Hanoi

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Coordinates: 21°01′42.5″N 105°51′15.0″E / 21.028472°N 105.854167°E / 21.028472; 105.854167

Hanoi Hà Nội
Municipality (Thành phố trực thuộc trung ương)
(from left) top: Long Biên Bridge, river near Perfume Pagoda; middle: Turtle Tower, bottom: Temple of Literature, Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum, Hanoi Opera House
Provincial location in Vietnam
Coordinates: 21°01′42.5″N 105°51′15.0″E / 21.028472°N 105.854167°E / 21.028472; 105.854167
Country	Vietnam
Central city	Hà Nội
Foundation as capital of the Đại Việt	1010
Establishment as capital of Vietnam	September 2, 1945
Demonym	Hanoians
Government
• Party's Secretary	Phạm Quang Nghị
• People's Council's President	Ngô Thị Doãn Thanh
• People's Committee's President	Nguyễn Thế Thảo
Area
• Total	3,324,3 km2 (186.22 sq mi)
Population (2014)[1]
• Total	7,067,000[1]
• Rank	2nd in Vietnam
• Density	2,126.05/km2 (5,506.4/sq mi)
Time zone	ICT (UTC+07:00)
• Summer (DST)	No DST (UTC+7)
Area codes	24
GDP (nominal)	2013 estimate
- Total	21.48 billion USD
- Per capita	3,000 USD [1]
- Growth	8.25%
Website	hanoi.gov.vn

Hanoi (/hæˈnɔɪ/^[2] or US /həˈnɔɪ/)^[3] is the capital of Vietnam and the country's second largest city. Its population in 2009 was estimated at 2.6 million for urban districts,^[4] 6.5 million for the metropolitan jurisdiction.^[5] From 1010 until 1802, it was the most important political centre of Vietnam. It was eclipsed by Huế, the imperial capital of Vietnam during the Nguyễn Dynasty (1802–1945), but Hanoi served as the capital of French Indochina from 1902 to 1954. From 1954 to 1976, it was the capital of North Vietnam, and it became the capital of a reunified Vietnam in 1976, after the North's victory in the Vietnam War.

The city lies on the right bank of the Red River. Hanoi is 1,760 km (1,090 mi) north of Ho Chi Minh City and 120 km (75 mi) west of Hai Phong city.

October 2010 officially marked 1000 years since the establishment of the city.^[6] The Hanoi Ceramic Mosaic Mural is a 4 km ceramic mosaic mural created to mark the occasion.

Names

Hanoi (河內) has had many names throughout history, all of them of Sino-Vietnamese origin. During the Chinese domination of Vietnam, it was known first as Long Biên, then Tống Bình (宋平, "Song Peace") and Long Đỗ (龍肚, "Dragonbelly"). In 866, it was turned into a citadel and named Đại La (大羅, "Big Net").

History

Pre-Thăng Long period

Hanoi has been inhabited since at least 3000 BC. One of the first known permanent settlements is the Cổ Loa Citadel founded around 200 BC.

In 197 BC, Âu Lạc Kingdom was annexed by Nanyue, which ushered in more than a millennium of Chinese domination. By the middle of the 5th century, in the center of ancient Hanoi, the Liu Song Dynasty set up a new district (縣) called Songping (Tong Binh), which later became a commandery (郡), including two districts Yihuai (義懷) and Suining (綏寧) in the south of the Red River (now Từ Liêm and Hoài Đức districts) with a metropolis (the domination centre) in the present inner Hanoi. By the year 679, the Tang dynasty changed the region's name into Annan (Pacified South), with Songping as its capital.^[7]

In order to defeat the people’s uprisings, in the later half of the 8th century, Zhang Boyi (張伯儀), a Tang dynasty viceroy, built Luocheng (羅城, La Thanh or La citadel, from Thu Le to Quan Ngua in present-day Ba Dinh precinct). In the earlier half of the 9th century, it was further built up and called Jincheng (金城, Kim Thanh or Kim Citadel). In 866, Gao Pian, the Chinese Jiedushi, consolidated and named it Daluocheng (大羅城, Dai La citadel, running from Quan Ngua to Bach Thao), the then largest citadel ancient Hanoi.^[7]

Thăng Long, Đông Đô, Đông Quan, Đông Kinh

In 1010, Lý Thái Tổ, the first ruler of the Lý Dynasty, moved the capital of Đại Việt to the site of the Đại La Citadel. Claiming to have seen a dragon ascending the Red River, he renamed the site Thăng Long (昇龍, "Soaring Dragon") - a name still used poetically to this day. Thăng Long remained the capital of Đại Việt until 1397, when it was moved to Thanh Hóa, then known as Tây Đô (西都), the "Western Capital". Thăng Long then became Đông Đô (東都), the "Eastern Capital."

In 1408, the Chinese Ming Dynasty attacked and occupied Vietnam, changing Đông Đô's name to Dongguan (Chinese: 東關, Eastern Gateway), or Đông Quan in Sino-Vietnamese. In 1428, the Vietnamese overthrew the Chinese under the leadership of Lê Lợi, who later founded the Lê Dynasty and renamed Đông Quan Đông Kinh (東京, "Eastern Capital") or Tonkin. Right after the end of the Tây Sơn Dynasty, it was named Bắc Thành (北城, "Northern Citadel").

During Nguyễn Dynasty and French colonial

People in Ha Noi, 1884

Ha Noi, New Year 1973

In 1802, when the Nguyễn Dynasty was established and moved the capital to Huế, the old name Thăng Long was modified to become Thăng Long (昇龍, "Soaring Dragon"). In 1831, the Nguyễn emperor Minh Mạng renamed it Hà Nội (河内, "Between Rivers" or "River Interior"). Hanoi was occupied by the French in 1873 and passed to them ten years later. As Hanoï, it became the capital of French Indochina after 1887.

During two wars

The city was occupied by the Japanese in 1940 and liberated in 1945, when it briefly became the seat of the Viet Minh government after Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the independence of Vietnam. However, the French returned and reoccupied the city in 1946. After nine years of fighting between the French and Viet Minh forces, Hanoi became the capital of an independent North Vietnam in 1954.

During the Vietnam War, Hanoi's transportation facilities were disrupted by the bombing of bridges and railways. These were all, however, promptly repaired. Following the end of the war, Hanoi became the capital of a reunified Vietnam when North and South Vietnam were reunited on July 2, 1976.

Modern Hanoi

On May 29, 2008, it was decided that Hà Tây Province, Vĩnh Phúc Province's Mê Linh District and 4 communes of Lương Sơn District, Hòa Bình Province be merged into the metropolitan area of Hanoi from August 1, 2008.^[8] Hanoi's total area then increased to 334,470 hectares in 29 subdivisions^[9] with the new population being 6,232,940.,^[9] effectively tripling its size. The Hanoi Capital Region (Vùng Thủ đô Hà Nội), a metropolitan area covering Hanoi and 6 surrounding provinces under its administration, will have an area of 13,436 square kilometres (5,188 sq mi) with a population of 15 million by 2020.

Hanoi experienced a rapid construction boom recently. Skyscrapers, popping up in new urban areas, dramatically change the citiscape and form a modern skyline. In 2014, Hanoi is ranked # 39 by Emporis in the list of world cities with most skyscrapers, two tallest buildings are Hanoi Landmark 72 Tower (336m, tallest in Vietnam and second tallest in Southeast Asia after Malaysia's Petronas Twin Towers) and Hanoi Lotte Center (267m, also second tallest in Vietnam)

Geography

Location, topography

Hanoi is located in northern region of Vietnam, situated in the Vietnam’s Red River delta, nearly 90 km (56 mi) away from the coastal area. Hanoi contains three basic kind of terrain, which are the delta area, the midland area and mountainous zone. In general, the terrain is gradually lower from the north to the south and from the west to the east, with the average height ranging from 5 to 20 meters above the sea level. The hills and mountainous zones are located in the northern and western part of the city. The highest peak is at Ba Vi with 1281 m, located in the western part of the region.

