal functioning in everyday life and lead to depression. Their negative attitude towards meaning reflects characteristics of the philosophical movement of existentialism. The components of existential crises can be divided into emotional, cognitive, and behavioral
aspects. Emotional components refer to the feelings, such as emotional
pain, despair, helplessness, guilt, anxiety, or loneliness. Cognitive
components encompass the problem of meaninglessness, the loss of personal values or spiritual faith, and thinking about death. Behavioral components include addictions, and anti-social and compulsive behavior.
Existential crises may occur at different stages in life: the teenage crisis, the quarter-life crisis, the mid-life crisis,
and the later-life crisis. Earlier crises tend to be forward-looking:
the individual is anxious and confused about which path in life to
follow regarding education, career, personal identity,
and social relationships. Later crises tend to be backward-looking.
Often triggered by the impression that one is past one's peak in life,
they are usually characterized by guilt, regret, and a fear of death.
If an earlier existential crisis was properly resolved, it is easier
for the individual to resolve or avoid later crises. Not everyone
experiences existential crises in their life.
The problem of meaninglessness plays a central role in all of
these types. It can arise in the form of cosmic meaning, which is
concerned with the meaning of life
at large or why we are here. Another form concerns personal secular
meaning, in which the individual tries to discover purpose and value
mainly for their own life. Finding a source of meaning may resolve a
crisis, like altruism,
dedicating oneself to a religious or political cause, or finding a way
to develop one's potential. Other approaches include adopting a new
system of meaning, learning to accept meaninglessness, cognitive behavioral therapy, and the practice of social perspective-taking.
Negative consequences of existential crisis include anxiety and
bad relationships on the personal level as well as a high divorce rate
and decreased productivity on the social level. Some questionnaires,
such as the Purpose in Life Test, measure whether someone is currently undergoing an existential crisis. Outside its main use in psychology and psychotherapy, the term "existential crisis" refers to a threat to the existence of something.
Definition
In psychology and psychotherapy, the term "existential crisis" refers to a form of inner conflict. It is characterized by the impression that life lacks meaning and is accompanied by various negative experiences, such as stress, anxiety, despair, and depression. This often happens to such a degree that it disturbs one's normal functioning in everyday life. The inner nature of this conflict sets existential crises apart from
other types of crises that are mainly due to outward circumstances, like
social or financial crises. Outward circumstances may still play a role
in triggering or exacerbating an existential crisis, but the core
conflict happens on an inner level. The most common approach to resolving an existential crisis consists in
addressing this inner conflict and finding new sources of meaning in
life.
The core issue responsible for the inner conflict is the impression that the individual's desire
to lead a meaningful life is thwarted by an apparent lack of meaning,
also because they feel much confusion about what meaning really is, and
are constantly questioning themselves. In this sense, existential crises
are crises of meaning. This is often understood through the lens of the
philosophical movement known as existentialism. One important aspect of many forms of existentialism is that the
individual seeks to live in a meaningful way but finds themselves in a
meaningless and indifferent world.The exact term "existential crisis" is not commonly found in the
traditional existentialist literature in philosophy. But various closely
related technical terms are discussed, such as existential dread, existential vacuum, existential despair, existential neurosis, existential sickness, anxiety, and alienation.
Different authors focus in their definitions of existential
crisis on different aspects. Some argue that existential crises are at
their core crises of identity.
On this view, they arise from a confusion about the question "Who am
I?" and their goal is to achieve some form of clarity about oneself and
one's position in the world. As identity crises, they involve intensive self-analysis, often in the form of exploring different ways of looking at oneself. They constitute a personal confrontation with certain key aspects of the human condition, like existence, death, freedom, and responsibility. In this sense, the person questions the very foundations of their life. Others emphasize the confrontation with human limitations, such as death and lack of control. Some stress the spiritual nature of existential crises by pointing out
how outwardly successful people may still be severely affected by them
if they lack the corresponding spiritual development.
The term "existential crisis" is most commonly used in the context of psychology and psychotherapy. But it can also be employed in a more literal sense as a crisis of
existence to express that the existence of something is threatened. In
this sense, a country, a company, or a social institution faces an
existential crisis if political tensions, military threats , high debt,
or social changes may have as a result that the corresponding entity
ceases to exist.
Components
Existential
crises are usually seen as complex phenomena that can be understood as
consisting of various components. Some approaches distinguish three
types of components belonging to the fields of emotion, cognition, and behavior. Emotional aspects correspond to what it feels like to have an
existential crisis. It is usually associated with emotional pain,
despair, helplessness, guilt, anxiety, and loneliness. On the cognitive side, the affected are often confronted with a loss of
meaning and purpose together with the realization of one's own end. Behaviorally, existential crises may express themselves in addictions and anti-social behavior, sometimes paired with ritualistic behavior, loss of relationships, and degradation of one's health.While manifestations of these three components can usually be
identified in every case of an existential crisis, there are often
significant differences in how they manifest. Nonetheless, it has been
suggested that these components can be used to give a more unified
definition of existential crises.
