The scope covers learned currents conventionally grouped under Western esotericism
and their interactions with natural-philosophical, artisanal, and later
scientific practices. In current scholarship, “Western esotericism”
functions as an analytic label devised by historians of ideas rather
than a stable emic category across periods. Within this remit fall astrology (including astral/astrological magic), alchemy/chymistry, hermetic and theurgic philosophies, “natural magic”, Christian Kabbalah and related Christianized appropriations, and selected nineteenth–twentieth-century continuities (e.g., mesmerism, spiritualisms, psychical research) insofar as they engaged scientific methods, publics, or institutions.
Following standard usage, esotericism is treated as a
family-resemblance category centered on literate, textually mediated,
often elite discourses and practices, rather than a catch-all for folk religion or popular magic. Vernacular healing, charms, and “cunning” practices
are distinguished from the theorized “occult sciences” of the medieval
and early modern Latin worlds; points of contact—such as the diffusion
of printed “books of secrets” to artisanal publics—are noted as channels of exchange.
The term “science” is used heuristically with attention to
historical vocabulary. Up to the seventeenth century the principal
comparandum is natural philosophy
and adjacent artisanal or medical know-how; only gradually did
experimental and mathematical cultures crystallize into formations
recognizable as “science,” often discussed under the Scientific Revolution. Modern disciplinary boundaries were themselves constructed through demarcation and boundary-work within the sociology of scientific knowledge, differentiating legitimate inquiry from “occult” pursuits. Historically sensitive labels are used where helpful: chymistry
for the mixed alchemical–chemical enterprise c. 1400–1700, and “natural
magic” for learned techniques operating through hidden properties and
sympathies (see sympathetic magic for the anthropological sense).
For definitional clarity, Western esotericism denotes a
historically connected set of learned currents characterized—in varying
constellations—by ideas of correspondences, a living or numerically
ordered nature, mediations and imaginal techniques, aspirations to
perfection or transmutation, concordances across traditions, and valued
transmission. The “occult sciences” commonly refer to alchemy, astrology, and (ritual or natural) magic in medieval and early modern usage. Chymistry marks the hybrid alchemical–chemical enterprise prior to eighteenth-century redefinitions.
Geographically, the focus is the Euro-Mediterranean “West” and its colonial and confessional extensions, from Late Antiquity to the early twentieth century, with attention to Greek-Egyptian late antique backgrounds, the Graeco-Arabic translation movements (and Arabic–Latin translations of the 12th century), and medieval Latin, Renaissance, and early modern developments in Catholic and Protestant polities. Later sections treat nineteenth- and early twentieth-century
continuities where esoteric movements intersected with laboratories,
clinics, voluntary associations, or scientific publics.
Forms of interaction considered
Conceptual frames shared with natural philosophy (sympathy/antipathy, microcosm–macrocosm, hidden qualities).
Overlapping practices and tools (furnaces, glassware, recipe literature, observation, record-keeping) across artisanal, medical, and alchemical settings.
Actors whose careers combined esoteric and scientific repertoires (e.g., Robert Boyle’s and Isaac Newton’s alchemical investigations within experimental or mathematical programs).
Media and institutions that filtered claims (manuscript/print
cultures including “books of secrets,” correspondence networks and the Republic of Letters, and later academies/learned societies).
Processes of demarcation and credibility (civility, evidential norms, selective exclusion of “occult” topics; cf. Demarcation problem).
Inclusions and exclusions
Included
are topics with documented, historiographically discussed interaction
with natural-philosophical or scientific practices and institutions.
Purely devotional, vernacular, or commercial practices without such
interfaces are excluded except for brief contextualization; non-Western
traditions are treated insofar as they are implicated in transmission
(e.g., Graeco-Arabic translations).
Historiography and theoretical frameworks
Modern
study of the intersections between esoteric currents and science has
proceeded along two tracks: (1) historical mapping of the “occult
sciences” within changing regimes of knowledge, and (2) theory-driven
accounts of how boundaries between “science” and “non-science” were
constructed. Early synthetic narratives emphasized longue-durée continuities of magic and experimental practices (e.g., medieval and early modern compilations of “occult” knowledge). Later work reframed these materials within the social history of ideas, print, and artisanal culture.
Two widely used analytical approaches structure the field. First,
“Western esotericism” is treated as a family-resemblance category of
learned, textually mediated currents, rather than a catch-all for folk
magic; this framing stems from typological and genealogical work in the
history of ideas. Second, historians distinguish contemporaneous categories (occult sciences, natural philosophy) from retrospective ones (science), to avoid anachronism. These choices underpin case-studies of astrology, alchemy/chymistry,
natural and ritual magic, hermetic and theurgic philosophies, and
Christian Kabbalah within Latin, Arabic–Latin, and early modern
contexts.
The “Yates thesis” and its revisions
A major twentieth-century debate centers on the so-called “Yates thesis,” which argued that Renaissancehermeticism and traditions of the learned magus (e.g., Ficino, Pico, Bruno) helped to generate key habits of mind that fed into the Scientific Revolution. Subsequent surveys have summarized the thesis and its influence while noting problems of causality and scope. Revisionist scholarship redirected attention from hermetic philosophies to the mixed alchemical–chemical enterprise (chymistry) and to concrete workshop practices, instruments, and goals. Studies of artisanship and “books of secrets” likewise proposed bottom-up pathways from practice to experimental culture. Rather than a single “hermetic engine,” these works depict multiple,
uneven interfaces where esoteric repertoires overlapped with early
experimental and mathematical programs (e.g., in the careers of Boyle
and Newton).[8][26]
From natural magic to infrastructures of credibility
Historians of ideas have charted the forms and fortunes of natural magic
and learned magic from the Middle Ages through the seventeenth century,
emphasizing ontologies of hidden properties, sympathies, and imaginal
techniques, and their philosophical justifications and critics. Parallel research in the social history of science highlights
infrastructures that filtered claims: manuscript and print circuits
(including books of secrets), the Republic of Letters, early academies and learned societies, and the emergence of publication regimes such as the Philosophical Transactions.
Boundary-work and demarcation
Sociological
approaches analyze how scientific communities drew boundaries against
“occult” topics through norms of civility, replicable evidence, and
credit allocation. Such “boundary-work” helps to explain why some esoteric claims were
domesticated (e.g., elements of chemical practice) while others were
marginalized, rebranded, or expelled. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, studies of animal
magnetism, spiritualism, and psychical research show continued
negotiations at the edges of emerging disciplines, from clinics and
laboratories to voluntary associations.
Long nineteenth century: disenchantment and “scientification”
Recent
work situates esotericism within broader narratives of secularization
and the reconfiguration of “religion” and “science.” One line of
analysis tracks how scientific naturalism rearticulated possibilities
for esoteric discourse in 1900–1939. Another examines the “scientification of religion,” i.e., shifts in
discursive regimes whereby religious and esoteric claims were reframed
in scientific or quasi-scientific terms. These perspectives complement institutional and intellectual histories
by clarifying why some esoteric projects persisted or reinvented
themselves under modern epistemic norms.
Ancient and Hellenistic origins
In the Hellenistic and early Roman periods, centers such as Alexandria generated technical corpora on astrology, alchemy, and ritual technologies, framed by ideas of universal sympathy, microcosm–macrocosm, and hidden properties. Learned handbooks, philosophical treatises, and recipe traditions
supplied concepts and media later reorganized in medieval Latin and
early modern settings.
Astrology and alchemy
Hellenistic
astrology (2nd century BCE–2nd century CE) combined geometrical devices
(aspects, domiciles, lots) with medical and meteorological applications
and informed astral image- and talisman-making. Ancient alchemy in Greco-Egyptian milieus integrated metallurgical and
dyeing practices with doctrines of nature’s composition and perfection;
authors such as Zosimos of Panopolis described furnaces, vessels, and operations (distillation, sublimation, calcination) that later fed into early modern chymistry.
Hermetica and ritual media
The formation of the Hermetica—including the Corpus Hermeticum and Asclepius—spanned
early imperial to late antique contexts, articulating a sacralized view
of nature that later readers linked to astrology, alchemy, and learned “natural magic”.The Greek Magical Papyri preserve invocations, consecrations, and image-making with specified materia, tools, and timings, anticipating medieval learned magic and later printed “books of secrets”.
Pythagorean mathematics and harmonics
Page from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices Mundi. The scales of each of the six known planets, and the moon, placed on five-line staffs.
Pythagorean traditions framed number, ratio, and cosmic harmony (e.g., the “music of the spheres”)
as keys to understanding a numerically ordered nature. Although not
“experimental,” these mathematical-cosmological ideas supplied a durable
conceptual matrix that later intersected with astrological
correspondences and Renaissance natural magic (e.g., numerical and
harmonic speculations in Ficinian and post-Ficinian sources). This strand helps explain why early modern authors could treat
proportion, musical consonance, and mathematical order as bridges
between occult properties and natural-philosophical explanation.
Late Antiquity
In
Late Antiquity, hermetic, astrological, and magical materials were
reworked within philosophical and religious currents that shaped later
receptions. The Greek treatises attributed to Hermes Trismegistus (the Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius)
articulated a sacralized cosmology, intellectual ascent, and a vision
of nature as alive and law-like—frameworks that later readers linked to
astrology, alchemy, and learned magic. At the same time, the consolidation of Neoplatonism (e.g., Iamblichus, Proclus)
supplied metaphysical justifications for rites and imaginal techniques
oriented to the mediation of cosmic powers, often labeled theurgy in modern scholarship.
Philosophical syntheses and theurgy
Neoplatonic commentators developed accounts of hidden properties, sympathies, and the microcosm–macrocosm
relation that provided justificatory vocabularies for operations later
classed as “natural magic.” These syntheses helped align ritual
technologies and alchemical speculation with broader
natural-philosophical aims.
Christian critiques and normative boundaries
Christian
authors criticized divination and ritual magic while appropriating
selected elements of natural philosophy. Patristic polemics—famously Augustine of Hippo
against astrology—mark early efforts to draw normative boundaries
around permissible knowledge, anticipating medieval distinctions between
licit natural explanations and illicit invocations and shaping later
discourse on occult qualities.