Districts

Hanoi is divided into 12 urban districts, 1 district-level town and 17 rural districts. (Hà Đông has been transform to an urban district, and Sơn Tây has been degraded to a district-level town)

Subdivisions of Hanoi
Provincial Cities/Districts[10]	Wards[10]	Area (km2)[10]	Population[10]
1 town
Sơn Tây	15	113.474	181,831
12 urban districts (Quận)
Ba Đình District	14	9.224	228,352
Bắc Từ Liêm District	13	43.35	320,414
Cầu Giấy District	8	12.04	147,000
Đống Đa District	21	9.96	352,000
Hai Bà Trưng	20	14.6	378,000
Hà Đông District	17	47.917	198,687
Hoàn Kiếm District	18	5.29	178,073
Hoàng Mai District	14	41.04	216,277
Long Biên District	14	60.38	170,706
Nam Từ Liêm District	10	32.27	232,894
Tây Hồ District (West Lake)	8	24	115,163
Thanh Xuân District	11	9.11	185,000
Subtotal	145	233.56	2,178,258
17 rural districts (Huyện)
Ba Vì District	31 + 1 town	428.0	242,600 (1999)
Chương Mỹ District	30 + 2 towns	232.9	261,000 (1999)
Đan Phượng District	15 + 1 town	76.8	124,900
Đông Anh District	23 + 1 town	182.3	276,750
Gia Lâm District	20 + 2 towns	114.0	205,275
Hoài Đức District	19 + 1 town	95.3	188,800
Mê Linh District	16 + 2 towns	141.26	187,536 (2008)
Mỹ Đức District	21 + 1 town	230.0	167,700 (1999)
Phú Xuyên District	26 + 2 towns	171.1	181,500
Phúc Thọ District	25 + 1 town	113.2	154,800 (2001)
Quốc Oai District	20 + 1 town	136.0 (2001)	146,700 (2001)
Sóc Sơn District	25 + 1 town	306.51	254,000
Thạch Thất District	22 + 1 town	128.1	149,000 (2003)
Thanh Oai District	20 + 1 town	129.6	142,600 (1999)
Thanh Trì District (Green Ponds)	15 + 1 town	98.22	241,000
Thường Tín District	28 + 1 town	127.7	208,000
Ứng Hòa District	28 + 1 town	183.72	193,731 (2005)
Subtotal	399 + 22 towns	3,266.186	3,872,851
Total	559 + 22 towns	3,344.47	6,232,940

Climate

Hanoi seen from Spot Satellite

Hanoi features a warm humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa) with plentiful precipitation. The city experiences the typical climate of northern Vietnam, where summers are hot and humid, and winters are, by national standards, relatively cold and dry. Hanoi averages 1,680 millimetres (66.1 in) of rainfall per year, the majority falling from May to September. The city is usually cloudy and foggy in winter, averaging only 1.5 hours of sunshine per day in February.

Extreme temperatures have ranged from 2.7 °C (36.9 °F) to 40.4 °C (105 °F).^[11]

Climate data for Hanoi (1898-1990)
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Average high °C (°F)	19.3 (66.7)	19.9 (67.8)	22.8 (73)	27.0 (80.6)	31.5 (88.7)	32.6 (90.7)	32.9 (91.2)	31.9 (89.4)	30.9 (87.6)	28.6 (83.5)	25.2 (77.4)	21.8 (71.2)	27.0 (80.6)
Daily mean °C (°F)	16.5 (61.7)	17.5 (63.5)	20.5 (68.9)	24.2 (75.6)	27.9 (82.2)	29.2 (84.6)	29.5 (85.1)	28.8 (83.8)	27.8 (82)	25.3 (77.5)	21.9 (71.4)	18.6 (65.5)	23.98 (75.15)
Average low °C (°F)	13.7 (56.7)	15.0 (59)	18.1 (64.6)	21.4 (70.5)	24.3 (75.7)	25.8 (78.4)	26.1 (79)	25.7 (78.3)	24.7 (76.5)	21.9 (71.4)	18.5 (65.3)	15.3 (59.5)	20.9 (69.6)
Rainfall mm (inches)	18.6 (0.732)	26.2 (1.031)	43.8 (1.724)	90.1 (3.547)	188.5 (7.421)	239.9 (9.445)	288.2 (11.346)	318.0 (12.52)	265.4 (10.449)	130.7 (5.146)	43.4 (1.709)	23.4 (0.921)	1,676.2 (65.992)
Avg. rainy days	8.4	11.3	15.0	13.3	14.2	14.7	15.7	16.7	13.7	9.0	6.5	6.0	144.5
% humidity	78	82	83	83	77	78	79	82	79	75	74	75	78.8
Mean monthly sunshine hours	68.2	45.2	43.4	81.0	164.3	156.0	182.9	164.3	162.0	164.3	126.0	108.5	1,466.1
Source #1: World Meteorological Organisation (UN),[12] BBC Weather (humidity) [13]
Source #2: (sunshine hours only)[14]

Demographics

Hanoian girls wearing traditional costume Áo dài during APEC Summit 2006

Hanoi's population is constantly growing (about 3.5% per year), a reflection of the fact that the city is both a major metropolitan area of Northern Vietnam, and also the country's political centre. This population growth also puts a lot of pressure onto the infrastructure, some of which is antiquated and dates back from the early 20th century.

The number of Hanoians who settled down for more than three generations is likely to be very small as compared to the overall population of the city. Even in the Old Quarter, where commerce started hundreds years ago and was mostly a family business, many of the street-front stores nowadays are owned by merchants and retailers from other provinces. The original owner family may have either rented out the store and moved to live further inside the house, or just moved out of the neighbourhood altogether. The pace of change has especially escalated after the abandonment of central-planning economic policies, and relaxing of the district-based household registrar system.^{[citation needed]}

Hanoi's telephone numbers have been increased to 8 digits to cope with demand (October 2008). Subscribers telephone numbers have been changed in a haphazard way; however, mobile phones and SIM cards are readily available in Vietnam, with pre-paid mobile phone credit available in all areas of Hanoi.

Economy

Keangnam Hanoi Landmark Tower, Vietnam's tallest skyscraper, is located in Hanoi.

Hanoi has the highest Human Development Index among the cities in Vietnam.^{[citation needed]}According to a recent ranking by PricewaterhouseCoopers, Hanoi will be the fastest growing city in the world in term of GDP growth from 2008 to 2025.^[15] In the year 2013, Hanoi has contributed 12.6% to GDP, exported 7.5% of total exports, contributed to 17% of national budget and attracted 22% investment capital of Vietnam. The city's nominal GDP at current price reached 451,213 billion VND (21.48 billion USD) in 2013, which made per capita GDP stand at 63.3 million VND (3,000 USD).^[16] Industrial production in the city has experienced a rapid boom since the 1990s, with average annual growth of 19.1 percent from 1991–95, 15.9 percent from 1996–2000, and 20.9 percent during 2001–2003.^{[citation needed]} In addition to eight existing industrial parks, Hanoi is building five new large-scale industrial parks and 16 small- and medium-sized industrial clusters. The non-state economic sector is expanding fast, with more than 48,000 businesses currently operating under the Enterprise Law (as of 3/2007).^[17]

Trade is another strong sector of the city. In 2003, Hanoi had 2,000 businesses engaged in foreign trade, having established ties with 161 countries and territories. The city's export value grew by an average 11.6 percent each year from 1996–2000 and 9.1 percent during 2001–2003.^{[citation needed]} The economic structure also underwent important shifts, with tourism, finance, and banking now playing an increasingly important role. Hanoi's business districts are traditionally Hoàn Kiếm and the neighborhood; and a newly developing Cầu Giấy and Từ Liêm in the western part.

Similar to Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi enjoys a rapidly developing real estate market.^[18] The current most notable new urban areas are central Trung Hoa Nhan Chinh, Mỹ Đình, the luxurious zones of The Manor and Ciputra.

Agriculture, previously a pillar in Hanoi's economy, has striven to reform itself, introducing new high-yield plant varieties and livestock, and applying modern farming techniques.^{[citation needed]}

Together with economic growth, Hanoi's appearance has also changed significantly, especially in recent years. Infrastructure is constantly being upgraded, with new roads and an improved public transportation system.^{[citation needed]}

On February 2013 Dubai-based property developer Global Sphere announced a mega-project to build about 70 residential towers in Hanoi in an area dubbed the Hanoi Wall Street. .^[19] The first phase, valued at $10 billion, is expected to be finished by 2020.

Landmarks

North gate of Hanoi Citadel from inside (19th century)

As the capital of Vietnam for almost a thousand years, Hanoi is considered one of the main cultural centres of Vietnam, where most Vietnamese dynasties have left their imprint. Even though some relics have not survived through wars and time, the city still has many interesting cultural and historic monuments for visitors and residents alike. Even when the nation's capital moved to Huế under the Nguyễn Dynasty in 1802, the city of Hanoi continued to flourish, especially after the French took control in 1888 and modeled the city's architecture to their tastes, lending an important aesthetic to the city's rich stylistic heritage. The city hosts more cultural sites than any city in Vietnam,^[20] and boasts more than 1,000 years of history, and that of the past few hundred years has been well preserved.^[21]

Old Quarter

Main gate to the Temple of Literature

Hoàn Kiếm Lake by night

The Old Quarter, near Hoàn Kiếm Lake, has the original street layout and architecture of old Hanoi. At the beginning of the 20th century the city consisted of only about 36 streets, most of which are now part of the old quarter. Each street then had merchants and households specialised in a particular trade, such as silk traders, jewellery, etc. The street names nowadays still reflect these specializations, although few of them remain exclusively in their original commerce.^[22] The area is famous for its small artisans and merchants, including many silk shops. Local cuisine specialties as well as several clubs and bars can be found here also. A night market (near Đồng Xuân Market) in the heart of the district opens for business every Friday, Saturday, and Sunday evening with a variety of clothing, souvenirs and food.