Emotional
On
the emotional level, existential crises are associated with unpleasant
experiences, such as fear, anxiety, panic, and despair. They can be categorized as a form of emotional pain whereby people lose trust and hope. This pain often manifests in the form of despair and helplessness. The despair may be caused by being unable to find meaning in life, which is associated both with a lack of motivation and the absence of inner joy. The impression of helplessness arises from being unable to find a
practical response to deal with the crisis and the associated despair. This helplessness concerns specifically a form of emotional vulnerability: the individual is not just subject to a wide range of negative emotions,
but these emotions often seem to be outside the person's control. This
feeling of vulnerability and lack of control can itself produce further
negative impressions and may lead to a form of panic or a state of deep
mourning.
But on the other hand, there is also often an impression in the
affected that they are in some sense responsible for their predicament. This is the case, for example, if the loss of meaning is associated
with bad choices in the past for which the individual feels guilty. But
it can also take the form of a more abstract type of bad conscience as
existential guilt. In this case, the agent carries a vague sense of guilt that is
free-floating in the sense that it is not tied to any specific
wrongdoing by the agent.Especially in existential crises in the later parts of one's life, this guilt is often accompanied by a fear of death. But just as in the case of guilt, this fear may also take a more
abstract form as an unspecific anxiety associated with a sense of
deficiency and meaninglessness.
As crises of identity, existential crises often lead to a disturbed sense of personal integrity. This can be provoked by the apparent meaninglessness of one's life
together with a general lack of motivation. Central to the sense of
personal integrity are close relationships with oneself, others, and the
world. The absence of meaning usually has a negative impact on these
relationships. As a lack of a clear purpose, it threatens one's personal
integrity and can lead to insecurity, alienation, and self-abandonment. The negative impact on one's relationships with others is often experienced as a form of loneliness.
Depending on the person and the crisis they are suffering, some of these emotional aspects may be more or less pronounced. While they are all experienced as unpleasant, they often carry within
them various positive potentials as well that can push the person in the
direction of positive personal development.Through the experience of loneliness, for example, the person may
achieve a better understanding of the substance and importance of
relationships.
Cognitive
The main cognitive aspect of existential crises is the loss of meaning and purpose. In this context, the term "meaninglessness" refers to the general
impression that there is no higher significance, direction, or purpose
in our actions or in the world at large. It is associated with the question of why one is doing what one is
doing and why one should continue. It is a central topic in
existentialist psychotherapy, which has as one of its main goals to help
the patient find a proper response to this meaninglessness. In Viktor Frankl's logotherapy, for example, the term existential vacuum is used to describe this state of mind.Many forms of existentialist psychotherapy aim to resolve existential
crises by assisting the patient in rediscovering meaning in their life. Closely related to meaninglessness is the loss of personal values. This
means that things that seemed valuable to the individual before, like
the relation to a specific person or success in their career, may now
appear insignificant or pointless to them. If the crisis is resolved, it
can lead to the discovery of new values.
Another aspect of the cognitive component of many existential
crises concerns the attitude to one's personal end, i.e. the realization
that one will die one day. While this is not new information as an abstract insight, it takes on a
more personal and concrete nature when one sees oneself confronted with
this fact as a concrete reality one has to face. This aspect is of particular relevance for existential crises occurring
later in life or when the crisis was triggered by the loss of a loved
one or by the onset of a terminal disease. For many, the issue of their own death is associated with anxiety. But it has also been argued that the contemplation of one's death may
act as a key to resolving an existential crisis. The reason for this is
that the realization that one's time is limited can act as a source of
meaning by making the remaining time more valuable and by making it
easier to discern the bigger issues that matter in contrast to smaller
everyday issues that can act as distractions. Important factors for dealing with imminent death include one's religious outlook, one's self-esteem, and social integration as well as one's future prospects.
Behavioral
Existential
crises can have various effects on the individual's behavior. They
often lead a person to isolate themself and engage less in social
interactions. For example, one's communication to one's housemates may be limited to
very brief responses like a simple "yes" or "no" in order to avoid a
more extended exchange or the individual reduces various forms of
contact that are not strictly speaking necessary. This can result in a long-term deterioration and loss of one's relationships. In some cases, existential crises may also express themselves in
overtly anti-social behavior, like hostility or aggression. These
negative impulses can also be directed at the person themselves, leading
to self-injury and, in the worst case, suicide.
Addictive behavior is also seen in people going through an existential crisis. Some turn to drugs in order to lessen the impact of the negative experiences whereas others hope to learn through the non-ordinary drug experiences
to cope with the existential crisis. While this type of behavior can
succeed in providing a short-term relief of the effects of the
existential crisis, it has been argued that it is usually maladaptive
and fails on the long-term level. This way, the crises may even be further exacerbated. For the affected, it is often difficult to distinguish the need for
pleasure and power from the need for meaning, thereby leading them on a
wrong track in their efforts to resolve the crisis. The addictions themselves or the stress associated with existential crises can result in various health problems, ranging from high blood pressure to long-term organ damage and increased likelihood of cancer.
