A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non-cellular structures, such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted to smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy, such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and fermentation products (ethanol or vinegar), leading to end-products of water and carbon dioxide. All organisms require water. Essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals. Plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. Fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host.
Different types of organism have different essential nutrients. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
is essential, meaning it must be consumed in sufficient amounts, to
humans and some other animal species, but not to all animals and not to
plants, which are able to synthesize it. Nutrients may be organic
or inorganic: organic compounds include most compounds containing
carbon, while all other chemicals are inorganic. Inorganic nutrients
include nutrients such as iron, selenium, and zinc, while organic nutrients include, among many others, energy-providing compounds and vitamins.
A classification used primarily to describe nutrient needs of animals divides nutrients into macronutrients and micronutrients. Consumed in relatively large amounts (grams or ounces), macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, water) are used primarily to generate energy or to
incorporate into tissues for growth and repair. Micronutrients are
needed in smaller amounts (milligrams or micrograms); they have subtle biochemical and physiological roles in cellular processes, like vascular functions or nerve conduction.
Inadequate amounts of essential nutrients, or diseases that interfere
with absorption, result in a deficiency state that compromises growth,
survival and reproduction. Consumer advisories for dietary nutrient
intakes, such as the United States Dietary Reference Intake, are based on deficiency outcomes and provide macronutrient and micronutrient guides for both lower and upper limits of intake. In many countries, macronutrients and micronutrients in significant content
are required by regulations to be displayed on food product labels.
Nutrients in larger quantities than the body needs may have harmful
effects. Edible plants also contain thousands of compounds generally called phytochemicals which have unknown effects on disease or health, including a diverse class with non-nutrient status called polyphenols, which remain poorly understood as of 2017.
Plant nutrients consist of more than a dozen minerals absorbed
through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed or released
through leaves. All organisms obtain all their nutrients from the
surrounding environment.
Plant nutrition
Plants absorb carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air. These three, in the form of water and carbon dioxide.
Other nutrients are absorbed from soil (exceptions include some
parasitic or carnivorous plants). Counting these, there are 17 important
nutrients for plants:
the macronutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium
(Ca), sulfur (S), magnesium (Mg), carbon (C), oxygen(O) and hydrogen
(H), and the micronutrients iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine (Cl),
manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and nickel (Ni).
In addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur are also needed in relatively large quantities. Together, the "Big Six" are the elemental macronutrients for all organisms.
They are sourced from inorganic matter (for example, carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, and diatomic molecules of nitrogen and, especially, oxygen) and organic matter (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins).
Types of nutrients
Macronutrients
Macronutrients are defined in several ways.
- The chemical elements humans consume in the largest quantities are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulphur, summarized as CHNOPS.
- The chemical compounds that humans consume in the largest quantities and provide bulk energy are classified as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Water must be also consumed in large quantities.
- Calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and chloride ions, along with phosphorus and sulfur, are listed with macronutrients because they are required in large quantities compared to micronutrients, i.e., vitamins and other minerals, the latter often described as trace or ultratrace minerals.
Macronutrients provide energy:
- Carbohydrates are compounds made up of types of sugar. Carbohydrates are classified according to their number of sugar units: monosaccharides (such as glucose and fructose), disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose), oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides (such as starch, glycogen, and cellulose).
- Proteins are organic compounds that consist of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Since the body cannot manufacture some of the amino acids (termed essential amino acids), the diet must supply them. Through digestion, proteins are broken down by proteases back into free amino acids.
- Fats consist of a glycerin molecule with three fatty acids attached. Fatty acid molecules contain a -COOH group attached to unbranched hydrocarbon chains connected by single bonds alone (saturated fatty acids) or by both double and single bonds (unsaturated fatty acids). Fats are needed for construction and maintenance of cell membranes, to maintain a stable body temperature, and to sustain the health of skin and hair. Because the body does not manufacture certain fatty acids (termed essential fatty acids), they must be obtained through one's diet.
Fat has an energy content of 9 kcal/g (~37.7 kJ/g) and proteins and carbohydrates 4 kcal/g (~16.7 kJ/g).
Micronutrients
Micronutrients support metabolism.
- Dietary minerals are generally trace elements, salts, or ions such as copper and iron. Some of these minerals are essential to human metabolism.
- Vitamins are organic compounds essential to the body. They usually act as coenzymes or cofactors for various proteins in the body.
Essentiality
Essential nutrients
An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal
physiological function that cannot be synthesized in the body – either
at all or in sufficient quantities – and thus must be obtained from a dietary source. Apart from water, which is universally required for the maintenance of homeostasis in mammals, essential nutrients are indispensable for various cellular metabolic processes and maintaining tissue and organ function. In the case of humans, there are nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins and fifteen minerals that are considered essential nutrients.
In addition, there are several molecules that are considered
conditionally essential nutrients since they are indispensable in
certain developmental and pathological states.