Some others prominent places are: The Temple of Literature (Văn Miếu), site of the oldest university in Vietnam 1010; One Pillar Pagoda (Chùa Một Cột); Flag Tower of Hanoi (Cột cờ Hà Nội). In 2004, a massive part of the 900 year old Hanoi Citadel was discovered in central Hanoi, near the site of Ba Đình Square.^[23]

Lakes

A city between the rivers, built from lowland, Hanoi has many scenic lakes and it is sometimes called "city of lakes". Among its lakes, the most famous are Hoàn Kiếm Lake, West Lake, Halais Lake (Hồ Thiền Quang in Vietnamese), and Bay Mau Lake. Hoan Kiem Lake, also known as Sword Lake, is the historical and cultural center of Hanoi, and is linked to the legend of the magic sword. West Lake (Hồ Tây) is a popular place for people to spend time. It is the largest lake in Hanoi and there are many temples in the area. There are swanboats for hire. The lakeside road in Quang An area is perfect for bicycling, jogging and viewing the cityscape especially in the sunset or enjoying lotus ponds in the summer

Colonial Hanoi

Hotel Metropole in colonial Hanoi

National Museum of Vietnamese History

Under French rule, as an administrative centre for the French colony of Indochina, the French colonial architecture style became dominant, many examples remain today: the tree-lined boulevards (e.g. Phan Dinh Phung street) and its many villas and mansions, Grand Opera House, State Bank of Vietnam (formerly The Bank of Indochina), Presidential Palace (formerly Palace of the Governor-General of French Indochina), St. Joseph's Cathedral, and the historic Hotel Metropole. Many of the colonial structures are an eclectic mixture of French and traditional Vietnamese architectural styles, such as the National Museum of Vietnamese History, the Vietnam National Museum of Fine Arts and the old Indochina Medical College. Gouveneur-Général Paul Doumer (1898-1902) played a crucial in colonial Hanoi's urban planning. Under his tenure there was a major construction boom.^[24]

Critical historians of empire have noted that French colonial rule imposed a system of white supremacy on the city. Vietnamese subjects supplied labor and tax revenue but the privileges and comforts of the city went to the white population. French efforts at rat eradication revealed some of the colonial city's racial double-standards.^[25]

Museums

Hanoi is also home to a number of museums:

• National Museum of Vietnamese History
• Vietnam National Museum of Fine Arts
• Vietnam Museum of Ethnology
• Vietnam Museum of Revolution
• Hỏa Lò Prison (Hanoi Hilton)
• Ho Chi Minh Museum
• Hanoi Contemporary Arts Centre
• Vietnam Military History Museum
• Hanoi Museum

Tourism

Tourist spots in Hanoi

According to TripIndex by TripAdvisor, for the period between June 1 and August 31, 2012 Hanoi was the cheapest city in the world for a one-night stay for two in a four-star hotel. This included cocktails, a two-course dinner with a bottle of wine, and taxi transport (two return journeys of about 3.2 km (2.0 mi) each). It cost $141.12; about 27 percent of the cost in the most expensive city, London, which cost $518.01.^[26]

In 2014, Hanoi ranked #8 in TripAdvisor's list of World Best Destinations (by Travellers' Choice).

Entertainment

Performance of the water puppet theatre Thăng Long

A variety of options for entertainment in Hanoi can be found throughout the city. Modern and traditional theaters, cinemas, karaoke bars, dance clubs, bowling alleys, and an abundance of opportunities for shopping provide leisure activity for both locals and tourists. Hanoi has been named as one of the top 10 cities for shopping in Asia by Water Puppet Tours.^[27] The number of art galleries exhibiting Vietnamese art has dramatically increased in recent years, including galleries such as "Nhat Huy" of Huynh Thong Nhat.

A popular traditional form of entertainment is Water puppetry, which is shown for example at the Thăng Long Water Puppet Theatre.

Shopping

With rapid economic growth and extremely high population density, many modern shopping centers and megamalls have been opened in Hanoi.

Major malls are:

• Trang Tien Plaza, Trang Tien street (right next to Hoàn Kiếm Lake), Hoàn Kiếm District
• Vincom Center, a modern mall with hi-end CGV cineplex, Ba Trieu Street (just 2 km from Hoan Kiem lake), Hai Bà Trưng District
• Parkson Department Store, Tây Sơn Street, Đống Đa District; and Landmark Parkson Department Store at Vietnam's tallest building, Hanoi Landmark Tower (Pham Hung Road)
• The Garden Shopping Center, Me Tri - Mỹ Đình, Từ Liêm District
• Indochina Plaza, Xuan Thuy street, Cầu Giấy District
• Vincom Royal City Megamall, the largest underground mall in Asia with 230,000 sqm of shops, restaurants, cineplex, waterpark, ice skating rink; Nguyen Trai street (appox 6 km from Hoan Kiem Lake), Thanh Xuân District
• Vincom Times City Megamall, another megamall of 230,000 sqm including shops, restaurants, cineplex, huge musical fountain on central square and a giant aquarium; Minh Khai street (approx 5 km from Hoan Kiem Lake), Hai Ba Trung district
• Lotte Department Store, opened September 2014, Liễu Giai Street, Ba Đình District

Cuisine

Bánh cuốn Thanh Tri dish

Hanoi has rich culinary traditions. Many of Vietnam's most famous dishes, such as phở, chả cá, bánh cuốn and cốm are believed to have originated from Hanoi. Perhaps most widely known is Phở, a simple rice noodle soup often eaten as breakfast at home or street-side cafes, but also served in restaurants as a meal. Two varieties dominate the Hanoi scene: Phở Bò, containing beef, and Phở Gà, containing chicken.

Vietnam's national dish phở has been named as one of the Top5 streetfood in the world by globalpost.^[28]

Hanoi has a number of restaurants whose menus specifically offer dishes containing dog, snake^[29][30] and various species of insects. Insect inspired menus can be found at a number of restaurants in Khuong Thuong village, Hanoi.^[31] The signature dishes at these restaurant are those containing processed ant-eggs, often in the culinary styles of Thai people or Vietnam's Muong and Tay ethnic people.^[32]

Education

Indochina Medical College in the early 20th century, today the Hanoi Medical University

Hanoi University of Technology students wearing áo dài

Hanoi, as the capital of French Indochina, was home to the first Western-style universities in Indochina, including: Indochina Medical College (1902) - now Hanoi Medical University, Indochina University (1904) - now Hanoi National University (the largest), and École Supérieure des Beaux-Arts de L'Indochine (1925) - now Hanoi University of Fine Art.

After the Communist Party took control over Hanoi in 1954 with support from the Soviet Union, many new universities were built, among them, Hanoi University of Technology remains the largest technical university in Vietnam. Recently ULIS (University of Languages and International Studies) was rated as one of the top universities in South East Asia for Languages and language studies at the undergraduate level.^[33] Other universities that are not apart of Vietnam National University nor Hanoi University also include Hanoi School for Public Health and Hanoi School of Agriculture.

Hanoi is the largest centre of education in Vietnam. It is estimated that 62% of the scientists in the whole country are living and working in Hanoi.^[34] Admissions to undergraduate study are through entrance examinations, which are conducted annually and open for everyone (who has successfully completed his/her secondary education) in the country. The majority of universities in Hanoi are public, although in recent years a number of private universities have started their operation. Thăng Long University, founded in 1988, by some Vietnamese mathematics professors in Hanoi and France^[35] is the first private university in Vietnam. Because many of Vietnam's major universities are located in Hanoi, students from other provinces (especially in the northern part of the country) wishing to enter university often travel to Hanoi for the annual entrance examination. Such events often take place in June and July, during which a large number of students and their families converge on the city for several weeks around this intense examination period. In recent years, these entrance exams have been centrally coordinated by the Ministry of Education, but passing marks are decided independently by each university.

Although there are state owned kindergartens, there are also many private ventures that serve both local and international needs. Pre-tertiary (elementary and secondary) schools in Hanoi are generally state run although there are some independent schools. Education is equivalent to the K–12 system in the US, with elementary school between grades 1 and 5, middle school (or junior high) between grades 6 and 9, and high school from grades 10 to 12.

Transport

Motor scooters dominate the roads in the Old Quarter (2007)

Hanoi is served by Noi Bai International Airport, located in the Soc Son District, approximately 40 km (25 mi) north of Hanoi. Noi Bai is the only international airport for the northern regions of Vietnam.

Hanoi will add another international airport which will cost $8 billion, the highest foreign investment so far in the history of Vietnam.^[36] The construction will be carried out in three stages, starting in 2011 and continuing until 2015.