Existential crises may also be accompanied by ritualistic behavior. In some cases, this can have positive effects to help the affected
transition to a new outlook on life. But it might also take the form of compulsive behavior that acts more as a distraction than as a step towards a solution. Another positive behavioral aspect concerns the tendency to seek therapy. This tendency reflects the awareness of the affected of the gravity of the problem and their desire to resolve it.
Types
Different types of existential crises are often distinguished based on the time in one's life when they occur. This approach rests on the idea that, depending on one's stage in life,
individuals are faced with different issues connected to meaning and
purpose. They lead to different types of crises if these issues are not
properly resolved. The stages are usually tied to rough age groups but this correspondence
is not always accurate since different people of the same age group may
find themselves in different life situations and different stages of
development. Being aware of these differences is central for properly assessing the
issue at the core of a specific crisis and finding a corresponding
response to resolve it.
The most well-known existential crisis is the mid-life crisis and a lot of research is directed specifically at this type of crisis. But researchers have additionally discovered various other existential
crises belonging to different types. There is no general agreement about
their exact number and periodization. Because of this, the
categorizations of different theorists do not always coincide but they
have significant overlaps. One categorization distinguishes between the early teenage crisis, the
sophomore crisis, the adult crisis, the mid-life crisis, and the
later-life crisis. Another focuses only on the sophomore crisis, the
adult crisis, and the later-life crisis but defines them in wider terms. The sophomore crisis and the adult crisis are often treated together as forms of the quarter-life crisis
There is wide agreement that the earlier crises tend to be more
forward-looking and are characterized by anxiety and confusion about the
path in life one wants to follow. The later crises, on the other hand, are more backward-looking, often in the form of guilt and regrets, while also concerned with the problem of one's own mortality.
These different crises can affect each other in various ways. For
example, if an earlier crisis was not properly resolved, later crises
may impose additional difficulties for the affected. But even if an earlier crisis was fully resolved, this does not
guarantee that later crises will be successfully resolved or avoided
altogether.
Another approach distinguishes existential crises based on their
intensity. Some theorists use the terms existential vacuum and
existential neurosis to refer to different degrees of existential
crisis.On this view, an existential vacuum is a rather common phenomenon
characterized by the frequent recurrence of subjective states like boredom, apathy, and emptiness. Some people experience this only in their free time but are otherwise
not troubled by it. The term "Sunday neurosis" is often used in this
context. An existential vacuum becomes an existential neurosis if it is paired
with overt clinical neurotic symptoms, such as depression or alcoholism.
Teenage
The
early teenage crisis involves the transition from childhood to
adulthood and is centered around the issue of developing one's individuality and independence. This concerns specifically the relation to one's family and often leads to spending more time with one's peers instead. Various rebellious and anti-social behavior seen sometimes in this
developmental stage, like stealing or trespassing, may be interpreted as
attempts to achieve independence. It can also give rise to a new type of conformity
concerning, for example, how the teenager dresses or behaves. This
conformity tends to be not in relation to one's family or public
standards but to one's peer group or adored celebrities. But this may be seen as a temporary step in order to distance oneself
from previously accepted standards with later steps emphasizing one's
independence also from one's peer group and celebrity influences. A central factor for resolving the early teenage crisis is that meaning
and purpose are found in one's new identity since independence without
it can result in the feeling of being lost and may lead to depression. Another factor pertains to the role of the parents. By looking for
signs of depression, they may become aware that a teenager is going
through a crisis. Examples include a change of appetite, sleep behavior
is different; sleeps more or less, grades take a dive in a short amount
of time, they are less social and more isolated, and start to become
easily irritated. If parents regularly talk to their teenagers and ask
them questions, it is more likely that they detect the presence of a
crisis.
Quarter-life, sophomore, and adult
The term "quarter-life crisis" is often used to refer to existential crises occurring in early adulthood, i.e. roughly during the ages between 18 and 30. Some authors distinguish between two separate crises that may occur at this stage in life: the sophomore crisis and the adult crisis. The sophomore crisis affects primarily people in their late teenage years or their early 20s. It is also referred to as "sophomore slump", specifically when it affects students. It is the first time that serious questions about the meaning of life and one's role in the world are formulated. At this stage, these questions have a direct practical relation to one's future. They apply to what paths one wants to choose in life, like which career to focus on and how to form successful relationships. At the center of the sophomore crisis is the anxiety over one's future,
i.e. how to lead one's life and how to best develop and employ one's abilities.Existential crisis often specifically affect high achievers who fear
that they do not reach their highest potential since they lack a secure
plan for the future. To solve them, it is necessary to find meaningful
answers to these questions. Such answers may result in practical
commitments and can inform later life decisions. Some people who have already made their career choices at a very early
age may never experience a sophomore crisis. But such decisions can lead
to problems later on since they are usually mainly informed by the
outlook of one's social environment and less by the introspective
insight into one's individual preferences. If there turns out to be a
big discrepancy between the two, it can provoke a more severe form of
the sophomore crisis later on. James Marcia defines this early commitment without sufficient exploration as identity foreclosure.