Transmission pathways
Late
antique philosophical and technical materials moved into post-classical
channels of transmission. Greek corpora relevant to astrology, alchemy,
and learned magic were excerpted, translated, and recontextualized in Syriac and Arabic
before reappearing in Latin during the high medieval translation
movements, establishing key conduits for medieval and early modern
engagements with esoteric repertoires.
Arabic–Latin transmission (9th–13th centuries)
From
the ninth century onward, late antique Greek philosophical and
technical corpora relevant to astrology, alchemy, and learned magic were
translated, excerpted, and reworked in Arabic and Syriac milieus—often associated with the House of Wisdom in Abbasid Baghdad—generating new compilations and commentaries. Between the late eleventh and thirteenth centuries, large portions of this material re-entered Latin Europe through the Arabic–Latin translations of the 12th century, notably in Toledo and Sicily.
These channels carried astronomical tables, astrological handbooks, and
programmatic alchemical works that later informed medieval
classifications of the “occult sciences.”
Astral doctrines and image magic
Arabic
compendia transmitted doctrines of celestial–terrestrial influence
together with ritual and image-making technologies, providing a
framework for later astrological magic. The most influential synthesis was the Arabic Ghāyat al-Ḥakīm, translated into Latin as the Picatrix, which systematized elections, talismans, and imaginal media keyed to planetary configurations.
Alchemical corpora and laboratory technique
In alchemy, the thirteenth-century Latin corpus attributed to “Pseudo-Geber”
reworked Arabic materials into programmatic treatises that emphasized
furnace design, reagents, and metal theory; these texts became
foundational for later Latin chymistry. They circulated alongside practical recipes for calcination,
distillation, and sublimation that linked laboratory operations to
broader questions about generation and perfection.
Recipe literature and channels of diffusion
Technical books and compilations of “books of secrets”
connected artisanal practice with learned theorizing, creating conduits
that printers would later expand in the Renaissance. These manuals
aggregated procedures for dyes, metallurgy, pharmacology, and
image-making and helped form publics attuned to experiment, collection,
and disclosure.
Scholastic uptake and debate
The
influx of Arabic–Latin materials reshaped natural-philosophical
vocabularies and controversies. Astronomical and medical applications of
astrology, debates over hidden properties, and programmatic alchemical
claims were selectively integrated into university teaching and
commentary while also provoking clerical scrutiny—setting the stage for
later medieval distinctions between licit “natural” explanations and
illicit invocations.
Medieval Latin world (11th–15th centuries)
Between
the eleventh and fifteenth centuries, the Latin West integrated
translated corpora on astrology, alchemy, and learned magic into
monastic, scholastic, and urban settings, while developing
classifications later grouped under the “occult sciences.” Texts such as the Latin Picatrix, the Pseudo-Geber
alchemical corpus, lapidaries, and image-magic handbooks circulated
alongside natural-philosophical commentaries, medical compendia, and
technical recipes.
Monastic collections and clerical readership
Monastic
libraries and clerical readers preserved and annotated works on natural
and ritual magic even as ecclesiastical norms constrained their use.
Collections mixed pious motives, curiosities, and illicit interests,
with guides for selecting materia (stones, plants, metals) and
for timing operations; such holdings sat near devotional, scientific,
and medical books, illustrating how recipe traditions and image-making
circulated within regimes of study and prayer.
Universities and scholastic classifications
In the universities, natural philosophy
provided the overarching framework, while astronomy/astrology,
medicine, and practical mathematics furnished applications. Latin
scholars distinguished licit “natural” astrology (e.g., medical or
meteorological) from proscribed judicial
predictions about human affairs, and debated hidden properties,
species, and celestial influence in commentaries and disputations. Regulatory interventions—such as the Condemnations of 1277
at Paris and subsequent episcopal statutes—policed divination and
ritual magic while tolerating parts of natural explanation, shaping
scholastic discussions of occult qualities and the status of the occult sciences.
Urban workshops and “books of secrets”
Urban workshops and courtly households nurtured overlapping practical cultures. Compilations of “books of secrets”
and household recipes circulated among artisans, apothecaries, and
practitioners, aggregating procedures for dyes, metallurgy, cosmetics,
and healing alongside marvels; these manuals connected tacit know-how
with literate record-keeping and helped form publics for later printed
collections.The interplay between artisanal skill, observation, and written recipes supplied techniques and instruments (furnaces, glassware, balances) that early modern authors would reframe as part of experimental practice.
Alchemy as program and technique
Medieval
Latin alchemy synthesized Arabic and late antique materials into
programmatic treatises emphasizing laboratory operations (calcination, distillation, sublimation),
reagents, and theories of metallic generation and perfection. The
authoritative “Geberian” texts and their successors made alchemical work
a site of theorizing about nature and of practical invention, linking
metallurgical and medical aims that later fed into early modern chymistry. By the fifteenth century, this layered inheritance—scholastic
distinctions, artisanal recipe cultures, and technical alchemy—provided
the repertoire that Renaissance humanists, natural philosophers, and practitioners reorganized under the banners of natural magic and reform programs.
Renaissance (15th–16th centuries)
Frontispiece to Athanasius Kircher’s Oedipus Aegyptiacus (1652–54), emblematic of early modern engagements with ancient “occult” wisdom intersecting with natural knowledge.Title page of Giambattista della Porta’s Natural Magick (1658 English ed.), a programmatic presentation of learned “natural magic” and practical effects.
Humanism, philology, courtly patronage, and print reshaped the
reception of late antique materials and medieval “occult sciences.” In
Florence and other centers, translators and editors promoted a vision of
ancient wisdom (prisca theologia) that placed Hermes Trismegistus alongside Plato and Moses; Marsilio Ficino’s Latin translation and commentary on the Corpus Hermeticum and related texts supplied a philosophical scaffolding later read together with astrology, alchemy, and learned magic. Pico della Mirandola’s program of concordance—linking Platonism, Christian Kabbalah,
and natural philosophy—became emblematic of elite syntheses that framed
nature as alive, ordered, and manipulable through hidden properties and
celestial correspondences.
Systematizing “natural magic”
Authors systematized “natural magic” as a learned, quasi-philosophical practice continuous with natural philosophy. Agrippa’s De occulta philosophia synthesized astral, numerical, and natural lore, while Giambattista della Porta’s Natural Magick
presented an expanded repertoire of operations and spectacular effects,
advertising observation, experiment, and collection as sources of
secrets. In Naples, della Porta’s circle (later remembered as the Accademia Secretorum Naturae)
modeled a sociability of inquiry that blurred artisanal know-how and
philosophical curiosity under norms of secrecy and selective disclosure.
Print, collecting, and publics
The new print economy multiplied genres that linked elite and artisanal publics. Compendia of “books of secrets”
and vernacular technical manuals circulated procedures for dyes,
metallurgy, cosmetics, and medical recipes alongside marvels and
image-making; printers, translators, and editors packaged “experiments”
for householders and practitioners, helping to standardize techniques,
terminology, and expectations about disclosure. Princely courts and urban elites cultivated collecting, display, and classification—early forms of cabinets of curiosities and museum culture—that situated marvels, instruments, and specimens within emerging regimes of order. Recipe books and herbals connected natural magic’s interest in hidden
virtues with practical botany, horticulture, and materia medica,
creating overlap with later medical and natural-historical enterprises.
Paracelsian reform and early iatrochemistry
Medical and chemical reformers advanced early iatrochemical programs that contested Galenic medicine and reoriented alchemical practice toward pharmacology. Paracelsus and his followers promoted chemically prepared remedies and a reimagined materia medica;
sixteenth-century “Paracelsian” physicians and chymists articulated new
uses of furnaces, apparatus, and analysis in clinical and workshop
settings. These developments linked transmutational aims to therapeutic and analytical goals and fed a mixed enterprise of alchemy/chymistry that would be reorganized in the seventeenth century.
Regulation and revision of authorities
Ecclesiastical
and civic authorities policed divination and ritual magic while
tolerating aspects of natural explanation; humanist chronologies that
treated the Hermetica as pharaonic were later revised, but in the
sixteenth century they lent philosophical legitimacy to programs of
natural magic and reform.The net effect was a broadened repertoire of concepts (correspondences,
sympathies), tools (glassware, furnaces, balances), genres (secrets,
dialogues, catalogues), and sociabilities (courts, workshops, academies)
through which learned esoteric currents intersected with practical and
observational cultures.
From furnace to laboratory: chymistry and early chemistry (17th century)
Isaac Newton’s
alchemical notes (Keynes MS AQ17), evidence of sustained laboratory
work on metallic generation and analysis alongside his mathematical and
optical studies.
Seventeenth-century practitioners reorganized late medieval and
Renaissance repertoires into a mixed enterprise of alchemy and chemistry
often labeled chymistry. Workshops and purpose-built laboratories standardized instruments (furnaces, crucibles, retorts, alembics) and procedures (calcination, distillation, sublimation, solution, precipitation), linking material operations to questions about analysis, composition, and medical utility. Programmatic attacks on Galenic
medicine and defenses of chemical remedies by Paracelsian physicians
fed a therapeutic and analytical turn that coexisted with
transmutational ambitions.
Case-studies and overlapping repertoires
Studies of individual practitioners complicate linear stories of “disenchantment.” George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes) developed furnace designs, protocols, and reagents that circulated widely; his collaboration and exchanges with Robert Boyle show how alchemical goals and experimental norms interpenetrated. Boyle’s experimental program drew on chymical skill and recipes while
articulating new rhetorical and methodological expectations for public
witnessing and replication, often highlighted in accounts of early
modern experimental culture. At the mathematical end of natural philosophy, Isaac Newton pursued extensive alchemical reading and laboratory work—on metallic generation, “vegetation,” and the ignis secretus—integrating them with his broader investigations of nature. Rather than a clean break, scholarship depicts a spectrum of overlap in
ends (medicine, analysis, perfection), media (glassware, heat
management), and genres (notebooks, “secrets,” experimental reports)
across esoteric and emerging scientific repertoires.