There are two main highways linking the airport and city. The route to the city via Thăng Long Bridge is more direct than Highway 1, which runs along the outskirts of the city. The main highways are shared by cars, motor scooters, with separate lanes by the side for bicycles. Taxis are plentiful and usually have trip meters, although it is also common to agree on the trip price before taking a taxi from airport to the city centre. Tourists also sometimes tour the city on cyclos especially in the Old Quarter.

Hanoi is also the origin departure point for many Vietnam Railways train routes in the country. The Reunification Express (tàu Thống Nhất) runs from Hanoi to Ho Chi Minh City from Hanoi station (formerly Hang Co station), with stops at cities and provinces along the line. Trains also depart Hanoi frequently for Hai Phong and other northern cities.The Reunification Express line was established during French colonial rule, and was completed over a period of nearly forty years, from 1899 to 1936.^[37] The Reunification Express between Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City covers a distance of 1,726 km (1,072 mi) and takes approximately 33 hours.^[38] As of 2005, there were 278 stations on the Vietnamese railway network, of which 191 were located along the North-South line.

The main means of transport within Hanoi city are motorbikes, buses, taxis, and bicycles. Over the preceding decades, motorbikes have overtaken bicycles as the main form of transportation. The increased number of motorcycles can cause gridlocks. To reduce them and the negative consequences for environment and health the local government tries to increase public transportation.^[39] Public buses run on many routes and fare can be purchased on the bus, with very cheap prices (20 cents for a journey where a taxi might cost $10.)

Persons on their own or traveling in a pair who wish to make a fast trip around Hanoi, to avoid traffic jams or to travel at an irregular time or by way of an irregular route, often use "xe ôm" (literally, "hug vehicle") motorbikes, which are unofficial, unregulated motorcycle taxis that involve the passenger sitting on the rear of a motorbike. Idle xe ôm riders often yell "xe ôm" at paedestrians that pass by, and signs saying "xe ôm" adorn many a tree, pole or post around the city (as with all Vietnamese cities, towns and villages,etc.) to advertise that a xe ôm vehicle and rider is often parked there. It is customary to negotiate the price of a xe ôm trip with xe ôm riders. Motorbikes can also be rented from agents within the Old Quarter of Hanoi.^[40]

Sport

Mỹ Đình National Stadium

There are several gymnasiums and stadiums throughout the city of Hanoi. The biggest ones are Mỹ Đình National Stadium (Lê Đức Thọ Boulevard), Quan Ngua Sporting Palace (Văn Cao Avenue), Hanoi Aquatics Sports Complex and Mỹ Đình Indoor Athletics Gymnasium. The others include Hà Nội Stadium (as known as Hàng Đẫy stadium). The third Asian Indoor Games was held at Hanoi in 2009. The others are Hai Bà Trưng Gymnasium, Trịnh Hoài Đức Gymnasium, Vạn Bảo Sports Complex.

Health care and other facilities

Some medical facilities in Hanoi:

• Bạch Mai Hospital
• Viet Duc Hospital
• Saint Paul Hospital
• 108 Hospital
• Hôpital Français de Hanoi
• International SOS
• Hanoi Medical University Hospital
• Thanh Nhan Hospital

International relations

Hanoi is a member of the Asian Network of Major Cities 21 and the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group.

Twin towns and sister cities

Hanoi is twinned with:

Hong Kong Ankara, Turkey[41] Warsaw, Poland[42] Toulouse, France Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan

Bangkok, Thailand Moscow, Russia[43] Manila, Philippines Angoulême, France[44]

Seoul, South Korea[45][46] Phnom Penh, Cambodia[47] Jakarta, Indonesia Isfahan, Iran Victoria, Seychelles[48]

Gallery

• 

  Tháp Bút (Pen Tower) with a phrase "Tả thanh thiên" (meaning "Write on the sky") next to Hoàn Kiếm Lake (2007)
• 

  Presidential Palace, Hanoi (formerly Place of The Governor-General of French Indochina)
• 

  Panorama of Hanoi
• 

  Vietnam National Convention Center on Pham Hung Boulevard
• 

  State Guest House
• 

  The cathedral St-Joseph
• 

  National Museum of Fine Art
• 

  Park of Reunification (former Vladimir Lenin park)
• 

  Hanoi skyline
• 

  Hanoi Skyline panorama
• 

  Long Biên Bridge seen from a rural island looking towards the city centre
• 

  Đồng Xuân Market
• 

  Tran Quoc pagoda

Cellulosic ethanol

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel produced from wood, grasses, or the inedible parts of plants.

It is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. Lignocellulose is composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Corn stover, Panicum virgatum (switchgrass), Miscanthus grass species, wood chips and the byproducts of lawn and tree maintenance are some of the more popular cellulosic materials for ethanol production. Production of ethanol from lignocellulose has the advantage of abundant and diverse raw material compared to sources such as corn and cane sugars, but requires a greater amount of processing to make the sugar monomers available to the microorganisms typically used to produce ethanol by fermentation.

Switchgrass and Miscanthus are the major biomass materials being studied today, due to their high productivity per acre. Cellulose, however, is contained in nearly every natural, free-growing plant, tree, and bush, in meadows, forests, and fields all over the world without agricultural effort or cost needed to make it grow.

According to Michael Wang of Argonne National Laboratory, one of the benefits of cellulosic ethanol is it reduces greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by 85% over reformulated gasoline.^[1] By contrast, starch ethanol (e.g., from corn), which most frequently uses natural gas to provide energy for the process, may not reduce GHG emissions at all depending on how the starch-based feedstock is produced.^[2] According to the National Academy of Sciences in 2011, there is no commercially viable bio-refinery in existence to convert lignocellulosic biomass to fuel.^[3] Absence of production of cellulosic ethanol in the quantities required by the regulation was the basis of a United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia decision announced January 25, 2013, voiding a requirement imposed on car and truck fuel producers in the United States by the Environmental Protection Agency requiring addition of cellulosic biofuels to their products.^[4] These issues, along with many other difficult production challenges, led George Washington University policy researchers to state that "in the short term, [cellulosic] ethanol cannot meet the energy security and environmental goals of a gasoline alternative."^[5]

History

The French chemist, Henri Braconnot, was the first to discover that cellulose could be hydrolyzed into sugars by treatment with sulfuric acid in 1819.^[6] The hydrolyzed sugar could then be processed to form ethanol through fermentation. The first commercialized ethanol production began in Germany in 1898, where acid was used to hydrolyze cellulose. In the United States, the Standard Alcohol Company opened the first cellulosic ethanol production plant in South Carolina in 1910. Later, a second plant was opened in Louisiana. However, both plants were closed after WWI due to economic reasons.^[7]

The first attempt at commercializing a process for ethanol from wood was done in Germany in 1898. It involved the use of dilute acid to hydrolyze the cellulose to glucose, and was able to produce 7.6 liters of ethanol per 100 kg of wood waste (18 US gal (68 L) per ton). The Germans soon developed an industrial process optimized for yields of around 50 US gallons (190 L) per ton of biomass. This process soon found its way to the US, culminating in two commercial plants operating in the southeast during WWI. These plants used what was called "the American Process" — a one-stage dilute sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Though the yields were half that of the original German process (25 US gallons (95 L) of ethanol per ton versus 50), the throughput of the American process was much higher. A drop in lumber production forced the plants to close shortly after the end of WWI. In the meantime, a small but steady amount of research on dilute acid hydrolysis continued at the USFS's Forest Products Laboratory.^[8][9][10] During World War II, the US again turned to cellulosic ethanol, this time for conversion to butadiene to produce synthetic rubber. The Vulcan Copper and Supply Company was contracted to construct and operate a plant to convert sawdust into ethanol. The plant was based on modifications to the original German Scholler process as developed by the Forest Products Laboratory. This plant achieved an ethanol yield of 50 US gal (190 L) per dry ton, but was still not profitable and was closed after the war.^[11]

With the rapid development of enzyme technologies in the last two decades, the acid hydrolysis process has gradually been replaced by enzymatic hydrolysis. Chemical pretreatment of the feedstock is required to prehydrolyze (separate) hemicellulose, so it can be more effectively converted into sugars. The dilute acid pretreatment is developed based on the early work on acid hydrolysis of wood at the USFS's Forest Products Laboratory. Recently, the Forest Products Laboratory together with the University of Wisconsin–Madison developed a sulfite pretreatment to overcome the recalcitrance of lignocellulose^[12] for robust enzymatic hydrolysis of wood cellulose.

US President George W. Bush, in his State of the Union address delivered January 31, 2006, proposed to expand the use of cellulosic ethanol. In his State of the Union Address on January 23, 2007, President Bush announced a proposed mandate for 35 billion US gallons (130,000,000 m³) of ethanol by 2017. It is widely recognized that the maximum production of ethanol from corn starch is 15 billion US gallons (57,000,000 m³) per year, implying a proposed mandate for production of some 20 billion US gallons (76,000,000 m³) more per year of cellulosic ethanol by 2017. Bush's proposed plan includes $2 billion funding (from 2007 to 2017?) for cellulosic ethanol plants, with an additional $1.6 billion (from 2007 to 2017?) announced by the USDA on January 27, 2007.