The adult crisis usually starts in the mid- to late 20s. The issues faced in it overlap to some extent with the ones in the
sophomore crisis, but they tend to be more complex issues of identity.
As such, they also circle around one's career and one's path in life.
But they tend to take more details into account, like one's choice of
religion, one's political outlook, or one's sexuality. Resolving the adult crisis means having a good idea of who one is as a
person and being comfortable with this idea. It is usually associated
with reaching full adulthood, having completed school, working
full-time, having left one's home, and being financially independent.
Being unable to resolve the adult crisis may result in disorientation, a
lack of confidence in one's personal identity, and depression.
Among the different types of existential crises, the mid-life crisis
is the one most widely discussed. It often sets in around the age of 40
and can be triggered by the impression that one's personal growth is
obstructed. This may be combined with the sense that there is a significant
distance between one's achievement and one's aspirations. In contrast to
the earlier existential crises, it also involves a backward-looking
component: previous choices in life are questioned and their meaning for
one's achievements are assessed. This may lead to regrets and dissatisfaction with one's life choices on
various topics, such as career, partner, children, social status, or
missed opportunities. The tendency to look backward is often connected
to the impression that one is past one's peak period in life.
Sometimes five intermediary stages are distinguished: accommodation, separation, liminality, reintegration, and individuation. In these stages, the individual first adapts to changed external
demands, then addresses the distance between their innate motives and
the external persona, next rejects their previously adaptive persona,
later adopts their new persona, and lastly becomes aware of the external
consequences associated with these changes.
Mid-life crises can be triggered by specific events such as
losing a job, forced unemployment, extramarital affairs, separation,
death of a loved one, or health problems. In this sense, the mid-life crisis can be understood as a period of
transition or reevaluation in which the individual tries to adapt to
their changed situation in life, both in response to the particular
triggering event and to the more general changes that come with age.
Various symptoms are associated with mid-life crises, such as
stress, boredom, self-doubt, compulsivity, changes in the libido and
sexual preferences, rumination, and insecurity.In public discourse, the mid-life crisis is primarily associated with
men, often in direct relation to their career. But it affects women just
as well. An additional factor here is the limited time left in their
reproductive period or the onset of the menopause. Between 8 and 25 percent of Americans over the age of thirty-five have experienced a mid-life crisis.
Both the severity and the length of the mid-life crisis are often
affected by whether and how well the earlier crises were resolved. People who managed to resolve earlier crises well tend to feel more
fulfilled with their life choices, which also reflects in how their
meaningfulness is perceived when looking back on them. But it does not
ensure that they still appear meaningful from one's current perspective.
Later-life
The
later-life crisis often occurs around one's late 60s. It may be
triggered by events such as retirement, the death of a loved one,
serious illness, or imminent death. At its core is a backward-looking reflection on how one led one's life
and the choices one made. This reflection is usually motivated by a
desire to have lived a valuable and meaningful life paired with an
uncertainty of one's success.A contemplation of one's past wrongdoings may also be motivated by a
desire to find a way to make up for them while one still can. It can also express itself in a more theoretical form as trying to
assess whether one's life made a positive impact on one's more immediate
environment or the world at large. This is often associated with the
desire to leave a positive and influential legacy behind.
Because of its backward-looking nature, there may be less one can
do to truly resolve the crisis. This is true especially for people who
arrive at a negative assessment of their life. An additional impeding
factor in contrast to earlier crises is that individuals are often
unable to find the energy and youthfulness necessary to make meaningful
changes to their lives. Some suggest that developing an acceptance of the reality of death may
help in the process. Other suggestions focus less on outright resolving
the crisis but more on avoiding or minimizing its negative impact.
Recommendations to this end include looking after one's physical,
economic, and emotional well-being as well as developing and maintaining
a social network of support. The best way to avoid the crisis as much
as possible may be to ensure that one's earlier crises in life are
resolved.
Meaninglessness
Most theorists see meaninglessness as the central issue around which existential crises revolve. In this sense, they may be understood as crises of meaning.The issue of meaning and meaninglessness concerns various closely
related questions. Understood in the widest sense, it involves the
global questions of the meaning of life in general, why we are here, or
for what purpose we live. Answers to this question traditionally take the form of religious explanations, for example, that the world was created by God according to His purpose and that each thing is meaningful because it plays a role for this higher purpose. This is sometimes termed cosmic meaning in contrast to the secular personal meaning an individual seeks when asking in what way their particular life is meaningful or valuable. In this personal sense, it is often connected with a practical
confusion about how one should live one's life or why one should
continue doing what one does. This can express itself in the feeling
that one has nothing to live for or to hope for. Sometimes this is even
interpreted in the sense that there is no right and wrong or good and
evil. While it may be more and more difficult in the contemporary secular
world to find cosmic meaning, it has been argued that to resolve the
problem of meaninglessness, it is sufficient for the individual to find a
secular personal meaning to hold onto.