Languages, aims, and secrecy
Another
axis of change was linguistic and conceptual. Authors recast alchemical
aims (tinctures, elixirs, quintessences) into languages of analysis,
composition, and solvent action, while maintaining workshop secrecy
about key processes. The rise of printed compilations, vernacular manuals, and pedagogical
formats helped to stabilize terms and expectations, even as
practitioners guarded proprietary recipes, managed access to
demonstrations, and cultivated patronage.
Infrastructures of validation and circulation (17th century)
Title page from Philosophical Transactions (1665), the Royal Society’s journal that helped codify practices of public witnessing and communicable evidence.Armorial bookplate of the Royal Society with its motto Nullius in verba (“take nobody’s word for it”).
Seventeenth-century experimental and chymical work circulated through
overlapping infrastructures: manuscript correspondence and the Republic of Letters, courtly and civic patronage, artisanal networks, and newly formalized collective bodies.In Italy, the Accademia del Cimento coordinated trials on heat, pressure, and materials, publishing its Saggi di naturali esperienze as a model of controlled experience. In England, informal circles sometimes labeled the “Invisible College” prefaced the creation of the Royal Society, which adopted the motto Nullius in verba and promoted practices of public witnessing, record-keeping, and cautious exclusion or reframing of “occult” topics.
Correspondence, patronage, sociability
Letter
exchanges, visiting, and gift economies embedded knowledge claims in
reputational frameworks, linking savants to instrument makers,
apothecaries, and courtly sponsors. These circuits moved recipes, apparatus designs, and “matters of fact,”
while codes of civility and credit allocation shaped who was heard and
trusted.
Journals, witnessing, and evidential norms
Early editorial regimes—including the launch of the Philosophical Transactions—helped
codify communicable evidence, privileging replicable experiments,
material particulars, and instrumentally mediated observations over
authority assertions. Protocols of collective witnessing, priority claims, and standardized
description tied workshop practice to print, redefining what counted as a
publishable result.
Filters and exclusions
These infrastructures did not erase esoteric repertoires so much as filter them. Elements of chymistry
compatible with emergent evidential norms (analytical separations,
standardized apparatus, reproducible preparations) were retained and
amplified, while talismanic or ritual claims were relegated to
curiosities or recast as natural-philosophical effects. The social technologies of credibility—civility, witnessing,
replication, and “boundary-work”—explain why some claims migrated into
chemistry, physics, and medicine while others were excluded.
Enlightenment and demarcations (18th–19th centuries)
During the Age of Enlightenment,
academies, journals, and pedagogical reforms tightened evidential norms
and narrowed the legitimate scope of “occult” topics within learned
culture. In chemistry, programmatic reforms associated with the Chemical Revolution
and the consolidation of laboratory teaching reorganized earlier
chymical repertoires into standardized instruments, procedures, and
languages of analysis, composition, and measurement. Medical curricula, pharmacopoeias, and licensing regimes strengthened
professional control over therapy and further reduced the institutional
space for alchemical and astrological reasoning, even as many chymical
techniques and preparations were retained in recoded forms.
University teaching and handbooks increasingly relegated Astrology
to mathematical or historical curiosities, distinguishing permissible
“natural” applications (e.g., medical or meteorological) from proscribed
judicial prediction; by c. 1800, its curricular standing had largely collapsed in most settings, though pockets persisted. Elements of natural magic were reframed as natural-philosophical or chemical effects, while talismanic and ritual claims were marginalized as superstition. The social technologies of credibility analyzed by historians and
sociologists—civility, collective witnessing, replicability, and
boundary-work—help explain how these exclusions were codified.
At the same time, Enlightenment sociability opened alternative venues for esoteric and moral–reform projects. Freemasonry
and related associations cultivated ritual, symbolism, and improvement
agendas alongside interests in natural knowledge, linking elite
networks, print, and politics across the eighteenth century. The expanding print marketplace multiplied encyclopedias, periodicals,
and technical manuals that filtered and repackaged claims for broader
publics, reinforcing new evidential norms while keeping alive
repertoires of marvels and “secrets.”
By the early nineteenth century, the most visible continuities
between esoteric repertoires and the sciences clustered around contested
domains of the mind and the body, setting the stage for debates on mesmerism, hypnotic phenomena, and later psychical research.
“Le Baquet de Mesmer” (Paris, 1780s): patients gathered around the magnetic tub in demonstrations of mesmerism.Early investigators associated with the Society for Psychical Research, reflecting attempts to formalize inquiry into extraordinary claims.
Across the nineteenth century, contested phenomena at the border of
medicine, psychology, and religion created new contact zones between
esoteric repertoires and emerging disciplines. Debates on mesmerism and later hypnotic
states moved through clinics, salons, lecture circuits, and learned
journals; medical and scientific publics in France and Britain
experimented with trance, suggestion, and somnambulism while arguing
over mechanism, fraud, and evidential standards. These trials generated protocols for observation, control, and
repetition that overlapped with hospital and laboratory routines even as
many claims remained controversial.
Varieties of spiritualism—spirit rapping, mediumship,
automatic writing—attracted attention from savants and men of letters,
producing a hybrid print culture of case reports, exposés, and defenses. From the 1870s, voluntary associations dedicated to the systematic
study of extraordinary claims institutionalized this interest; “societies for psychical research”
coordinated inquiries into telepathy, apparitions, and physical
mediumship, recruited scientifically trained members, and adopted
quasi-experimental methods and statistical tabulation. While much of this work was marginalized by mainstream disciplines, it
functioned as a laboratory for techniques of critical witnessing,
controls against deception, and debates over the limits of naturalistic
explanation.
The “new psychologies” and psychiatric medicine interacted
unevenly with these currents. Hypnosis and suggestion migrated into
clinical therapeutics and experimental psychology, while spiritualist
phenomena were reframed as automatisms or dissociative states by some
investigators and as evidences of new forces by others, reproducing
nineteenth-century fault lines over evidence, mechanism, and
metaphysics.
1900–1939 (and after)
Around
1900, currents at the science–esotericism interface adapted to changing
epistemic norms. Scientific naturalism narrowed acceptable ontologies
while leaving openings for rearticulated esoteric discourses;
occultists, psychical researchers, and “metapsychicians” increasingly
borrowed the rhetoric, instruments, and formats of laboratory and
clinical sciences to claim legitimacy.
In Britain, physics-trained and medically trained investigators
debated telepathy, survival, and mediumship with new attention to
measurement, statistics, and experimental control, often within
voluntary associations that overlapped with academic networks. In France, spiritualist and occult milieux intersected with medical and
psychological circles under labels such as “metapsychics,” producing
journals, institutes, and protocols that blended clinical observation
with extraordinary claims.
Institutionally, psychical research professionalized in limited
ways (dedicated laboratories, endowed units or courses, specialist
periodicals), but remained precariously positioned at the edge of
academic disciplines. Advocates emphasized methodological reforms—blind protocols, target
randomization, quantitative evaluation—while critics pointed to
replication failures, methodological leakage, and the persistence of
fraud, sharpening demarcation debates inherited from the nineteenth
century. These negotiations exemplify broader twentieth-century dynamics whereby
religious and esoteric claims were “scientified” through new
vocabularies and venues even as mainstream disciplines consolidated
exclusionary standards.
After 1945, continuities persisted in parapsychology and in
popular or alternative scientific cultures, but the balance of
credibility shifted decisively toward domains—physics, chemistry,
biomedicine—where replication, instrumentation, and disciplinary
gatekeeping left little room for occult explanation; historians treat
the earlier centuries as key to understanding how parts of alchemy/chymistry were retained while other esoteric repertoires were reframed or excluded.
Conclusions
Historiography
on Western esotericism and science depicts not a single causal pathway
but a set of shifting interfaces across media, institutions, and
repertoires. From late antique philosophies and technical handbooks to
medieval translations and Renaissance compilations, learned magic,
astrology, and alchemy/chymistry supplied conceptual vocabularies
(sympathy, correspondences, hidden properties) and material cultures
(recipes, furnaces, glassware) that early modern actors reorganized
within emerging experimental and mathematical practices.
Seventeenth-century laboratory and publishing regimes filtered
these repertoires, amplifying techniques compatible with new evidential
norms while redefining or excluding others. Parts of alchemy migrated
into analytical and medical chemistry; natural magic splintered into
natural-philosophical explanation and spectacular but non-authoritative
curiosities; astrology’s institutional standing contracted, even as
debates persisted at the margins. The social technologies of credibility—civility, witnessing,
replication, and boundary-work—help explain why some claims crossed into
the domains later recognized as “science” and others were relegated to
learned entertainment or heterodox belief.
In the long nineteenth century and into the twentieth, contested
terrains of mind and body (mesmerism, hypnotism, spiritualisms,
psychical research) prolonged these negotiations, as investigators
adopted laboratory rhetoric and methods to reframe extraordinary claims
under modern epistemic norms. Analyses of disenchantment, scientific naturalism, and the
“scientification of religion” clarify how esoteric projects persisted by
adapting vocabularies and venues even as mainstream disciplines
consolidated exclusionary standards.
Taken together, the scholarship emphasizes transmission and
transformation: late antique and Arabic–Latin conduits, Renaissance
humanism and print, artisanal and courtly networks, and early modern
societies and journals provided the channels through which esoteric and
scientific repertoires intersected, diverged, and mutually reshaped each
other. This perspective situates the history of the “occult sciences” within
the broader history of knowledge, explaining both the durable legacies
(e.g., laboratory technique, analytical aims) and the patterned
exclusions that structured modern disciplinary boundaries.
Taoism or Daoism (/ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ⓘ, /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/ⓘ) is a philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao道 (Chinese: 道; pinyin: dào, pronounced (IPA): /tɑʊ̯/ (Chineseⓘ)). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao
include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in
the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within
the Taoist tradition, ideation of mathematics and beyond, including
forms of meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation, a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics vary, but generally emphasize such virtues as effortless action, naturalness, simplicity, and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility.