In March 2007, the US government awarded $385 million in grants aimed at jump-starting ethanol production from nontraditional sources like wood chips, switchgrass, and citrus peels. Half of the six projects chosen will use thermochemical methods and half will use cellulosic ethanol methods.^[13]

The American company Range Fuels announced in July 2007 that it was awarded a construction permit from the state of Georgia to build the first commercial-scale 100-million-US-gallon (380,000 m³)-per-year cellulosic ethanol plant in the US.^[14] Construction began in November, 2007.^[15] The Range Fuels plant was built in Soperton, GA, but was shut down in January 2011, without ever having produced any ethanol. It had received a $76 million grant from the US Department of Energy, plus $6 million from the State of Georgia, plus an $80 million loan guaranteed by the U.S. Biorefinery Assistance Program.^[16]

Production methods

Bioreactor for cellulosic ethanol research.

The two ways of producing ethanol from cellulose are:

• Cellulolysis processes which consist of hydrolysis on pretreated lignocellulosic materials, using enzymes to break complex cellulose into simple sugars such as glucose, followed by fermentation and distillation.
• Gasification that transforms the lignocellulosic raw material into gaseous carbon monoxide and hydrogen. These gases can be converted to ethanol by fermentation or chemical catalysis.

As is normal for pure ethanol production, these methods include distillation.

Cellulolysis (biological approach)

The stages to produce ethanol using a biological approach are:^[12]

1. A "pretreatment" phase, to make the lignocellulosic material such as wood or straw amenable to hydrolysis
2. Cellulose hydrolysis (cellulolysis), to break down the molecules into sugars
3. Separation of the sugar solution from the residual materials, notably lignin
4. Microbial fermentation of the sugar solution
5. Distillation to produce roughly 95% pure alcohol
6. Dehydration by molecular sieves to bring the ethanol concentration to over 99.5%

In 2010, a genetically engineered yeast strain was developed to produce its own cellulose-digesting enzymes.^[17] Assuming this technology can be scaled to industrial levels, it would eliminate one or more steps of cellulolysis, reducing both the time required and costs of production.

Pretreatment

Although lignocellulose is the most abundant plant material resource, its usability is curtailed by its rigid structure. As the result, an effective pretreatment is needed to liberate the cellulose from the lignin seal and its crystalline structure so as to render it accessible for a subsequent hydrolysis step.^[18] By far, most pretreatments are done through physical or chemical means. To achieve higher efficiency, both physical and chemical pretreatments are required. Physical pretreatment is often called size reduction to reduce biomass physical size. Chemical pretreatment is to remove chemical barriers so the enzymes can have access to cellulose for microbial destruction.

To date, the available pretreatment techniques include acid hydrolysis, steam explosion, ammonia fiber expansion, organosolv, sulfite pretreatment,^[12] AVAP® (SO2-ethanol-water) fractionation, ^[19] alkaline wet oxidation and ozone pretreatment.^[20] Besides effective cellulose liberation, an ideal pretreatment has to minimize the formation of degradation products because of their inhibitory effects on subsequent hydrolysis and fermentation processes.^[21] The presence of inhibitors will not only further complicate the ethanol production but also increase the cost of production due to entailed detoxification steps. Even though pretreatment by acid hydrolysis is probably the oldest and most studied pretreatment technique, it produces several potent inhibitors including furfural and hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) which are by far regarded as the most toxic inhibitors present in lignocellulosic hydrolysate.^[22] Ammonia Fiber Expansion (AFEX) is a promising pretreatment with no inhibitory effect in resulting hydrolysate.^[23]

Most pretreatment processes are not effective when applied to feedstocks with high lignin content, such as forest biomass. Organosolv, SPORL ('sulfite pretreatment to overcome recalcitrance of lignocellulose') and SO2-ethanol-water (AVAP®) processes are the three processes that can achieve over 90% cellulose conversion for forest biomass, especially those of softwood species. SPORL is the most energy efficient (sugar production per unit energy consumption in pretreatment) and robust process for pretreatment of forest biomass with very low production of fermentation inhibitors. Organosolv pulping is particularly effective for hardwoods and offers easy recovery of a hydrophobic lignin product by dilution and precipitation.^[24] AVAP® process effectively fractionates all types of lignocellulosics into clean highly digestible cellulose, undegraded hemicellulose sugars, reactive lignin and lignosulfonates, and is characterized by efficient recovery of chemicals. ^[25][26]

Cellulolytic processes

The cellulose molecules are composed of long chains of sugar molecules. In the hydrolysis process, these chains are broken down to free the sugar before it is fermented for alcohol production.

There are two major cellulose hydrolysis (cellulolysis) processes: a chemical reaction using acids, or an enzymatic reaction.

Chemical hydrolysis

In the traditional methods developed in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century, hydrolysis is performed by attacking the cellulose with an acid.^[27] Dilute acid may be used under high heat and high pressure, or more concentrated acid can be used at lower temperatures and atmospheric pressure. A decrystalized cellulosic mixture of acid and sugars reacts in the presence of water to complete individual sugar molecules (hydrolysis). The product from this hydrolysis is then neutralized and yeast fermentation is used to produce ethanol. As mentioned, a significant obstacle to the dilute acid process is that the hydrolysis is so harsh that toxic degradation products are produced that can interfere with fermentation. BlueFire Renewables uses concentrated acid because it does not produce nearly as many fermentation inhibitors, but must be separated from the sugar stream for recycle [simulated moving bed (SMB) chromatographic separation, for example] to be commercially attractive.

Agricultural Research Service scientists found they can access and ferment almost all of the remaining sugars in wheat straw. The sugars are located in the plant’s cell walls, which are notoriously difficult to break down. To access these sugars, scientists pretreated the wheat straw with alkaline peroxide, and then used specialized enzymes to break down the cell walls. This method produced 93 US gallons (350 L) of ethanol per ton of wheat straw. [1]

Enzymatic hydrolysis

Cellulose chains can be broken into glucose molecules by cellulase enzymes.

This reaction occurs at body temperature in the stomachs of ruminants such as cattle and sheep, where the enzymes are produced by microbes. This process uses several enzymes at various stages of this conversion. Using a similar enzymatic system, lignocellulosic materials can be enzymatically hydrolyzed at a relatively mild condition (50 °C and pH 5), thus enabling effective cellulose breakdown without the formation of byproducts that would otherwise inhibit enzyme activity. All major pretreatment methods, including dilute acid, require an enzymatic hydrolysis step to achieve high sugar yield for ethanol fermentation.^[23] Currently, most pretreatment studies have been laboratory-based, but companies are exploring means to transition from the laboratory to pilot, or production scale.

Various enzyme companies have also contributed significant technological breakthroughs in cellulosic ethanol through the mass production of enzymes for hydrolysis at competitive prices.

The fungus Trichoderma reesei is used by Iogen Corporation to secrete "specially engineered enzymes" for an enzymatic hydrolysis process.^[28] Their raw material (wood or straw) has to be pre-treated to make it amenable to hydrolysis.

Another Canadian company, SunOpta, uses steam explosion pretreatment, providing its technology to Verenium (formerly Celunol Corporation)'s facility in Jennings, Louisiana, Abengoa's facility in Salamanca, Spain, and a China Resources Alcohol Corporation in Zhaodong. The CRAC production facility uses corn stover as raw material.^[29]

Genencor and Novozymes have received United States Department of Energy funding for research into reducing the cost of cellulases, key enzymes in the production of cellulosic ethanol by enzymatic hydrolysis.

Other enzyme companies, such as Dyadic International,^[30] are developing genetically engineered fungi which would produce large volumes of cellulase, xylanase and hemicellulase enzymes, which can be used to convert agricultural residues such as corn stover, distiller grains, wheat straw and sugarcane bagasse and energy crops such as switchgrass into fermentable sugars which may be used to produce cellulosic ethanol.

In 2010, BP Biofuels bought out the cellulosic ethanol venture share of Verenium, which had itself been formed by the merger of Diversa and Celunol, and with which it jointly owned and operated a 1.4-million-US-gallon (5,300 m³) per year demonstration plant in Jennings, LA, and the laboratory facilities and staff in San Diego, CA. BP Biofuels continues to operate these facilities, and has begun first phases to construct commercial facilities. Ethanol produced in the Jennings facility was shipped to London and blended with gasoline to provide fuel for the Olympics.