The issue of meaninglessness becomes a problem because humans seem to have a strong desire or need for meaning. This expresses itself both emotionally and practically since goals and ideals are needed to structure one's life. The other side of the problem is given in the fact that there seems to
be no such meaning or that the world is at its bottom contingent and
could have existed in a very different way or not at all. The world's contingency and indifference to human affairs are often referred to as the absurd in the existentialist literature. The problem can be summarized through the question "How does a being
who needs meaning find meaning in a universe that has no meaning?". Various practitioners of existential psychotherapy
have affirmed that the loss of meaning plays a role for the majority of
people requiring psychotherapy and is the central issue for a
significant number of them. But this loss has its most characteristic
expression in existential crises.
Various factors affect whether life is experienced as meaningful,
such as social relationships, religion, and thoughts about the past or
future. Judgments of meaning are quite subjective. They are a form of global
assessment since they take one's life as a whole into consideration. It is sometimes argued that the problem of a loss of meaning is
particularly associated with modern society. This is often based on the
idea that people tended to be more grounded in their immediate social
environment, their profession, and their religion in premodern times.
Sources of meaning
It is usually held that humans have a need for meaning. This need may be satisfied by finding an accessible source of meaning. Religious faith can be a source of meaning and many studies demonstrate that it is associated with self-reported meaning in life. Another important source of meaning is due to one's social relationships. Lacking or losing a source of meaning, on the other hand, often leads
to an existential crisis. In some cases, this change is clearly linked
to a specific source of meaning that becomes inaccessible. For example, a religious person confronted with the vast extent of
death and suffering may find their faith in a benevolent, omnipotent God
shattered and thereby lose the ability to find meaning in life. For
others, a concrete threat of imminent death, for example, due to the
disruption of the social order, can have a similar effect. If the individual is unable to assimilate, reinterpret, or ignore this
type of threatening information, the loss of their primary source of
meaning may force them to reevaluate their system of meaning in life
from the ground up. In this case, the person is entering an existential crisis, which can
bring with it the need to question what other sources of meaning are
accessible to them or whether there is meaning at all. Many different sources of meaning are discussed in the academic
literature. Discovering such a source for oneself is often key to
resolving an existential crisis. The sources discussed in the literature
can be divided into altruism, dedication to a cause, creativity,
hedonism, self-actualization, and finding the right attitude.
Altruism
refers to the practice or attitude based on the desire to benefit
others. Altruists aim to make the world a better place than they found
it. This can happen in various ways. On a small scale, one may try to be
kinder to the people in one's immediate social environment. It can
include the effort to become aware of their problems and try to help
them, directly or indirectly. But the altruistic attitude may also express itself in a less personal
form towards strangers, for example, by donating money to charities. Effective altruism is an example of a contemporary movement promoting altruism and providing concrete advice on how to live altruistically. It has been argued that altruism can be a strong source of meaning in one's life. This is also reflected in the fact that altruists tend to enjoy higher levels of well-being as well as increased physical and mental health.
Dedicating oneself to a cause can act as a closely related source of meaning. In many cases, the two overlap, if altruism is the primary motivation.
But this is not always the case since the fascination with a cause may
not be explicitly linked to the desire to benefit others. It consists in
devoting oneself fully to producing something greater than oneself. A diverse set of causes can be followed this way, ranging from
religious goals, political movements, or social institutions to
scientific or philosophical ventures. Such causes provide meaning to
one's life to the extent that one participates in the meaningfulness of
the cause by working towards it and realizing it.
Creativity
refers to the activity of creating something new and exciting. It can
act as a source of meaning even if it is not obvious that the creation
serves a specific purpose. This aspect is especially relevant in the field of art, where it is sometimes claimed that the work of art does not need an external justification since it is "its own excuse for being". It has been argued that for many great artists, their keener vision of
the existential dilemma of the human condition was the cause of their
creative efforts. These efforts in turn may have served them as a form
of therapy. But creativity is not limited to art. It can be found and practiced in
many different fields, both on a big and a small scale, such as in
science, cooking, gardening, writing, regular work, or romantic
relationships.
The hedonistic approach
can also constitute a source of meaning. It is based on the idea that a
life enjoyed to the fullest extent is meaningful even if it lacks any
higher overarching purpose.For this perspective, it is relevant that hedonism is not understood in a vulgar sense, i.e. as the pursuit of sensory pleasures
characterized by a disregard of the long-term consequences. While such a
lifestyle may be satisfying in certain respects, a more refined form of
hedonism that includes other forms of pleasures and considers their
long-term consequences is more commonly recommended in the academic
literature. This wider sense also includes more subtle pleasures such as looking at
fine art or engaging in a stimulating intellectual conversation. In this way, life can be meaningful to the individual if it is seen as a
gift evoking a sense of astonishment at its miracle and a general
appreciation of it.