Amino acids
An essential amino acid is an amino acid that is required by an organism but cannot be synthesized de novo by it, and therefore must be supplied in its diet. Out of the twenty standard protein-producing amino acids, nine cannot be endogenously synthesized by humans: phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.
Fatty acids
Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fatty acids that humans and other animals must ingest because the body requires them for good health but cannot synthesize them. Only two fatty acids are known to be essential for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).
Vitamins
Vitamins are organic molecules essential for an organism that are not classified as amino acids or fatty acids. They commonly function as enzymatic cofactors, metabolic regulators or antioxidants. Humans require thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are actually groups of related molecules (e.g. vitamin E includes tocopherols and tocotrienols): vitamins A, C, D, E, K, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), vitamin B6 (e.g., pyridoxine), biotin (B7), folate (B9), and cobalamin (B12).
The requirement for vitamin D is conditional, as people who get
sufficient exposure to ultraviolet light, either from the sun or an
artificial source, synthesize vitamin D in the skin.
Minerals
Minerals are the exogenous chemical elements indispensable for life. Although the four elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen,
are essential for life, they are so plentiful in food and drink that
these are not considered nutrients and there are no recommended intakes
for these as minerals. The need for nitrogen is addressed by
requirements set for protein, which is composed of nitrogen-containing
amino acids. Sulfur
is essential, but again does not have a recommended intake. Instead,
recommended intakes are identified for the sulfur-containing amino acids
methionine and cysteine.
The essential nutrient elements for humans, listed in order of Recommended Dietary Allowance (expressed as a mass), are potassium, chloride, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, iodine, chromium, molybdenum, selenium and cobalt (the last as a component of vitamin B12).
There are other minerals which are essential for some plants and
animals, but may or may not be essential for humans, such as boron and silicon.
Conditionally essential nutrients
Conditionally essential nutrients are certain organic molecules that
can normally be synthesized by an organism, but under certain conditions
in insufficient quantities. In humans, such conditions include premature birth, limited nutrient intake, rapid growth, and certain disease states. Choline, inositol, taurine, arginine, glutamine and nucleotides are classified as conditionally essential and are particularly important in neonatal diet and metabolism.
Non-essential nutrients
Non-essential nutrients are substances within foods that can have a
significant impact on health; these substances can be beneficial or
toxic. For example, dietary fiber is not absorbed in the human digestive tract, but is important in maintaining the bulk of a bowel movement to avoid constipation. A subset of dietary fiber, soluble fiber, can be metabolized by bacteria residing in the large intestine. Soluble fiber is marketed as serving a prebiotic function – promoting "healthy" intestinal bacteria. Bacterial metabolism of soluble fiber also produces short-chain fatty acids like butyric acid, which may be absorbed into intestinal cells as a source of calories.
Non-nutrients
Ethanol (C2H5OH)
supplies calories. For spirits (vodka, gin, rum, etc.) a standard
serving in the United States is 1.5 US fluid ounces (44 ml), which at
40% ethanol (80 proof) would be 14 grams and 98 calories. At 50% alcohol, 17.5 grams and 122.5 calories.
Wine and beer contain a similar amount of ethanol in servings of 5 US
fluid ounces (150 ml) and 12 US fluid ounces (350 ml), respectively, but
these beverages also contain non-ethanol calories. A 5-ounce serving of
wine contains 100 to 130 calories. A 12-ounce serving of beer contains
95 to 200 calories. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, based on NHANES 2013–2014 surveys, women ages 20 and up consume on average 6.8 grams of alcohol per day and men consume on average 15.5 grams per day.
Ignoring the non-alcohol contribution of those beverages, the average
ethanol calorie contributions are 48 and 108 cal/day, respectively. Alcoholic beverages are considered empty calorie foods because, other than calories, they contribute no essential nutrients.
By definition, phytochemicals include all nutritional and non-nutritional components of edible plants. Included as nutritional constituents are provitamin A carotenoids, whereas those without nutrient status are diverse polyphenols, flavonoids, resveratrol, and lignans – often claimed to have antioxidant effects – that are present in numerous plant foods. A number of phytochemical compounds are under preliminary research for their potential effects on human diseases and health. However, the qualification for nutrient status of compounds with poorly defined properties in vivo is that they must first be defined with a Dietary Reference Intake level to enable accurate food labeling, a condition not established for most phytochemicals that are claimed to be antioxidant nutrients.
Deficiencies and toxicity
An inadequate amount of a nutrient is a deficiency. Deficiencies
can be due to a number of causes including an inadequacy in nutrient
intake, called a dietary deficiency, or any of several conditions that
interfere with the utilization of a nutrient within an organism.
Some of the conditions that can interfere with nutrient utilization
include problems with nutrient absorption, substances that cause a
greater than normal need for a nutrient, conditions that cause nutrient
destruction, and conditions that cause greater nutrient excretion. Nutrient toxicity occurs when excess consumption of a nutrient does harm to an organism.