The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period (c. 450 – c. 300 BCE), during which the epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi—widely
regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely
composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over
the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism, Mohism, Confucianism, various Legalist theories, as well as the I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals.
Taoism and Confucianism developed significant differences. Taoism
emphasizes naturalness and spontaneity in human experience, whereas
Confucianism regards social institutions—family, education, community,
and the state—as essential to human flourishing and moral development.
Nonetheless, they are not seen as mutually incompatible or exclusive,
sharing many views toward "humanity, society, the ruler, heaven, and the
universe". The relationship between Taoism and Buddhism upon the latter's introduction to China is characterized as one of mutual influence, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists; the distinct Mahayana tradition of Zen that emerged during the Tang dynasty (618–907) incorporates many ideas from Taoism.
Many Taoist denominations recognize deities,
often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as
superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly
divided into two categories of "gods" and xian (or "immortals"). Xian
were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing a
principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought is syncretic and deeply
rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which
denominations should be considered "Taoist".
The title daoshi
("Taoist master") is traditionally reserved for ordained clergy within
Taoist organizations, who distinguish their formal traditions from those
of Chinese folk religion. Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist
philosophy has often served as a theoretical foundation for politics,
warfare, and Taoist organizations. Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Han dynasty, attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy.
Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau. It is considered a major religion in Taiwan, and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on various forms, both those hewing to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements.
Terminology
Taoism
The Chinese character 道, which represents Tao and is often translated as 'way', 'path', 'technique', or 'doctrine'
The birthplaces of notable Chinese philosophers from the Hundred Schools of Thought in the Zhou dynasty. Philosophers of Taoism are marked by triangles in dark green.
"Tao" and "Dao" are different romanized spellings of the same Chinese word: 道.
"Tao" is the romanized spelling in the Wade–Giles
system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the
late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly
established spellings.
"Dao" is the romanized spelling in the Hanyu Pinyin system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles romanization.
The Standard Chinese pronunciation of 道 is /tau̯˥˨/. Neither an English pronunciation like /daʊ/ (an English pronunciation of "Dao") nor an English pronunciation like /tʰaʊ/ (an English pronunciation of "Tao") is the same as the Standard Chinese pronunciation of 道, whose initial consonant is neither voiced nor aspirated.
These differences in the initial consonants used in English and
Standard Chinese may contribute to there being different methods of
romanizing Chinese, which consequently may confuse English speakers when
encountering both "Tao" and "Dao" spellings for the same Chinese term.
One authority calls the pronunciation with a ⟨t⟩ as in "tie" (with a /tʰ/) to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade–Giles system", which misled most readers. Standard Chinese phonology does not have the same sound inventory as
English phonology; the Wade–Giles romanization system provides spellings
in the Latin alphabet, but they are not meant to indicate an exact
English pronunciation in the same way as though they were English words.
The word Taoism is used to translate two related but distinct Chinese terms.
A term encompassing a family of organized religious movements
that share concepts and terminology from Taoist philosophy—what can be
specifically translated as 'the teachings of the Tao', (道教; dàojiào), often interpreted as the Taoist "religion proper", or the "mystical" or "liturgical" aspects of Taoism. The Celestial Masters school is a well-known early example of this sense.
Referring to the philosophical doctrines
largely based on core Taoist texts themselves—a term that can be
translated as 'the philosophical school of the Tao' or 'Taology' (道家; dàojiā; 'school of the Tao', or sometimes 道學; dàoxué; 'study of the Tao'). This would go on to be considered one of the Hundred Schools of Thought
from the Warring States period. The earliest recorded use of the word
'Tao' to reference such a philosophical school is found in the works of Han-era historians: such as the Commentary of Zuo (左傳; Zuǒzhuàn) by Zuo Qiuming, and in the Records of the Grand Historian. This particular usage precedes the emergence of the Celestial Masters and associated later religions. It is unlikely that Zhuang Zhou, author of the Zhuangzi, was familiar with the text of the Tao Te Ching, and Zhuangzi himself may have died before the term was in use.
The bagua, a symbol commonly used to represent the Tao and its pursuit
The distinction between Taoism in philosophy and Taoist religion
is an ancient, deeply-rooted one. Taoism as a positive philosophy aims
for the holistic unification of an individual's reality with everything
that is not only real but also valuable, encompassing both the natural
world and society. But the earliest references to 'the Tao' per se are largely devoid of
liturgical or explicitly supernatural character, used in contexts either
of abstract metaphysics or of the ordinary conditions required for
human flourishing. This distinction is still understood in everyday
contexts among Chinese people, echoed by early modern scholars of
Chinese history and philosophy such as Feng Youlan and Wing-tsit Chan. Use of the term daojia dates to the Western Han c. 100 BCE, referring to the purported authors of the emerging Taoist canon, such as Lao Dan and Zhuang Zhou.
Neither the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi themselves,
or the early secondary sources written about them, put forward any
particular supernatural ontology. Nonetheless, that religious Taoism
emerged from a synthesis of folk religion with philosophical Taoist
precepts is clear. The earlier, naturalistic was employed by pre-Han and
Han thinkers, and continued to be used well into the Song, including
among those who explicitly rejected cults, both private and
state-sanctioned, that were often either labeled or self-identified as
Taoist.
However, this distinction has been challenged or rejected by some
scholars of religion, often those from a Western or Japanese
background, who often use distinct interpretive models and techniques. This point of view characterizes the religious and philosophical characteristics of the Taoist tradition as being inseparable. Sinologists such as Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn
state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has
constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of
original revelations." The distinction is fraught with hermeneutic
difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and
movements. Russell Kirkland writes that "most scholars who have seriously studied
Taoism, both in Asia and in the West" have abandoned this "simplistic
dichotomy". Louis Komjathy writes that this is an untenable misconception because "the association of daojia with "thought" (sixiang) and of daojiao with "religion" (zongjiao)
is a modern Chinese construction largely rooted in earlier Chinese
literati, European colonialist, and Protestant missionary
interpretations. Contemporaneous Neo-Confucianists, for example, often
self-identify as Taoist without partaking in any rituals.
In contrast, Komjathy characterizes Taoism as "a unified
religious tradition characterized by complexity and diversity", arguing
that historically, none of these terms were understood according to a
bifurcated 'philosophy' versus 'religion' model. Daojia was a
taxonomical category for Taoist texts, that was eventually applied to
Taoist movements and priests in the early medieval period. Meanwhile, daojiao was originally used to specifically distinguish Taoist tradition from Buddhism. Thus, daojiao included daojia. Komjathy notes that the earliest Taoist texts also "reveal a religious
community composed of master-disciple lineages", and therefore, that
"Taoism was a religious tradition from the beginning." Philosopher Chung-ying Cheng likewise views Taoism as a religion embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom". Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly
from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can
also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". Taoism is generally not understood as a variant of Chinese folk religion
per se: while the two umbrella terms have considerable cultural
overlap, core themes of both also diverge considerably from one another.
Adherents
Traditionally,
the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering
to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the
field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology, is traditionally used to translate daoshi/taoshih (道士;
'master of the Tao'), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism,
ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture
on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore
can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a
community.
This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "liturgical
framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme
or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and
Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986). Taoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters (法師) of vernacular traditions (the so-called Faism) within Chinese religion.
The term dàojiàotú (道教徒;
'follower of Dao'), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or
believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the
introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in
the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese
society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of
Chinese religion.
Scholars
like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of
"inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities, emphasizing
a contentless and nonconceptual apophatic meditation as a way of achieving union with the Tao. According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as
sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of
the Dao." These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the fangshi (method master) communities. Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before the Han
dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were
various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks
(like the ideas of the Yijing, yin-yang thought, as well as Mohist, "Legalist", and "Confucian" ideas), which were eventually synthesized into the first organized forms of "Taoism".
Some of the main early Taoist sources include: the Neiye, the Zhuangzi, and the Tao Te Ching. The Tao Te Ching, attributed to Laozi, is dated by scholars to sometime between the 4th and 6th century BCE. A common tradition holds that Laozi founded Taoism. Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure.
While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that the Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have
been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants
lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues
remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his
dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these virtues in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among the inhabitants".
Afterwards, Taoism developed and grew into two sects; One is
Zhengyi Taoism, which mainly focuses on spells, and the other is
Quanzhen Taoism, which mainly focuses on practicing inner alchemy.
Overall, traditional Taoist thought, content, and sects are varied,
reflecting the ideal of "absorbing everything inside and mixing
everything outside".
Meanwhile, Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: the teachings found in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, techniques for achieving ecstasy, practices for achieving longevity and becoming an immortal (xian), and practices for exorcism. Robinet states that some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring States era phenomena of the wu (Chinese shamans) and the fangshi ("method masters", which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity").
Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to
"magic, medicine, divination, ... methods of longevity and to ecstatic
wanderings" as well as exorcism. The fangshi
were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists and relied
greatly on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory
activities. Female shamans played an important role in the early Taoist tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own tradition in contrast to shamanism while also absorbing shamanic elements.
During the early period, some Taoists lived as hermits
or recluses who did not participate in political life, while others
sought to establish a harmonious society based on Taoist principles. Zhuang Zhou
(c. 370–290 BCE) was the most influential of the Taoist hermits. Some
scholars hold that since he lived in the south, he may have been
influenced by Chinese shamanism. Zhuang Zhou and his followers insisted they were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms. Pre-Taoist philosophers and mystics whose activities may have
influenced Taoism included shamans, naturalists skilled in understanding
the properties of plants and geology, diviners, early environmentalists,
tribal chieftains, court scribes and commoner members of governments,
members of the nobility in Chinese states, and the descendants of
refugee communities.
Significant movements in early Taoism disregarded the existence
of gods, and many who believed in gods thought they were subject to the
natural law of the Tao, in a similar nature to all other life.Roughly contemporaneously to the Tao Te Ching,
some believed the Tao was a force that was the "basis of all existence"
and more powerful than the gods, while being a god-like being that was
an ancestor and a mother goddess.