KL Energy Corporation,^[31] formerly KL Process Design Group, began commercial operation of a 1.5-million-US-gallon (5,700 m³) per year cellulosic ethanol facility in Upton, WY in the last quarter of 2007. The Western Biomass Energy facility is currently achieving yields of 40–45 US gallons (150–170 L) per dry ton. It is the first operating commercial cellulosic ethanol facility in the nation. The KL Energy process uses a thermomechanical breakdown and enzymatic conversion process. The primary feedstock is soft wood, but lab tests have already proven the KL Energy process on wine pomace, sugarcane bagasse, municipal solid waste, and switchgrass.

Microbial fermentation

Traditionally, baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), has long been used in the brewery industry to produce ethanol from hexoses (six-carbon sugars). Due to the complex nature of the carbohydrates present in lignocellulosic biomass, a significant amount of xylose and arabinose (five-carbon sugars derived from the hemicellulose portion of the lignocellulose) is also present in the hydrolysate. For example, in the hydrolysate of corn stover, approximately 30% of the total fermentable sugars is xylose. As a result, the ability of the fermenting microorganisms to use the whole range of sugars available from the hydrolysate is vital to increase the economic competitiveness of cellulosic ethanol and potentially biobased proteins.
In recent years, metabolic engineering for microorganisms used in fuel ethanol production has shown significant progress.^[32] Besides Saccharomyces cerevisiae, microorganisms such as Zymomonas mobilis and Escherichia coli have been targeted through metabolic engineering for cellulosic ethanol production.

Recently, engineered yeasts have been described efficiently fermenting xylose,^[33][34] and arabinose,^[35] and even both together.^[36] Yeast cells are especially attractive for cellulosic ethanol processes because they have been used in biotechnology for hundreds of years, are tolerant to high ethanol and inhibitor concentrations and can grow at low pH values to reduce bacterial contamination.

Combined hydrolysis and fermentation

Some species of bacteria have been found capable of direct conversion of a cellulose substrate into ethanol. One example is Clostridium thermocellum, which uses a complex cellulosome to break down cellulose and synthesize ethanol. However, C. thermocellum also produces other products during cellulose metabolism, including acetate and lactate, in addition to ethanol, lowering the efficiency of the process. Some research efforts are directed to optimizing ethanol production by genetically engineering bacteria that focus on the ethanol-producing pathway.^[37]

Gasification process (thermochemical approach)

Fluidized Bed Gasifier in Güssing Burgenland Austria

The gasification process does not rely on chemical decomposition of the cellulose chain (cellulolysis). Instead of breaking the cellulose into sugar molecules, the carbon in the raw material is converted into synthesis gas, using what amounts to partial combustion. The carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen may then be fed into a special kind of fermenter. Instead of sugar fermentation with yeast, this process uses Clostridium ljungdahlii bacteria.^[38] This microorganism will ingest carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen and produce ethanol and water. The process can thus be broken into three steps:

1. Gasification — Complex carbon-based molecules are broken apart to access the carbon as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
2. Fermentation — Convert the carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen into ethanol using the Clostridium ljungdahlii organism
3. Distillation — Ethanol is separated from water

A recent study has found another Clostridium bacterium that seems to be twice as efficient in making ethanol from carbon monoxide as the one mentioned above.^[39]

Alternatively, the synthesis gas from gasification may be fed to a catalytic reactor where it is used to produce ethanol and other higher alcohols through a thermochemical process.^[40] This process can also generate other types of liquid fuels, an alternative concept successfully demonstrated by the Montreal-based company Enerkem at their facility in Westbury, Quebec.^[41]

Hemicellulose to ethanol

Studies are intensively conducted to develop economic methods to convert both cellulose and hemicellulose to ethanol. Fermentation of glucose, the main product of cellulose hydrolyzate, to ethanol is an already established and efficient technique. However, conversion of xylose, the pentose sugar of hemicellulose hydrolyzate, is a limiting factor, especially in the presence of glucose. Moreover, it cannot be disregarded as hemicellulose will increase the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of cellulosic ethanol production.^[42]

Sakamoto (2012) et al. show the potential of genetic engineering microbes to express hemicellulase enzymes. The researchers created a recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain that was able to:

1. hydrolyze hemicellulase through codisplaying endoxylanase on its cell surface,
2. assimilate xylose by expression of xylose reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase.

The strain was able to convert rice straw hydrolyzate to ethanol, which contains hemicellulosic components.
Moreover, it was able to produce 2.5x more ethanol than the control strain, showing the highly effectiveness process of cell surface-engineering to produce ethanol.^[42]

Economics

The shift to a renewable fuel resource has been a target for many years now. However, most of its production is with the use of corn ethanol. In the year 2000, there was only 6.2 billion liters produced in the United States and it has expanded over 800% to 50 billion litres in just a decade (2010).^[43] Government pressures to shift to renewable fuel resources has been apparent since the U.S Environmental Protection Agency has implemented the 2007 Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) to use a percentage of renewable fuel in products or face penalties. The shift to cellulosic ethanol production instead of corn has been strongly promoted by the US government.^[44] Even with these policies in place and the government attempting to create a market for cellulose ethanol, there was no commercial production of this fuel in 2010 and 2011.^[45] The Energy Independence and Security Act originally set goals of 100 million, 250 million and 500 million gallons for the years 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively. However, as of 2012 it was projected that the production of cellulosic ethanol would be approximately 10.5 million far from its target.^[45]
In 2007 alone, the US government provided 1 billion US dollars for cellulosic ethanol projects, while China invested 500 million US dollars into cellulosic ethanol research.^[46]

Due to the lack of existing commercialized plant data, it is difficult to determine the exact method of production that will be most commonly employed. Model systems try to compare different technologies costs, however these models cannot be applied to commercial-plant costs. Currently, there are many pilot and demonstration facilities open that show cellulosic production on a smaller scale. These main facilities are summarized in the table below.

Start-up costs for pilot scale lignocellulosic ethanol plants are high. On 28 February 2007, the U.S. Dept. of Energy announced $385 million in grant funding to six cellulosic ethanol plants.^[47] This grant funding accounts for 40% of the investment costs. The remaining 60% comes from the promoters of those facilities. Hence, a total of $1 billion will be invested for approximately 140-million-US-gallon (530,000 m³) capacity. This translates into $7/annual gallon production capacity in capital investment costs for pilot plants; future capital costs are expected to be lower. Corn-to-ethanol plants cost roughly $1–3/annual gallon capacity, though the cost of the corn itself is considerably greater than for switchgrass or waste biomass.^[48][49]

As of 2007, ethanol is produced mostly from sugars or starches, obtained from fruits and grains. In contrast, cellulosic ethanol is obtained from cellulose, the main component of wood, straw, and much of the structure of plants. Since cellulose cannot be digested by humans, the production of cellulose does not compete with the production of food, other than conversion of land from food production to cellulose production (which has recently started to become an issue, due to rising wheat prices.) The price per ton of the raw material is thus much cheaper than that of grains or fruits. Moreover, since cellulose is the main component of plants, the whole plant can be harvested. This results in much better yields—up to 10 short tons per acre (22 t/ha), instead of 4-5 short tons/acre (9–11 t/ha) for the best crops of grain.^{[citation needed]}

The raw material is plentiful. An estimated 323 million tons of cellulose-containing raw materials which could be used to create ethanol are thrown away each year in US alone. This includes 36.8 million dry tons of urban wood wastes, 90.5 million dry tons of primary mill residues, 45 million dry tons of forest residues, and 150.7 million dry tons of corn stover and wheat straw.^[50] Transforming them into ethanol using efficient and cost-effective hemi(cellulase) enzymes or other processes might provide as much as 30% of the current fuel consumption in the United States.^{[citation needed]} Moreover, even land marginal for agriculture could be planted with cellulose-producing crops, such as switchgrass, resulting in enough production to substitute for all the current oil imports into the United States.^[51]

Paper, cardboard, and packaging comprise a substantial part of the solid waste sent to landfills in the United States each day, 41.26% of all organic municipal solid waste (MSW) according to California Integrated Waste Management Board's city profiles.^{[citation needed]} These city profiles account for accumulation of 612.3 short tons (555.5 t) daily per landfill where an average population density of 2,413 per square mile persists. All these, except gypsum board, contain cellulose, which is transformable into cellulosic ethanol.^[50] This may have additional environmental benefits because decomposition of these products produces methane, a potent greenhouse gas.^[52]

Reduction of the disposal of solid waste through cellulosic ethanol conversion would reduce solid waste disposal costs by local and state governments. It is estimated that each person in the US throws away 4.4 lb (2.0 kg) of trash each day, of which 37% contains waste paper, which is largely cellulose. That computes to 244 thousand tons per day of discarded waste paper that contains cellulose.^[53] The raw material to produce cellulosic ethanol is not only free, it has a negative cost—i.e., ethanol producers can get paid to take it away.^[54]

In June 2006, a U.S. Senate hearing was told the current cost of producing cellulosic ethanol is US $2.25 per US gallon (US $0.59/litre), primarily due to the current poor conversion efficiency.^{[citation needed]} At that price, it would cost about $120 to substitute a barrel of oil (42 US gallons (160 L)), taking into account the lower energy content of ethanol. However, the Department of Energy is optimistic and has requested a doubling of research funding. The same Senate hearing was told the research target was to reduce the cost of production to US $1.07 per US gallon (US $0.28/litre) by 2012. "The production of cellulosic ethanol represents not only a step toward true energy diversity for the country, but a very cost-effective alternative to fossil fuels. It is advanced weaponry in the war on oil," said Vinod Khosla, managing partner of Khosla Ventures, who recently told a Reuters Global Biofuels Summit that he could see cellulosic fuel prices sinking to $1 per gallon within ten years.