In the United States and Canada, recommended dietary intake
levels of essential nutrients are based on the minimum level that "will
maintain a defined level of nutriture in an individual", a definition
somewhat different from that used by the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization
of a "basal requirement to indicate the level of intake needed to
prevent pathologically relevant and clinically detectable signs of a
dietary inadequacy".
In setting human nutrient guidelines, government organizations do
not necessarily agree on amounts needed to avoid deficiency or maximum
amounts to avoid the risk of toxicity. For example, for vitamin C, recommended intakes range from 40 mg/day in India to 155 mg/day for the European Union.
The table below shows U.S. Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and
Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins and minerals, PRIs
for the European Union (same concept as RDAs), followed by what three
government organizations deem to be the safe upper intake. RDAs are set
higher than EARs to cover people with higher than average needs.
Adequate Intakes (AIs) are set when there is not sufficient information
to establish EARs and RDAs. Governments are slow to revise information
of this nature. For the U.S. values, with the exception of calcium and
vitamin D, all of the data date to 1997-2004.
| Nutrient | U.S. EAR | Highest U.S. RDA or AI |
Highest EU PRI or AI |
Upper limit | Unit | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| U.S. | EU | Japan | |||||
| Vitamin A | 625 | 900 | 1300 | 3000 | 3000 | 2700 | µg |
| Vitamin C | 75 | 90 | 155 | 2000 | ND | ND | mg |
| Vitamin D | 10 | 15 | 15 | 100 | 100 | 100 | µg |
| Vitamin K | NE | 120 | 70 | ND | ND | ND | µg |
| α-tocopherol (Vit E) |
12 | 15 | 13 | 1000 | 300 | 650-900 | mg |
| Thiamin (Vit B1) | 1.0 | 1.2 | 0.1 mg/MJ | ND | ND | ND | mg |
| Riboflavin (Vit B2) | 1.1 | 1.3 | 2.0 | ND | ND | ND | mg |
| Niacin* (Vit B3) | 12 | 16 | 1.6 mg/MJ | 35 | 10 | 60-85 | mg |
| Pantothenic acid (Vit B5) |
NE | 5 | 7 | ND | ND | ND | mg |
| Vitamin B6 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 1.8 | 100 | 25 | 40-60 | mg |
| Biotin (Vit B7) | NE | 30 | 45 | ND | ND | ND | µg |
| Folate (Vit B9) | 320 | 400 | 600 | 1000 | 1000 | 900-1000 | µg |
| Cobalamin (Vit B12) |
2.0 | 2.4 | 5.0 | ND | ND | ND | µg |
| Choline | NE | 550 | 520 | 3500 | ND | ND | mg |
| Calcium | 800 | 1000 | 1000 | 2500 | 2500 | 2500 | mg |
| Chloride | NE | 2300 | NE | 3600 | ND | ND | mg |
| Chromium | NE | 35 | NE | ND | ND | ND | µg |
| Copper | 700 | 900 | 1600 | 10000 | 5000 | 10000 | µg |
| Fluoride | NE | 4 | 3.4 | 10 | 7 | ____ | mg |
| Iodine | 95 | 150 | 200 | 1100 | 600 | 3000 | µg |
| Iron | 6 | 18 (females) 8 (males) |
16 (females) 11 (males) |
45 | ND | 40-45 | mg |
| Magnesium* | 350 | 420 | 350 | 350 | 250 | 350 | mg |
| Manganese | NE | 2.3 | 3.0 | 11 | ND | 11 | mg |
| Molybdenum | 34 | 45 | 65 | 2000 | 600 | 450-550 | µg |
| Phosphorus | 580 | 700 | 640 | 4000 | ND | 3000 | mg |
| Potassium | NE | 4700 | 4000 | ND | ND | 2700-3000 | mg |
| Selenium | 45 | 55 | 70 | 400 | 300 | 330-460 | µg |
| Sodium | NE | 1500 | NE | 2300 | ND | 3000-3600 | mg |
| Zinc | 9.4 | 11 | 16.3 | 40 | 25 | 35-45 | mg |
- For niacin and magnesium there appears to be a contradiction inherent in the information in the table, as the amounts recommended for daily consumption can be more than the amounts identified as the safe upper limits. For both nutrients, the ULs identify the amounts which will not increase risk of adverse effects when the nutrients are consumed as a serving of a dietary supplement. Magnesium above the UL may cause diarrhea. Niacin above the UL may cause flushing of the face and a sensation of body warmth. Each country or regional regulatory agency decides on a safety margin below when symptoms may occur, so the ULs can differ.
EAR U.S. Estimated Average Requirements.
RDA U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowances; higher for adults
than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or
lactating.
AI U.S. Adequate Intake; AIs established when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs.
PRI Population Reference Intake is European Union
equivalent of RDA; higher for adults than for children, and may be even
higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. For Thiamin and Niacin
the PRIs are expressed as amounts per MJ of calories consumed. MJ =
megajoule = 239 food calories.
Upper Limit Tolerable upper intake levels.
ND ULs have not been determined.
NE EARs, PRIs or AIs have not yet been established or will not be (EU does not consider chromium an essential nutrient).