According to the perspective of self-actualization, each human carries within themselves a potential of what they may become. The purpose of life then is to develop oneself to realize this
potential and successfully doing so increases the individual's
well-being and sense of meaningfulness. In this sense, just like an acorn has the potential to become an oak,
so an infant has the potential to become a fully actualized adult with
various virtues and skills based on their inborn talents. The process of self-actualization is sometimes understood in terms of a
hierarchy: certain lower potentials have to be actualized before the
actualization of higher potentials becomes possible.
Most of the approaches mentioned so far have clear practical
implications in that they affect how the individual interacts with the
world. The attitudinal approach, on the other hand, identifies
different sources of meaning based only on taking the right attitude
towards life. This concerns specifically negative situations in which
one is faced with a fate that one cannot change. In existential crises, this often expresses itself in the feeling of helplessness. The idea is that in such situations one can still find meaning based on taking a virtuous or admirable attitude towards one's suffering, for example, by remaining courageous.
Whether a certain source of meaning is accessible differs from
person to person. It may also depend on the stage in life one finds
oneself in, similar to how different stages are often associated with
different types of existential crises. It has been argued, for example, that the concern with oneself and
one's own well-being found in self-actualization and hedonism tends to
be associated more with earlier stages in life. The concern with others
or the world at large found in altruism and the dedication to a cause,
on the other hand, is more likely found in later stages in life, for
example, when an older generation aims to pass on their knowledge and
improve the lives of a younger generation.
Consequences, clinical manifestation, and measurement
Going
through an existential crisis is associated with a variety of
consequences, both for the affected individual and their social
environment. On the personal level, the immediate effects are usually
negative since experiencing an existential crisis is connected to
stress, anxiety, and the formation of bad relationships. This can lead all the way to depression if existential crises are not
resolved. On the social level, they cause a high divorce rate and an
increased number of people being unable to make significant positive
contributions to society, for example, due to a lack of drive resulting
from depression. But if resolved properly, they can also have positive effects by
pushing the affected to address the underlying issue. Individuals may
thereby find new sources of meaning, develop as a person, and thereby
improve their way of life. In the sophomore crisis, for example, this can happen by planning ahead
and thereby making more conscious choices in how to lead one's life.
Being aware of the symptoms and consequences of existential crises on the personal level is important for psychotherapists
so they can arrive at an accurate diagnosis. But this is not always
easy since the symptoms usually differ from person to person. In this sense, the lack of meaning at the core of existential crises
can express itself in several different ways. For some, it may lead them
to become overly adventurous and zealous. In their attempt to wrest themselves free from meaninglessness, they
are desperate to indiscriminately dedicate themselves to any cause. They
might do so without much concern for the concrete content of the cause
or for their personal safety. It has been argued that this type of behavior is present in some
hardcore activists. This may be understood as a form of defense
mechanism in which the individual engages fanatically in activities in
response to a deep sense of purposelessness. It can also express itself in a related but less dramatic way as compulsive activity. This may take various forms, such as workaholism or the obsessive pursuit of prestige, or material acquisitions. This is sometimes referred to as false centering or inauthenticity since the activity is pursued more as a distraction and less because it is in itself fulfilling to the agent. It can provide a temporary alleviation by helping the individual drain
their energy and thus distract them from the threat of meaninglessness.
Another response consists in an overt declaration of nihilism characterized by a pervasive tendency to discredit activities purported by others to have meaning. Such an individual may, for example, dismiss altruism out of hand as a
disingenuous form of selfishness or see all leaders as motivated by
their lust for power rather than inspired by a grand vision. In some more extreme forms of crisis, the individual's behavior may
show severe forms of aimlessness and apathy, often accompanied by
depression. Being unable to find good reasons for making an effort, such a person
remains inactive for extended periods of time, such as staying in bed
all day. If they engage in a behavior, they may do so indiscriminately
without much concern for what they are doing.
Indirect factors for determining the severeness of an existential
crisis include job satisfaction and the quality of one's relationships.
For example, physical violence or constant fighting in a relationship
may be interpreted as external signs of a serious existential crisis. Various empirical studies have shown that a lack of sense of meaning in life is associated with psychopathology. Having a positive sense of meaning, on the other hand, is associated
with deeply held religious beliefs, having a clear life goal, and having
dedicated oneself to a cause.
Measurement
Different
suggestions have been made concerning how to measure whether someone
has an existential crisis, to what degree it is present, and which
approach to resolving it might be promising. These methods can help therapists
and counselors to understand both whether their client is going through
an existential crisis and, if so, how severe their crisis is. But they
can also be used by theorists in order to identify how existential
crises correlate with other phenomena, such as depression, gender, or
poverty.
One way to assess this is through questionnaires focusing on topics like the meaning of life, such as the Purpose in Life Test and the Life Regard Index. The Purpose in Life Test
is widely used and consists of 20 items rated on a seven-point scale,
such as "In life I have: (1) no goals or aims at all ... (7) very clear
goals and aims" or "With regard to death, I am (1) unprepared and
frightened ... (7) prepared and unafraid".
Resolution
Since existential crises can have a crippling effect on people, it is important to find ways to resolve them. Different forms of resolution have been proposed. The right approach often depends on the type of crisis experienced.