Early Taoists studied the natural world in attempts to find what they thought were supernatural laws that governed existence. Taoists created scientific principles that were the first of their kind
in China, and the belief system has been known to merge scientific,
philosophical, and religious conceits from close to its beginning.
By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan). One of the earliest forms of Taoism was the Han era (2nd century BCE) Huang–Lao movement, which was an influential school of thought at this time. The Huainanzi and the Taipingjing are important sources from this period. An unorganized form of Taoism was popular in the Han dynasty that
syncretized many preexisting forms in multiple ways for different groups
existed during a rough span of time throughout the 2nd century BCE. Also during the Han, the earliest extant commentaries on the Tao Te Ching were written: the Heshang Gong commentary and the Xiang'er commentary.
The first organized form of Taoism was the Way of the Celestial Masters, which developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling, who was said to have had a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and claimed that the world was coming to an end. Zhang sought to teach people to repent and prepare for the coming
cataclysm, after which they would become the seeds of a new era of great
peace. It was a mass movement in which men and women could act as
libationers and tend to the commoners. A related movement arose in Shandong called the "Way of Great Peace", seeking to create a new world by replacing the Han dynasty. This movement led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion, and after years of bloody war, they were crushed.
The Celestial Masters movement survived this period and did not
take part in attempting to replace the Han. As such, they grew and
became an influential religion during the Three Kingdoms period, focusing on ritual confession and petition, as well as developing a well-organized religious structure. The Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by the warlord Cao Cao in 215 CE, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.
Another important early Taoist movement was Taiqing (Great Clarity), which was a tradition of external alchemy (外丹) that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic elements like cinnabar, lead, mercury, and realgar, as well as ritual and purificatory practices.
After this point, Taoism did not have nearly as significant an effect on the passing of law as the syncretic Confucian–Legalist tradition.
Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties eras
A Taoist talisman from one of the Lingbao Scriptures.
The Three Kingdoms period saw the rise of the Xuanxue
(Mysterious Learning or Deep Wisdom) tradition, which focused on
philosophical inquiry and integrated Confucian teachings with Taoist
thought. The movement included scholars like Wang Bi (226–249), He Yan (d. 249), Xiang Xiu (223?–300), Guo Xiang (d. 312), and Pei Wei (267–300). Another later influential figure was the 4th century alchemist Ge Hong, who wrote a key Taoist work on inner cultivation, the Baopuzi (Master Embracing Simplicity).
The Six Dynasties (316–589) era saw the rise of two new Taoist traditions, the Shangqing and Lingbao schools. Shangqing was based on a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi between 364 and 370. As Livia Kohn writes, these revelations included detailed descriptions of the heavens as well as "specific methods of shamanic travels or ecstatic excursions, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions". The Shangqing revelations also introduced many new Taoist scriptures.
Similarly, between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures that later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school, which was most influential during the later Song dynasty (960–1279) and focused on scriptural recitation and the use of talismans for harmony and longevity. The Lingbao school practiced purification rituals called "purgations" in which talismans were empowered. Lingbao also adopted Mahayana Buddhist elements. According to Kohn, they "integrated aspects of Buddhist cosmology, worldview, scriptures, and practices, and created a vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of Buddhist sutras". Louis Komjathy also notes that they adopted the Mahayana Buddhist universalism in its promotion of "universal salvation" (pudu).
During the sixth century, Taoists attempted to unify the various
traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism
and Confucianism. To do this they adopted the schema known as the "three
caverns", first developed by the scholar Lu Xiujing (406–477) based on the "three vehicles" of Buddhism. The three caverns were: Perfection (Dongzhen), associated with the Three Sovereigns; Mystery (Dongxuan), associated with Lingbao; and Spirit (Dongshen), associated with the Supreme Clarity tradition. Lu Xiujing also used this schema to arrange the Taoist scriptures and
Taoist deities. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the Daozang (the Taoist Canon), which was published at the behest of the Chinese emperor.
Thus, according to Russell Kirkland, "in several important senses, it
was really Lu Hsiu-ching who founded Taoism, for it was he who first
gained community acceptance for a common canon of texts, which
established the boundaries, and contents, of 'the teachings of the Tao'
(Tao-chiao). Lu also reconfigured the ritual activities of the
tradition, and formulated a new set of liturgies, which continue to
influence Taoist practice to the present day."
This period also saw the development of the Three Pure Ones,
which merged the high deities from different Taoist traditions into a
common trinity that has remained influential until today.
Later imperial dynasties
A temple in the Wudangshan, a sacred space in Taoism
The new Integrated Taoism, now with a united Taoist identity, gained official status in China during the Tang dynasty. This tradition was termed daojiao (the teaching of the Tao). The Tang was the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led
by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China. According to Russell Kirkland, this new Taoist synthesis had its main foundation in the Lingbao school's teachings, which was appealing to all classes of society and drew on Mahayana Buddhism.
Perhaps the most important figure of the Tang was the court Taoist and writer Du Guangting (850–933). Du wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography. He also reorganized and edited the Taotsang after a period of war and loss.
During the Tang, several emperors became patrons of Taoism,
inviting priests to court to conduct rituals and enhance the prestige of
the sovereign. The Gaozong Emperor even decreed that the Tao Te Ching was to be a topic in the imperial examinations. During the reign of the 7th century Emperor Taizong, the Five Dragons Temple (the first temple at the Wudang Mountains) was constructed. Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts (Wudang quan).
Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–755) was also a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works, and according to Livia Kohn,
"had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist
poets, and official patriarchs, such as Sima Chengzhen." He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist
shrines and monasteries, and introduced a separate examination system
based on Taoism. Another important Taoist figure of the Tang dynasty was Lu Dongbin, who is considered the founder of the jindan meditation tradition and an influential figure in the development of neidan (internal alchemy) practice.
Likewise, several Song dynasty emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts, and publishing updated editions of the Daozang. The Song era saw new scriptures and new movements of ritualists and
Taoist rites, the most popular of which were the Thunder Rites (leifa).
The Thunder rites were protection and exorcism rites that evoked the
celestial department of thunder, and they became central to the new
Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) tradition as well as for the Youthful
Incipience (Tongchu) school.
Qiu Chuji (1503) by Guo Xu
In the 12th century, the Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) School was founded in Shandong by the sage Wang Chongyang (1113–1170) to compete with religious Taoist traditions that worshipped "ghosts and gods" and largely displaced them. The school focused on inner transformation, mystical experience, monasticism, and asceticism. Quanzhen flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty.
The Quanzhen school was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and
Confucianism with Taoist tradition. According to Wang Chongyang, the "three teachings" (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism), "when investigated, prove to be but one school". Quanzhen became the largest and most important Taoist school in China when master Qiu Chuji met with Genghis Khan who ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation. Another important Quanzhen figure was Zhang Boduan, author of the Wuzhen pian, a classic of internal alchemy, and the founder of the southern branch of Quanzhen.
During the Song era, the Zhengyi Dao tradition properly developed in Southern China among Taoists of the Chang clan. This liturgically focused tradition would continue to be supported by later emperors and survives to this day.
Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and East Asian Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. Taoist ideas also influenced Neo-Confucian thinkers like Wang Yangming and Zhan Ruoshui. During the Ming, the legends of the Eight Immortals (the most important of which is Lü Dongbin) rose to prominence, being part of local plays and folk culture. Ming emperors like the Hongwu Emperor
continued to invite Taoists to court and hold Taoist rituals that were
believed to enhance the power of the throne. The most important of these
were connected with the Taoist deity Xuanwu ("Perfect Warrior"), which was the main dynastic protector deity of the Ming.
The Ming era saw the rise of the Jingming ("Pure Illumination")
school to prominence, which merged Taoism with Buddhist and Confucian
teachings and focused on "purity, clarity, loyalty and filial piety". The school derided internal and external alchemy, fasting (bigu),
and breathwork. Instead, the school focused on using mental cultivation
to return to the mind's original purity and clarity (which could become
obscured by desires and emotions). Key figures of this school include Xu Xun, Liu Yu, Huang Yuanji, Xu Yi,
and Liu Yuanran. Some of these figures taught at the imperial capital
and were awarded titles. Their emphasis on practical ethics and self-cultivation in everyday
life (rather than ritual or monasticism) made it very popular among the
literati class.
The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) mainly promoted Buddhism as well as Neo-Confucianism. Thus, during this period, the status and influence of Taoism declined.
During the 18th century, the Qing imperial library excluded virtually
all Taoist books.
The Qing era also saw the birth of the Longmen ("Dragon Gate" 龍門) school of Wang Kunyang (1552–1641), a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the White Cloud Temple.Longmen authors like Liu Yiming (1734–1821) and Min Yide (1758–1836) worked to promote and preserve Taoist inner alchemy practices through books like The Secret of the Golden Flower. The Longmen school synthesized the Quanzhen and neidan teachings with
the Chan Buddhist and Neo-Confucian elements that the Jingming tradition
had developed, making it widely appealing to the literati class.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, Taoism suffered much destruction
as a result of religious persecution and numerous wars and conflicts
that beset China in the so-called century of humiliation. This period of persecution was caused by numerous factors including Confucian prejudices, anti-traditional Chinese modernist ideologies, European and Japanese colonialism, and Christian missionary activity. By the 20th century, only one complete copy of the Tao Tsang survived intact, stored at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing. A key Taoist figure during this period was Chen Yingning (1880–1969).
He was a key member of the early Chinese Taoist Association and wrote
numerous books promoting Taoist practice.
During the Cultural Revolution
(1966–1976), many Taoist priests were laicized and sent to work camps,
and many Taoist sites and temples were destroyed or converted to secular
use. This period saw an exodus of Taoists out of China. They immigrated to
Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and to Europe and North
America. Thus, the communist repression had the consequence of making
Taoism a world religion by disseminating Taoists throughout the world.