In September 2010, a report by Bloomberg analyzed the European biomass infrastructure and future refinery development. Estimated prices for a litre of ethanol in August 2010 are EUR 0.51 for 1g and 0.71 for 2g.^{[clarification needed]} The report suggested Europe should copy the current US subsidies of up to $50 per dry tonne.^[55]

Recently on October 25, 2012, British Petrolum, one of the leaders in fuel products, announced the cancellation of their proposed $350 million commercial-scale plant. It was estimated that the plant would be producing 36 million gallons a year at its location in Highlands County of Florida. BP has still provided 500 million US dollars for biofuel research at the Energy Biosciences Institute.^[56] General Motors (GM) has also invested into cellulosic companies more specifically Mascoma and Coskata.^[46] There are many other companies in construction or heading towards it. Abengoa [2] is building a 25 million-gallon per year plant in \ technology platform based on the fungus Myceliophthora thermophila to convert lignocellulose into fermentable sugars. Poet is also in midst of producing a 200 million dollar, 25-million-gallon per year in Emmetsburg, Iowa. Mascoma now partnered with Valero has declared their intention to build a 20 million gallon per year in Kinross, Michigan.^[56] China Alcohol Resource Corporation has developed a 6.4 million liter cellulosic ethanol plant under continuous operation.^[56]

Also, since 2013, the Brazilian company GranBio is working to become a producer of biofuels and biochemicals. The family-held company is commissioning a 82 million liters per year (22 MMgy) cellulosic ethanol plant (2G ethanol) in the state of Alagoas, Brazil, which will be the first industrial facility of the group.^[57] GranBio's second generation ethanol facility is integrated to a first generation ethanol plant operated by Grupo Carlos Lyra, uses process technology from Beta Renewables, enzymes from Novozymes and yeast from DSM. Breaking ground in January 2013, the plant is in final commissioning. According to GranBio Annual Financial Records, the total investment was 208 million US Dollars.^[58]

Enzyme-cost barrier

Cellulases and hemicellulases used in the production of cellulosic ethanol are more expensive compared to their first generation counterparts. Enzymes required for maize grain ethanol production cost 2.64-5.28 US dollars per cubic meter of ethanol produced. Enzymes for cellulosic ethanol production are projected to cost 79.25 US dollars, meaning they are 20-40 times more expensive.^[46] The cost differences are attributed to quantity required. The cellulase family of enzymes have a one to two order smaller magnitude of efficiency. Therefore, it requires 40 to 100 times more of the enzyme to be present in its production. For each ton of biomass it requires 15-25 kilograms of enzyme.^[59] There is also relatively high capital costs associated with the long incubation times for the vessel that perform enzymatic hydrolysis. Altogether, enzymes comprise a significant portion of 20-40% for cellulosic ethanol production.

Feedstocks

In general there are two types of feedstocks: forest (woody) Biomass and agricultural biomass. In the US, about 1.4 billion dry tons of biomass can be sustainably produced annually. About 370 million tons or 30% are forest biomass.^[60] Forest biomass has higher cellulose and lignin content and lower hemicellulose and ash content than agricultural biomass. Because of the difficulties and low ethanol yield in fermenting pretreatment hydrolysate, especially those with very high 5 carbon hemicellulsoe sugars such as xylose, forest biomass has significant advantages over agricultural biomass. Forest biomass also has high density which significantly reduces transportation cost. It can be harvested year around which eliminates long term storage. The close to zero ash content of forest biomass significantly reduces dead load in transportation and processing. To meet the needs for biodiversity, forest biomass will be an important biomass feedstock supply mix in the future biobased economy.
However, forest biomass is much more recalcitrant than agricultural biomass. Recently, the USDA Forest Products Laboratory together with the University of Wisconsin–Madison developed efficient technologies^[12][61] that can overcome the strong recalcitrance of forest (woody) biomass including those of softwood species that have low xylan content. Short-rotation intensive culture or tree farming can offer an almost unlimited opportunity for forest biomass production.^[62]

Woodchips from slashes and tree tops and saw dust from saw mills, and waste paper pulp are common forest biomass feedstocks for cellulosic ethanol production.^[63]

The following are a few examples of agricultural biomass:

Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a native tallgrass prairie grass. Known for its hardiness and rapid growth, this perennial grows during the warm months to heights of 2–6 feet. Switchgrass can be grown in most parts of the United States, including swamplands, plains, streams, and along the shores & interstate highways. It is self-seeding (no tractor for sowing, only for mowing), resistant to many diseases and pests, & can produce high yields with low applications of fertilizer and other chemicals. It is also tolerant to poor soils, flooding, & drought; improves soil quality and prevents erosion due its type of root system.^[64]

Switchgrass is an approved cover crop for land protected under the federal Conservation Reserve Program (CRP). CRP is a government program that pays producers a fee for not growing crops on land on which crops recently grew. This program reduces soil erosion, enhances water quality, and increases wildlife habitat. CRP land serves as a habitat for upland game, such as pheasants and ducks, and a number of insects. Switchgrass for biofuel production has been considered for use on Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land, which could increase ecological sustainability and lower the cost of the CRP program. However, CRP rules would have to be modified to allow this economic use of the CRP land.^[64]

Miscanthus × giganteus is another viable feedstock for cellulosic ethanol production. This species of grass is native to Asia and is the sterile triploid hybrid of Miscanthus sinensis and Miscanthus sacchariflorus. It can grow up to 12 feet (3.7 m) tall with little water or fertilizer input. Miscanthus is similar to switchgrass with respect to cold and drought tolerance and water use efficiency. Miscanthus is commercially grown in the European Union as a combustible energy source.

Corn cobs and corn stover are the most popular agricultural biomass.

It has been suggested that Kudzu may become a valuable source of biomass.^[65]

Environmental effects

The environmental impact from the production of fuels is an important factor in determining its feasibility as an alternative to fossil fuels. Over the long run, small differences in production cost, environmental ramifications, and energy output may have large effects. It has been found that cellulosic ethanol can produce a positive net energy output.^[66] The reduction in green house gas (GHG) emissions from corn ethanol and cellulosic ethanol compared with fossil fuels is drastic. Corn ethanol may reduce overall GHG emissions by about 13%, while that figure is around 88% or greater for cellulosic ethanol.^[67][68] As well, cellulosic ethanol can reduce carbon dioxide emissions to nearly zero.^[69]

Croplands

A major concern for the viability of current alternative fuels is the cropland needed to produce the required materials. For example, the production of corn for corn ethanol fuel competes with cropland that may be used for food growth and other feedstocks.^[70] The difference between this and cellulosic ethanol production is that cellulosic material is widely available and is derived from a large resource of things. Some crops used for cellulosic ethanol production include switchgrass, corn stover, and hybrid poplar.^[67] These crops are fast-growing and can be grown on many types of land which makes them more versatile. Cellulosic ethanol can also be made from wood residues (chips and sawdust), municipal solid waste such as trash or garbage, paper and sewage sludge, cereal straws and grasses.^[69] It is particularly the non-edible portions of plant material which are used to make cellulosic ethanol, which also minimizes the potential cost of using food products in production.^[71]

The effectiveness of growing crops for the purpose of biomass can vary tremendously depending on the geographical location of the plot. For example, factors such as precipitation and sunlight exposure may greatly effect the energy input required to maintain the crops, and therefore effect the overall energy output.^[72] A study done over five years showed that growing and managing switchgrass exclusively as a biomass energy crop can produce 500% or more renewable energy than is consumed during production.^[72] The levels of GHG emissions and carbon dioxide were also drastically decreased from using cellulosic ethanol compared with traditional gasoline.