Many approaches emphasize the importance of developing a new stage of
intellectual functioning in order to resolve the inner conflict. But
others focus more on external changes. For example, crises related to
one's sexual identity
and one's level of independence may be resolved by finding a partner
matching one's character and preferences. Positive indicators of marital
success include having similar interests, engaging in common
activities, and having a similar level of education. Crises centering around one's professional path may also be approached
more externally by finding the right type of career. In this respect,
important factors include that the career matches both one's interests
and one's skills to avoid a job that is unfulfilling, lacks engagement,
or is overwhelming.
But the more common approach aims at changing one's intellectual functioning and inner attitude. Existential psychotherapists,
for example, usually try to resolve existential crises by helping the
patient to rediscover meaning in their life. Sometimes this takes the
form of finding a spiritual or religious purpose in life, such as
dedicating oneself to an ideal or discovering God. Other approaches focus less on the idea of discovering meaning and more on the idea of creating meaning.
This is based on the idea that meaning is not something independent of
the agent out there but something that has to be created and maintained. However, there are also types of existentialist psychotherapy that
accept the idea that the world is meaningless and try to develop the
best way of coping with this fact. The different approaches to resolving the issue of meaninglessness are sometimes divided into a leap of faith, the reasoned approach, and nihilism. Another classification categorizes possible resolutions as isolation, anchoring, distraction, and sublimation. Methods from cognitive behavior therapy have also been used to treat
existential crises by bringing about a change in the individual's
intellectual functioning.
Leap of faith, reasoned approach, and nihilism
Since
existential crises circle around the idea of being unable to find
meaning in life, various resolutions focus on specifically this aspect. Sometimes three different forms of this approach are distinguished. On the one hand, the individual may perform a leap of faith and affirm a new system of meaning without a previous in-depth understanding of how secure it is as a source of meaning. Another method consists in carefully considering all the relevant
factors and thereby rebuilding and justifying a new system of meaning. A third approach goes against these two by denying that there is actual
meaning. It consists in accepting the meaninglessness of life and
learning how to deal with it without the illusion of meaning.
A leap of faith implies committing oneself to something one does not fully understand. In the case of existential crises, the commitment involves the faith
that life is meaningful even though the believer lacks a reasoned
justification. This leap is motivated by the strong desire that life is meaningful and
triggered as a response to the threat posed to the fulfillment of this
desire by the existential crisis. For whom this is psychologically possible, this may be the fastest way
to bypass an existential crisis. This option may be more available to
people oriented toward intuitive processing and less to people who favor a more rational approach since it has less need for a thorough reflection and introspection. It has been argued that the meaning acquired through a leap of faith
may be more robust than in other cases. One reason for this is that
since it is not based on empirical evidence for it, it is also less
vulnerable to empirical evidence against it. Another reason concerns the
flexibility of intuition to selectively disregard threatening
information on the one hand and to focus instead on validating cues.
More rationally inclined persons tend to focus more on a careful evaluation of the sources of meaning based on solid justification through empirical evidence.
If successful, this approach has the advantage of providing the
individual with a concrete and realistic understanding of how their life
is meaningful. It can also constitute a very robust source of meaning if it is based
on solid empirical evidence and thorough understanding. The system of
meaning arrived at may be very idiosyncratic by being based on the
individual's values, preferences, and experiences. On a practical level, it often leads to a more efficient realization of
this meaning since the individual can focus more exclusively on this
factor. If someone determines that family life is their main source of
meaning, for example, they may focus more intensely on this aspect and
take a less involved stance towards other areas in life, such as success
at work. In comparison to the leap of faith, this approach offers more room for
personal growth due to the cognitive labor in the form of reflection and
introspection involved in it and the self-knowledge resulting from this
process. One of the drawbacks of this approach is that it can take a
considerable amount of time to complete and rid oneself of the negative
psychological consequences. If successful, the foundations arrived at this way may provide a solid
basis to withstand future existential crises. But success is not certain
and even after a prolonged search, the individual might still be unable
to identify a significant source of meaning in their life.
If the search for meaning in either way fails, there is still
another approach to resolving the issue of meaninglessness in
existential crises: to find a way to accept that life is meaningless. This position is usually referred to as nihilism.[4][54][77][555]. One can distinguish a local and a global version of this approach,
depending on whether the denial of meaningfulness is only directed at a
certain area of life or at life as a whole. It becomes necessary if the individual arrives at the justifiable
conclusion that life is, after all, meaningless. This conclusion may be
intolerable initially, since humans seem to have a strong desire to lead
a meaningful life, sometimes referred to as the will to meaning. Some theorists, such as Viktor Frankl,
see this desire even as the primary motivation of all individuals. One
difficulty with this negative stance towards meaning is that it seems to
provide very little practical guidance in how to live one's life. So
even if an individual has resolved their existential crises this way,
they may still lack an answer to the question of what they should do
with their life. Positive aspects of this stance include that it can lead to a
heightened sense of freedom by being unbound from any predetermined
purpose. It also exemplifies the virtue of truthfulness by being able to
acknowledge an inconvenient truth instead of escaping into the
convenient illusion of meaningfulness.