In the 1910s, Taoist doctrine about immortals
and waiting until after death to live in "the dwelling of the
immortals" was one of the faith's most popular and influential beliefs.
The 20th century was also a creative period for Taoism despite its many setbacks. The Taoist influenced practice of tai chi developed during this time, led by figures like Yang Chengfu and Sun Lutang. Early proponents of tai chi, like Sun Lutang, claimed that it was a Taoist internal practice created by the Taoist immortal Zhang Sanfeng (though modern scholars note that this claim lacks credible historical evidence).
Taoism began to recover during the reform and opening up period (beginning in 1979) during which mainland China experienced increased religious freedom. This led to the restoration of many temples and communities, the
publishing of Taoist literature and the preservation of Taoist material
culture. Several Chinese intellectuals, like Hu Fuchen (Chinese Academy of
Social Studies) and Liu Xiaogan (Chinese University of Hong Kong) have
worked to developed a "New Daojia" (xin daojia), which parallels the rise of New Confucianism.
During the 1980s and 1990s, China experienced the so-called Qigong fever,
which saw a surge in the popularity of Qigong practice throughout
China. During this period many new Taoist and Taoist influenced
religions sprung up, the most popular being those associated with
Qigong, such as Zangmigong (Tantric Qigong influenced by Tibetan Buddhism), Zhonggong (Central Qigong), and Falungong (which came to be outlawed and repressed by the Chinese Communist Party [CCP]).
Today, Taoism is one of five official recognized religions in the People's Republic of China. In mainland China, the government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association. Regarding the status of Taoism in mainland China, Livia Kohn writes:
Taoist institutions are
state-owned, monastics are paid by the government, several bureaus
compete for revenues and administrative power, and training centers
require courses in Marxism as preparation for full ordination. Still,
temple compounds are growing on the five sacred mountains, on Taoist
mountains, and in all major cities.
Outside of China, many traditionally Taoist practices have spread, especially through Chinese emigration as well as conversion by non-Chinese. Taoist influenced practices, like tai chi and qigong, are also popular around the world. Its influence is ubiquitous, especially in divination and magical practices.As such, Taoism is now a religion with a global distribution.
During the late 20th century, Taoism began to spread to the Western world, leading to various forms of Taoist communities in the West, with Taoist publications, websites, meditation and Tai chi centers, and translations of Taoist texts by western scholars as well as non-specialists. Taoist classics like the Tao Te Ching have also become popular in the New Age movement and in "popular Western Taoism", a kind of popularized hybrid spirituality. According to Louis Komjathy, this "popular Western Taoism" is associated with popular translations and interpretations of the Tao Te Ching and the work of popular figures like James Legge, Alan Watts, John Blofeld, Gia-fu Feng, and Bruce Lee. This popular spirituality also draws on Chinese martial arts (which are often unrelated to Taoism proper), American Transcendentalism, 1960s counterculture, New Age spirituality, the perennial philosophy, and alternative medicine.
On the other hand, traditionally minded Taoists in the West are
often either ethnically Chinese or generally assume some level of sinicization, especially the adoption of Chinese language
and culture. This is because, for most traditional Taoists, the
religion is not seen as separate from Chinese ethnicity and culture. As
such, most Western convert Taoist groups are led either by Chinese
teachers or by teachers who studied with Chinese teachers. Some prominent Western Taoist associations include: Asociación de Taoism de España, Association Francaise Daoiste,
British Daoist Association, Daoist Foundation (San Diego, California),
American Taoist and Buddhist Association (New York), Ching Chung Taoist
Association (San Francisco), Universal Society of the Integral Way (Ni
Hua-Ching), and Sociedade Taoista do Brasil.
Particularly popular in the West are groups that focus on
internal martial arts like tai chi, as well as qigong and meditation. A
smaller set of groups also focus around internal alchemy, such as Mantak Chia's Healing Tao. While traditional Taoism initially arrived in the West through Chinese
immigrants, more recently, Western run Taoist temples have also
appeared, such as the Taoist Sanctuary in San Diego and the Dayuan
Circle in San Francisco. Kohn notes that all of these centers "combine
traditional ritual services with Tao Te Ching and Yijing philosophy as well as with various health practices, such as breathing, diet, meditation, qigong, and soft martial arts".
Tao (or Dao) can mean "way", "road", "channel", "path", "doctrine", or "line". Livia Kohn
describes the Tao as "the underlying cosmic power which creates the
universe, supports culture and the state, saves the good and punishes
the wicked. Literally 'the way', Tao refers to the way things develop
naturally, the way nature moves along, and living beings growing and
declining in accordance with cosmic laws." The Tao is ultimately indescribable and transcends all analysis and definition. Thus, the Tao Te Ching begins with: "The Tao that can be told is not eternal Tao." Likewise, Louis Komjathy writes that Taoists have described the Tao as "dark" (xuan), "indistinct" (hu), "obscure" (huang), and "silent" (mo).
According to Komjathy, the Tao has four primary characteristics:
"(1) Source of all existence; (2) Unnamable mystery; (3) All-pervading
sacred presence; and (4) Universe as cosmological process." As such, Taoist thought can be seen as monistic (the Tao is one reality), panenhenic (seeing nature as sacred), and panentheistic (the Tao is both the sacred world and what is beyond it, immanent and transcendent). Similarly, Wing-tsit Chan
describes the Tao as an "ontological ground" and as "the One, which is
natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at
once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue
their course." The Tao is thus an "organic order", which is not a willful or
self-conscious creator, but an infinite and boundless natural pattern.
Furthermore, the Tao is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves and in natural and social patterns. Thus, the Tao is also the "innate nature" (xing) of all people, a nature which Taoists see as being ultimately good. In a naturalistic sense, the Tao is a visible pattern, "the Tao that
can be told", that is, the rhythmic processes and patterns of the
natural world that can be observed and described. Thus, Kohn writes that Tao can be explained as twofold: the
transcendent, ineffable, mysterious Tao and the natural, visible, and
tangible Tao.
Dao is a process of reality itself, a way for things to gather
together while still changing. All of these reflect the deep-rooted
belief of the Chinese people that change is the most fundamental
characteristic of things. In the Book of Changes, this pattern of
change is symbolized by numbers representing 64 related force
relationships, known as hexagrams. Dao is the change of these forces,
usually referred to as yin and yang.
Throughout Taoist history, Taoists have developed different metaphysical views regarding the Tao. For example, while the Xuanxue thinker Wang Bi described Tao as wú (nothingness, negativity, not-being), Guo Xiang
rejected wú as the source and held that instead the true source was
spontaneous "self-production" (zìshēng 自生) and "self-transformation"
(zìhuà 自化). Another school, the Chóngxuán (Twofold Mystery), developed a metaphysics influenced by Buddhist Madhyamaka philosophy.
The active expression of Tao is called De (德; dé; also spelled Te or Teh; often translated with virtue or power), in a sense that De results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao. The term De can be used to refer to ethical virtue in the conventional Confucian sense, as well as to a higher spontaneous kind of sagely virtue or power that comes from following the Tao and practicing wu-wei. Thus, it is a natural expression of the Tao's power and not anything like conventional morality. Louis Komjathy describes De as the manifestation of one's connection to the Tao, which is a beneficial influence of one's cosmological attunement.
Zhuang Zhou in front of a waterfall. The natural downward flow of water is a common metaphor for naturalness in Taoism.
Ziran (自然; zìrán; tzu-jan; lit. "self-so", "self-organization") is regarded as a central concept and value in Taoism and as a way of flowing with the Tao. It describes the "primordial state" of all things as well as a basic character of the Tao, and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity. According to Kohn, in the Zhuangzi, ziran
refers to the fact that "there is thus no ultimate cause to make things
what they are. The universe exists by itself and of itself; it is
existence just as it is. Nothing can be added or subtracted from it; it
is entirely sufficient upon itself."
To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao and flow with its natural rhythms as expressed in oneself. This involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire and appreciating simplicity. It also consists of understanding one's nature and living in accordance with it without trying to be something one is not or overthinking one's experience. One way of cultivating ziran found in the Zhuangzi is to practice the "fasting of the mind", a kind of Taoist meditation in which one empties the mind. It is held that this can also activate qi (vital energy). In some passages found in the Zhuangzi and in the Tao Te Ching, naturalness is also associated with rejection of the state (anarchism) and a desire to return to simpler pre-technological times (primitivism).
An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (樸; pǔ, pú; p'u;
'uncut wood'), the "uncarved log", which represents the "original
nature ... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual. It is usually referred to as a state one may return to.
Illustration of the parable of the adept butcher Ding from the Zhuangzi. Butcher Ding was so expert at butchering a carcass that he barely had to use any force to cut the meat.
The term wu wei constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism. Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu
carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without".
Standard translations are nonaction, effortless action, action without
intent, noninterference, and nonintervention. The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": an action without action. Kohn writes that wuwei
refers to "letting go of egoistic concerns" and "to abstain from
forceful and interfering measures that cause tensions and disruption in
favor of gentleness, adaptation, and ease."
In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through
its yielding nature and the effortless way it flows around obstacles. Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the I Ching,
proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own
ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that
is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that
harmony, and unintended consequences may more likely result rather than the willed outcome. Thus, the Tao Te Ching
says: "act of things and you will ruin them. Grasp for things and you
will lose them. Therefore the sage acts with inaction and has no ruin,
lets go of grasping and has no loss."
Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Instead,
it asserts that one must place one's will in harmony with the natural
way of the universe. Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly. "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."
Aspects of self (xing, xin, and ming)
The Taoist view of the self is holistic and rejects the idea of a separate individualized self.
As Russell Kirkland writes, Taoists "generally assume that one's 'self'
cannot be understood or fulfilled without reference to other persons,
and to the broader set of realities in which all persons are naturally
and properly embedded."