Corn-based vs. grass-based

In 2008, there was only a small amount of switchgrass dedicated for ethanol production. In order for it to be grown on a large-scale production it must compete with existing uses of agricultural land, mainly for the production of crop commodities. Of the United States' 2.26 billion acres (9.1 million km²) of unsubmerged land,^[75] 33% are forestland, 26% pastureland and grassland, and 20% crop land. A study done by the U.S. Departments of Energy and Agriculture in 2005 determined whether there were enough available land resources to sustain production of over 1 billion dry tons of biomass annually to replace 30% or more of the nation’s current use of liquid transportation fuels. The study found that there could be 1.3 billion dry tons of biomass available for ethanol use, by making little changes in agricultural and forestry practices and meeting the demands for forestry products, food, and fiber.^[76] A recent study done by the University of Tennessee reported that as many as 100 million acres (400,000 km², or 154,000 sq mi) of cropland and pasture will need to be allocated to switchgrass production in order to offset petroleum use by 25 percent.^{[citation needed]}
Currently, corn is easier and less expensive to process into ethanol in comparison to cellulosic ethanol. The Department of Energy estimates that it costs about $2.20 per gallon to produce cellulosic ethanol, which is twice as much as ethanol from corn. Enzymes that destroy plant cell wall tissue cost 30 to 50 cents per gallon of ethanol compared to 3 cents per gallon for corn.^{[citation needed]} The Department of Energy hopes to reduce production cost to $1.07 per gallon by 2012 to be effective. However, cellulosic biomass is cheaper to produce than corn, because it requires fewer inputs, such as energy, fertilizer, herbicide, and is accompanied by less soil erosion and improved soil fertility. Additionally, nonfermentable and unconverted solids left after making ethanol can be burned to provide the fuel needed to operate the conversion plant and produce electricity. Energy used to run corn-based ethanol plants is derived from coal and natural gas. The Institute for Local Self-Reliance estimates the cost of cellulosic ethanol from the first generation of commercial plants will be in the $1.90–$2.25 per gallon range, excluding incentives. This compares to the current cost of $1.20–$1.50 per gallon for ethanol from corn and the current retail price of over $4.00 per gallon for regular gasoline (which is subsidized and taxed).^[77]

One of the major reasons for increasing the use of biofuels is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.^[78] In comparison to gasoline, ethanol burns cleaner, thus putting less carbon dioxide and overall pollution in the air^{[citation needed]}. Additionally, only low levels of smog are produced from combustion.^[79] According to the U.S. Department of Energy, ethanol from cellulose reduces greenhouse gas emission by 86 percent when compared to gasoline and to corn-based ethanol, which decreases emissions by 52 percent.^[80] Carbon dioxide gas emissions are shown to be 85% lower than those from gasoline. Cellulosic ethanol contributes little to the greenhouse effect and has a five times better net energy balance than corn-based ethanol.^[79] When used as a fuel, cellulosic ethanol releases less sulfur, carbon monoxide, particulates, and greenhouse gases. Cellulosic ethanol should earn producers carbon reduction credits, higher than those given to producers who grow corn for ethanol, which is about 3 to 20 cents per gallon.^[81]

It takes 0.76 J of energy from fossil fuels to produce 1 J worth of ethanol from corn.^[82] This total includes the use of fossil fuels used for fertilizer, tractor fuel, ethanol plant operation, etc. Research has shown that fossil fuel can produce over five times the volume of ethanol from prairie grasses, according to Terry Riley, President of Policy at the Theodore Roosevelt Conservation Partnership. The United States Department of Energy concludes that corn-based ethanol provides 26 percent more energy than it requires for production, while cellulosic ethanol provides 80 percent more energy.^[83] Cellulosic ethanol yields 80 percent more energy than is required to grow and convert it.^[84] The process of turning corn into ethanol requires about 1700 times (by volume) as much water as ethanol produced.^{[dubious – discuss]} Additionally, it leaves 12 times its volume in waste.^[85] Grain ethanol uses only the edible portion of the plant.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Draft life cycle GHG emissions reduction results for different time horizon and discount rate approaches[86] (includes indirect land use change effects)
Fuel Pathway	100 years + 2% discount rate	30 years + 0% discount rate
Corn ethanol (natural gas dry mill)(1)	-16%	+5%
Corn ethanol (Best case NG DM)(2)	-39%	-18%
Corn ethanol (coal dry mill)	+13%	+34%
Corn ethanol (biomass dry mill)	-39%	-18%
Corn ethanol (biomass dry mill with combined heat and power)	-47%	-26%
Brazilian sugarcane ethanol	-44%	-26%
Cellulosic ethanol from switchgrass	-128%	-124%
Cellulosic ethanol from corn stover	-115%	-116%
Notes: (1) Dry mill (DM) plants grind the entire kernel and generally produce only one primary co-product: distillers grains with solubles (DGS). (2) Best case plants produce wet distillers grains co-product.

Cellulose is not used for food and can be grown in all parts of the world. The entire plant can be used when producing cellulosic ethanol. Switchgrass yields twice as much ethanol per acre than corn.^[83] Therefore, less land is needed for production and thus less habitat fragmentation. Biomass materials require fewer inputs, such as fertilizer, herbicides, and other chemicals that can pose risks to wildlife. Their extensive roots improve soil quality, reduce erosion, and increase nutrient capture.
Herbaceous energy crops reduce soil erosion by greater than 90%, when compared to conventional commodity crop production. This can translate into improved water quality for rural communities. Additionally, herbaceous energy crops add organic material to depleted soils and can increase soil carbon, which can have a direct effect on climate change, as soil carbon can absorb carbon dioxide in the air.^[87][88] As compared to commodity crop production, biomass reduces surface runoff and nitrogen transport. Switchgrass provides an environment for diverse wildlife habitation, mainly insects and ground birds. Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land is composed of perennial grasses, which are used for cellulosic ethanol, and may be available for use.

For years American farmers have practiced row cropping, with crops such as sorghum and corn. Because of this, much is known about the effect of these practices on wildlife. The most significant effect of increased corn ethanol would be the additional land that would have to be converted to agricultural use and the increased erosion and fertilizer use that goes along with agricultural production. Increasing our ethanol production through the use of corn could produce negative effects on wildlife, the magnitude of which will depend on the scale of production and whether the land used for this increased production was formerly idle, in a natural state, or planted with other row crops. Another consideration is whether to plant a switchgrass monoculture or use a variety of grasses and other vegetation. While a mixture of vegetation types likely would provide better wildlife habitat, the technology has not yet developed to allow the processing of a mixture of different grass species or vegetation types into bioethanol. Of course, cellulosic ethanol production is still in its infancy, and the possibility of using diverse vegetation stands instead of monocultures deserves further exploration as research continues.^[89]

A study by Nobel Prize winner Paul Crutzen found ethanol produced from corn had a "net climate warming" effect when compared to oil when the full life cycle assessment properly considers the nitrous oxide (N20) emissions that occur during corn ethanol production. Crutzen found that crops with less nitrogen demand, such as grasses and woody coppice species, have more favourable climate impacts.^[90]

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization

Cellulosic ethanol commercialization is the process of building an industry out of methods of turning cellulose-containing organic matter into fuel. Companies such as Iogen, POET, and Abengoa are building refineries that can process biomass and turn it into ethanol, while companies such as DuPont, Diversa, Novozymes, and Dyadic are producing enzymes which could enable a cellulosic ethanol future. The shift from food crop feedstocks to waste residues and native grasses offers significant opportunities for a range of players, from farmers to biotechnology firms, and from project developers to investors.^[91]

The cellulosic ethanol industry developed some new commercial-scale plants in 2008. In the United States, plants totaling 12 million liters (3.17 million gal) per year were operational, and an additional 80 million liters (21.1 million gal.) per year of capacity - in 26 new plants - was under construction. In Canada, capacity of 6 million liters per year was operational. In Europe, several plants were operational in Germany, Spain, and Sweden, and capacity of 10 million liters per year was under construction.^[92]

Italy-based Mossi & Ghisolfi Group broke ground for its 13 MMgy cellulosic ethanol facility in northwestern Italy on April 12, 2011. The project will be the largest cellulosic ethanol project in the world, 10 times larger than any of the currently operating demonstration-scale facilities.^[93]

Commercial Cellulosic Ethanol Plants in the U.S.^[94][95]
(Operational or under construction)

Company	Location	Feedstock
Abengoa Bioenergy	Hugoton, KS	Wheat straw
BlueFire Ethanol	Irvine, CA	Multiple sources
Colusa Biomass Energy Corporation	Sacramento, CA	Waste rice straw
Coskata	Warrenville, IL	Biomass, Agricultural and Municipal wastes
DuPont	Vonore, TN	Corn cobs, switchgrass
DuPont	Nevada, IA	Corn stover
Fulcrum BioEnergy	Reno, NV	Municipal solid waste
Gulf Coast Energy	Mossy Head, FL	Wood waste
KL Energy Corp.	Upton, WY	Wood
Mascoma	Lansing, MI	Wood
POET-DSM Advanced Biofuels	Emmetsburg, IA	Corn cobs, husks, and stover[96]
Range Fuels[97]	Treutlen County, GA	Wood waste
SunOpta	Little Falls, MN	Wood chips
SweetWater Energy	Rochester, NY	Multiple Sources
US Envirofuels	Highlands County, FL	Sweet sorghum
Xethanol	Auburndale, FL	Citrus peels