Isolation, anchoring, distraction, and sublimation
According to Peter Wessel Zapffe,
life is essentially meaningless but this does not mean that we are
automatically doomed to unresolvable existential crises. Instead, he
identifies four ways of dealing with this fact without falling into an
existential depression: isolation, anchoring, distraction, and
sublimation. Isolation
involves a dismissal of destructive thoughts and feelings from
consciousness. Physicians and medical students, for example, may adopt a
detached and technical stance in order to better deal with the tragic
and disgusting aspects of their vocation. Anchoring
involves a dedication to certain values and practical commitments that
give the individual a sense of assurance. This often happens
collectively, for example, through devotion to a common religion, but it
can also happen individually. Distraction
is a more temporary form of withdrawing one's attention from the
meaninglessness of certain life situations that do not provide any
significant contributions to the construction of our self. Sublimation
is the rarest of these mechanisms. Its essential characteristic setting
it apart from the other mechanisms is that it uses the pain of living
and transforms it into a work of art or another creative expression.
Cognitive behavioral therapy and social perspective-taking
Some approaches from the field of cognitive behavioral therapy
adjust and employ treatments for depression to resolve existential
crises. One fundamental idea in cognitive behavior theory is that
various psychological problems arise due to inaccurate core beliefs about oneself, such as beliefs that one is worthless, helpless, or incompetent.These problematic core beliefs may lie dormant for extended periods.
But when activated by certain life events, they may express themselves
in the form of recurrent negative and damaging thoughts. This can lead,
among other things, to depression. Cognitive behavioral therapy then consists in raising the awareness of
the affected person in regards to these toxic thought patterns and the
underlying core beliefs while training to change them. This can happen by focusing on one's immediate present, being goal-oriented, role-playing, or behavioral experiments.
A closely related method employs the practice of social perspective-taking. Social perspective-taking involves the ability to assess one's situation and character from the point of view of a different individual. This enables the individual to step outside their own immediate
perspective while taking into consideration how others see the
individual and thus reach a more integral perspective.
Unresolved crises
Existential
crises sometimes pass even if the underlying issue is not resolved.
This may happen, for example, if the issue is pushed into the background
by other concerns and thus remains present only in a masked or dormant
state. But even in this state, it may have unconscious effects on how people
lead their life, like career choices. It can also increase the
likelihood of suffering another existential crisis later on in life and
might make resolving these later crises more difficult. It has been argued that many existential crises in contemporary society
are not resolved. The reason for this may be a lack of clear awareness
of the nature, importance, and possible treatments of existential
crises.
Cultural context
In the 19th century, Thomas Carlyle
wrote of how the loss of faith in God results in an existential crisis
which he called the "Centre of Indifference", wherein the world appears
cold and unfeeling and the individual considers himself to be without
worth. Søren Kierkegaard considered that angst
and existential despair would appear when an inherited or borrowed
world-view (often of a collective nature) proved unable to handle
unexpected and extreme life-experiences. Friedrich Nietzsche extended his views to suggest that the death of God—the
loss of collective faith in religion and traditional morality—created a
more widespread existential crisis for the philosophically aware.
Existential crisis has indeed been seen as the inevitable accompaniment of modernism (c.1890–1945). Whereas Émile Durkheim saw individual crises as the by-product of social pathology and a (partial) lack of collective norms, others have seen existentialism as arising more broadly from the
modernist crisis of the loss of meaning throughout the modern world. Its twin answers were either a religion revivified by the experience of anomie (as with Martin Buber),
or an individualistic existentialism based on facing directly the
absurd contingency of human fate within a meaningless and alien
universe, as with Sartre and Camus.
Irvin Yalom, an emeritus professor of psychiatry at Stanford University, has made fundamental contributions to the field of existential psychotherapy. Rollo May is another of the founders of this approach.
Fredric Jameson has suggested that postmodernism,
with its saturation of social space by a visual consumer culture, has
replaced the modernist angst of the traditional subject, and with it the
existential crisis of old, by a new social pathology of flattened
affect and a fragmented subject.
Historical context
Existential
crises are often seen as a phenomenon associated specifically with
modern society. One important factor in this context is that various
sources of meaning, such as religion or being grounded in one's local
culture and immediate social environment, are less important in the
contemporary context.
Another factor in modern society is that individuals are faced
with a daunting number of decisions to make and alternatives to choose
from, often without any clear guidelines on how to make these choices. The high difficulty for finding the best alternative and the importance
of doing so are often the cause of anxiety and may lead to an
existential crisis. For example, it was very common for a long time in history for a son to
simply follow his father's profession. In contrast to this, the modern
schooling system presents students with different areas of study and
interest, thereby opening a wide range of career opportunities to them.
The problem brought about by this increased freedom is sometimes referred to as the agony of choice. The increased difficulty is described in Barry Schwartz's law, which links the costs, time, and energy needed to make a well-informed choice to the number of alternatives available.