In Taoism, one's innate or fundamental nature (xing) is
ultimately the Tao expressing or manifesting itself as an embodied
person. Innate nature is connected with one's heartmind (xin), which
refers to consciousness, the heart, and one's spirit. The focus of Taoist psychology is the heartmind (xin),
the intellectual and emotional center (zhong) of a person. It is
associated with the chest cavity and the physical heart, as well as with
emotions, thoughts, consciousness, and the storehouse of spirit (shen). When the heartmind is unstable and separated from the Tao, it is called
the ordinary heartmind (suxin). On the other hand, the original
heartmind (benxin) pervades Tao and is constant and peaceful.
The Neiye (ch.14) calls this pure original heart-mind the
"inner heartmind", "an awareness that precedes language", and "a lodging
place of the numinous". Later Taoist sources also refer to it by other terms like "awakened
nature" (wuxing), "original nature" (benxing), "original spirit"
(yuanshen), and "scarlet palace". This pure heartmind is seen as being characterized by clarity and
stillness (qingjing), purity, pure yang, spiritual insight, and
emptiness.
Taoists see life (sheng) as an expression of the Tao. The Tao is seen as granting each person a ming (life destiny), which is one's corporeal existence, one's body and vitality. Generally speaking, Taoist cultivation seeks a holistic psychosomatic form of training that is described as "dual cultivation of innate nature and life-destiny" (xingming shuanxiu). Taoism believes in a "pervasive spirit world that is both interlocked with and separate from the world of humans."
The cultivation of innate nature is often associated with the
practice of stillness (jinggong) or quiet meditation, while the
cultivation of life-destiny generally revolves around movement-based
practices (dongong) like daoyin and health and longevity practices (yangsheng).
The Neijing Tu, a diagram which illustrates the complex Taoist schema of the body as a way to aid practitioners of inner cultivation.
Many Taoist practices work with ancient Chinese understandings of the body, its organs and parts, "elixir fields" (dantien), inner substances (such as "essence" or jing), animating forces (like the hun and po), and meridians (qi channels). The complex Taoist schema of the body and its subtle body components contains many parallels with Traditional Chinese medicine and is used for health practices as well as for somatic and spiritual transformation (through neidan – "psychosomatic transmutation" or "internal alchemy"). Taoist physical cultivation rely on purifying and transforming the
body's qi (vital breath, energy) in various ways such as dieting and
meditation.
According to Livia Kohn, qi is "the cosmic energy that pervades
all. The concrete aspect of Tao, qi is the material force of the
universe, the basic stuff of nature." According to the Zhuangzi, "human life is the accumulation of qi; death is its dispersal." Everyone has some amount of qi and can gain and lose qi in various
ways. Therefore, Taoists hold that through various qi cultivation
methods they can harmonize their qi, and thus improve health and longevity, and even attain magic powers, social harmony, and immortality. The Neiye (Inward Training) is one of the earliest texts that teach qi cultivation methods.
Qi is one of the Three Treasures, which is a specifically Taoist schema of the main elements in Taoist physical practices like qigong and neidan. The three are: jing (精, essence, the foundation for one's vitality), qi and shén (神, spirit, subtle consciousness, a capacity to connect with the subtle spiritual reality). These three are further associated with the three "elixir fields" (dantien) and the organs in different ways.
The body in Taoist political philosophy was important and their differing views on it and humanity's place in the universe were a point of distinction from Confucian politicians, writers, and political commentators. Some Taoists viewed ancestors as merely corpses that were improperly
revered and respect for the dead as irrelevant and others within groups
that followed these beliefs viewed almost all traditions as worthless.
Illustration of the tortoise in the mud parable from the Zhuangzi.
When some officials came to offer Zhuang Zhou a job at court, he
replied he preferred to continue to live a life of solitary simplicity,
like a turtle who prefers to live in the mud rather than to be displayed
at court.
Daoist ethics tends to emphasize various themes from the Taoist classics, such as naturalness (pu), spontaneity (ziran), simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all, wu wei. The classic Daoist view is that humans are originally and naturally
aligned with Tao; thus, their original nature is inherently good. It
emphasizes doing things that are natural, following the Tao, which is a
cosmic force that flows through all things and binds and releases them. However, one can fall away from this due to personal habits, desires,
and social conditions. Returning to one's nature requires active
attunement through Daoist practice and ethical cultivation.
Some popular Daoist beliefs, such as the early Shangqing school, do not believe this and believe that some people are irredeemably evil and destined to be so. Many Taoist movements from around the time Buddhist elements started being syncretized with Daoism had a highly negative view of foreigners, referring to them as yi
or "barbarians", and some of these thought of foreigners as people who
do not feel "human feelings" and who never live out the correct norms of
conduct until they became Taoist. At this time, China
was widely viewed by Taoists as a holy land because of influence from
the Chinese public that viewed being born in China as a privilege and
that outsiders were enemies. Preserving a sense of "Chineseness" in the country and rewarding nativist policies such as the building of the Great Wall of China was important to many Taoist groups.
Foreigners who joined these Taoist sects were made to repent for
their sins in another life that caused them to be born "in the frontier
wilds" because of Buddhist ideas of reincarnation coming into their doctrines. Some Daoist movements viewed human nature neutrally. However, some of the movements that were dour or skeptical about human
nature did not believe that evil is permanent and believed that evil
people can become good. Korean Daoists tended to think extremely
positively of human nature.
Some of the most important virtues in Taoism are the Three Treasures or Three Jewels (三寶; sānbǎo). These are: ci (慈; cí, usually translated as compassion), jian (儉; jiǎn, usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian (不敢爲天下先; bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān; 'not daring to act as first under the heavens', but usually translated as humility). Arthur Waley, applying them to the socio-political
sphere, translated them as: "abstention from aggressive war and capital
punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert
active authority".
Taoism also adopted the Buddhist doctrines of karma and reincarnation into its religious ethical system.[206]
Medieval Taoist thought developed the idea that ethics was overseen by a
celestial administration that kept records of people's actions and
their fate, as well as handed out rewards and punishments through
particular celestial administrators.
In its original form, the religion does not involve political
affairs or complex rituals; on the contrary, it encourages the avoidance
of public responsibility and the search for a vision of a spiritual,
transcendent world.
Soteriology and religious goals
Illustrations of Taoist immortals at the White Cloud TempleThe Taoist immortal Lü Dongbin crossing Lake Dongting, dated to the Song dynasty.
Taoists have different religious goals that include Taoist conceptions of sagehood (zhenren), spiritual self-cultivation, a happy afterlife or longevity and some form of immortality (xian, variously understood as a kind of transcendent post-mortem state of the spirit).
Taoists' views about what happens in the afterlife tend to include the soul becoming a part of the cosmos (which was often thought of as an illusionary place where qi
and physical matter were thought of as being the same in a way held
together by the microcosm of the spirits of the human body and the
macrocosm of the universe itself, represented and embodied by the Three Pure Ones), somehow aiding the spiritual functions of nature or Tian after death or being saved by either achieving spiritual immortality in an afterlife or becoming a xian who can appear in the human world at will, but normally lives in another plane. "[S]acred forests and[/or] mountains" or a yin-yang,yin, yang, or Tao realm inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even the virtuous Confucius and Confucianists, such as the mental realm sometimes called "the Heavens"
where higher, spiritual versions of Daoists such as Laozi were thought
to exist when they were alive and absorb "the purest Yin and Yang" were all possibilities for a potential xian
to be reborn in. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract
beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as xiandragons who eat yin and yang energy and ride clouds and their qi.
More specifically, possibilities for "the spirit of the body" include "join[ing] the universe after death", exploring or serving various functions in parts of tiān or other spiritual worlds, or becoming a xian who can do one or more of those things.
Taoist xian are often seen as being eternally young because "of their life being totally at one with the Tao of nature." They are also often seen as being made up of "pure breath and light" and as being able to shapeshift, and some Taoists believed their afterlife natural "paradises" were palaces of heaven.
Taoists who sought to become one of the many different types of immortals, such as xian or zhenren, wanted to "ensure complete physical and spiritual immortality".
In the Quanzhen school of Wang Chongyang, the goal is to become a sage, which he equates with being a "spiritual immortal" (shen xien) and with the attainment of "clarity and stillness" (qingjing) through the integration of "inner nature" (xing) and "worldly reality" (ming).
Those who know the Tao, who flow with the natural way of the Tao
and thus embody the patterns of the Tao, are called sages or "perfected
persons" (zhenren). This is what is often considered salvation in Taoist soteriology. They often are depicted as living simple lives, as craftsmen or hermits.
In other cases, they are depicted as the ideal rulers who practice
ruling through non-intervention and under whom nations prosper
peacefully. Sages are the highest humans, mediators between heaven and earth, and
the best guides on the Taoist path. They act naturally and simply, with a
pure mind and with wuwei. They may have supernatural powers and bring
good fortune and peace.
Some sages are also considered to have become one of the immortals (xian)
through their mastery of the Tao. After shedding their mortal form,
spiritual immortals may have many superhuman abilities like flight and are often said to live in heavenly realms.
The sages are thus because they have attained the primary goal of
Taoism: a union with the Tao and harmonization or alignment with its
patterns and flows. This experience is one of being attuned to the Tao and to our own
original nature, which already has a natural capacity for resonance (ganying) with Tao. This is the main goal that all Daoist practices are aiming towards and
can be felt in various ways, such as a sense of psychosomatic vitality
and aliveness as well as stillness and a "true joy" (zhenle) or
"celestial joy" that remains unaffected by mundane concerns like gain
and loss.
The Taoist quest for immortality was inspired by Confucian emphasis on filial piety and how worshipped ancestors were thought to exist after death.
Becoming an immortal through the power of yin-yang and heaven,
but also specifically Taoist interpretations of the Tao, was sometimes
thought of as possible in Chinese folk religion, and Taoist thoughts on immortality were sometimes drawn from Confucian
views on heaven and its status as an afterlife that permeates the mortal
world as well.
Zhou Dunyi's (1017–1073 CE) cosmological Taijitu diagram. The red circle is the formless Wuji which gives birth to "the two" – yin and yang (i.e. taiji).
Taoist cosmology is cyclic—the
universe is seen as being in constant change, with various forces and
energies (qi) affecting each other in different complex patterns. Taoist cosmology shares similar views with the School of Naturalists. Taoist cosmology focuses on the impersonal transformations (zaohua) of the universe, which are spontaneous and unguided.
Livia Kohn explains the basic Taoist cosmological theory as:
the root of creation Tao rested in deep chaos (ch. 42).
Next, it evolved into the One, a concentrated state cosmic unity that is
full of creative potential and often described in I Ching terms as the taiji.
The One then brought forth "the Two", the two energies yin and yang,
which in turn merged in harmony to create the next level of existence,
"the Three" (yin-yang combined), from which the myriad beings came
forth. From original oneness, the world thus continued to move into ever
greater states of distinction and differentiation.
The main distinction in Taoist cosmology is that between yin and yang,
which applies to various sets of complementary ideas: bright – dark,
light – heavy, soft – hard, strong – weak, above – below, ruler –
minister, male – female, and so on. Cosmically, these two forces exist in mutual harmony and interdependence. Yin and yang are further divided into five phases (Wu Xing,
or five materials): minor yang, major yang, yin/yang, minor yin, major
yin. Each correlates with a specific substance: wood, fire, earth,
metal, and water, respectively. This schema is used in many different ways in Taoist thought and practice, from nourishing life (yangsheng) and medicine to astrology and divination.
Taoists also generally see all things as being animated and constituted by qi
(vital air, subtle breath), which is seen as a force that circulates
throughout the universe and throughout human bodies (as both air in the
lungs and as a subtle breath throughout the body's meridians and organs). Qi is in constant transformation between its condensed state (life) and diluted state (potential). These two different states of qi are embodiments of yin and yang, two complementary forces that constantly play against and with each other and where one cannot exist without the other.
Taoist texts present various creation stories and cosmogonies. Classic cosmogonies are nontheistic,
presenting a natural undirected process in which an apophatic
undifferentiated potentiality (called wuwuji, "without
non-differentiation") naturally unfolds into wuji (primordial oneness, "non-differentiation"), which then evolves into yin-yang (taiji) and then into the myriad beings, as in the Tao Te Ching. Later medieval models included the idea of a creator God (mainly seen as Lord Lao), representing order and creativity. Taoist cosmology influences Taoist soteriology, which holds that one
can "return to the root" (guigen) of the universe (and of ourselves),
which is also the Tao—the impersonal source (yuan) of all things.
In Taoism, human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe, and thus the cosmological forces, like the five phases, are also present in the form of the zang-fu organs. Another common belief is that there are various gods that reside in human bodies. As a consequence, it is believed that a deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.
Another important element of Taoist cosmology is the use of Chinese astrology.
Taoist theology can be defined as apophatic,
given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness and unknowable
nature of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. Nearly all the sects share this core belief.
Arguments for a monotheistic Taoism exist. Nevertheless, Taoism features a pantheon of deities and spirits associated with both living and non-living things, making it animistic and polytheistic in a secondary sense, as they are seen as emanations from an impersonal ultimate principle. Some Taoist theologies present the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities, depicting a hierarchy emanating from the Tao. Laozi is considered the incarnation of one of the Three and worshiped as the ancestral founder of Taoism.
The gods and immortals 神仙)
worshiped in Taoism can be roughly divided into two categories: namely,
"gods" and "xian" (immortals). "Gods" are also deities, and there are
many kinds, including a god of Heaven (天神); a god of ground (地祇); wuling (物灵), the spirit of all things; a god of the netherworld (地府神灵); a god of the human body (人体之神); and a god of human souls (人鬼之神). Among these gods, the gods of Heaven, ground, the netherworld, and the human body are innate beings. Xian (immortality) is acquired via cultivation of the Tao, and also bestows supernatural powers.
The branches of Taoism have differing pantheons of lesser deities, wherein these deities reflect distinct cosmologies. Lesser deities may be promoted or demoted for their activity. Some varieties of popular Chinese religion incorporate the Jade Emperor (Yü-Huang or Yü-Di),
one of the Three Pure Ones, as the highest God. Historical Taoist
figures—and individuals considered to have become immortal (xian)—are also venerated.
Despite these hierarchies of deities, most conceptions of Tao should not be analogized with the Western sense of theism. "Being one with the Tao" does not necessarily indicate a union with a
supreme deity, principle, or reality, as is believed achievable in, for
example, forms of theistic Hinduism.
Practices
Xuan Yuan [Yellow Emperor] Inquires of the Tao, National Palace Museum, Taipei, Early Ming dynasty (1368–1644). This silk scroll painting is based on the story that the Yellow Emperor went out to the Kongtong Mountains to meet with the famous Taoist sage Guangchengzi
Some key elements of Taoist practice include a commitment to self-cultivation, wu wei, and attunement to the patterns of the Tao.The
practice of Taoism seeks to develop the body back to its original level
of energy and restore it to its original state of creation. The body is
no longer just a means of living in harmony in the world, it is itself a
universe. Most Taoists throughout history have agreed on the importance of self
cultivation through various practices, which were seen as ways to
transform oneself and integrate oneself to the deepest realities.
Communal rituals are important in most Taoist traditions, as are
methods of self-cultivation. Taoist self-cultivation practices tend to
focus on the transformation of the heartmind together with bodily
substances and energies (like jing and qi) and their connection to natural and universal forces, patterns, and powers.
Despite the detachment from reality and dissent from Confucian humanism that the Tao Te Ching teaches, Taoists were and are generally not misanthropes or nihilists and see humans as an important class of things in the world. However, in most Taoist views humans were not held to be especially
important in comparison to other aspects of the world and Taoist
metaphysics that were seen as equally or more special. Similarly, some Taoists had similar views on their gods or the gods of other religions.
According to Louis Komjathy, Taoist practice is a diverse and
complex subject that can include "aesthetics, art, dietetics, ethics,
health and longevity practice, meditation, ritual, seasonal attunement,
scripture study, and so forth."
Throughout the history of Taoism, mountains have occupied a
special place for Taoist practice. They are seen as sacred spaces and as
the ideal places for Taoist cultivation and Taoist monastic or eremitic
life, which may include "cloud wandering" (yunyou) in the mountains and dwelling in mountain hermitages (an) or grottoes (dong).
Tao can serve as a life energy instead of qi in some Taoist belief systems.
The nine practices
One of the earliest schemas for Taoist practice was the "nine practices" or "nine virtues" (jiǔxíng九行), which were taught in the Celestial Masters school. These were drawn from classic Taoist sources, mainly the Tao Te Ching, and are presented in the Laojun jinglu (Scriptural Statutes of Lord Lao; DZ 786).
A Taoist ritual at the Gray Goat Temple (Qingyang Gong, 青羊宫) in Chengdu, Sichuan.Taoist ritual specialists in a procession, Taiwan.
Ancient Chinese religion made much use of sacrifices to gods and ancestors, which could include slaughtered animals (such as pigs and ducks) or fruit. The Taoist Celestial MasterZhang Daoling rejected food and animal sacrifices to the gods. Today, many Taoist temples reject animal sacrifice. Sacrifices to the deities remains a key element of Taoist rituals
however. There are various kinds of Taoist rituals, which may include
presenting offerings, scripture reading, sacrifices, incantations,
purification rites, confession, petitions and announcements to the gods,
observing the ethical precepts, memorials, chanting, lectures, and
communal feasts.
On particular holidays, such as the Qingming/Ching Ming festival, street parades take place. These are lively affairs that involve firecrackers, the burning of hell money, and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances, human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"), gongfu, and palanquins
carrying images of deities. The various participants are not considered
performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.
In Taoism, there are two main types of rituals: vernacular
and classical. Vernacular rituals are more about the community and
include things like healing, protection, and celebrations for farming.
Local people often do these and mix Taoist beliefs with local
traditions, like ancestor worship and seasonal festivals. On the other
hand, classical rituals are more formal and are performed by trained
priests in temples. They follow ancient texts and involve detailed
ceremonies, offerings, and chants to connect with the Tao and the
universe. Examples of classical rituals include the "Three Purities"
ceremony, which honors important deities, and rituals for purification
and meditation. Together, these rituals show different ways people
practice Taoism, focusing on community and personal spirituality.
Ethical precepts
Taking up and living by sets of ethical precepts is another important practice in Taoism. By the Tang dynasty, Taoism had created a system of lay discipleship in which one took a set of Ten precepts (Taoism).
The Five precepts (Taoism) are identical to the Buddhist five precepts (which are to avoid: killing [both human and non-human animals], theft, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxicants like alcohol.) The other five were a set of five injunctions:
(6) I will maintain harmony with my ancestors and family and never
disregard my kin; (7) When I see someone do good, I will support him
with joy and delight; (8) When I see someone unfortunate, I will support
him with dignity to recover good fortune; (9) When someone comes to do
me harm, I will not harbor thoughts of revenge; (10) As long as all
beings have not attained the Dao, I will not expect to do so myself.
Apart
from these common ethical precepts, Taoist traditions also have larger
sets of precepts that are often reserved for ordained priests or
monastics.
Divination and magic
A key part of many Taoist traditions is the practice of divination. There are many methods used by Chinese Taoists including I Ching divination, Chinese astrological divination, feng shui (geomantic divination), and the interpretation of various omens.
Sun Simiao as depicted by Gan Bozong, woodblock print, Tang dynasty (618–907)Reconstructed drawings of guiding and pulling (Daoyin) exercises from the Mawangdui Silk Texts.
Taoist longevity methods are closely related to ancient Chinese medicine. Many of these methods date back to Tang dynasty figures like alchemist Sun Simiao (582–683) and the Highest Clarity Patriarch Sima Chengzhen (647–735). The goal of these methods range from better health and longevity to immortality. Key elements of these "nourishing life" (yangsheng) methods include: moderation in all things (drink, food, etc.), adapting to the cycles of the seasons by following injunctions regarding healing exercises (daoyin), and breathwork.
A number of physical practices, like modern forms of qigong, as well as modern internal martial arts (neijia) like Taijiquan, Baguazhang, Xingyiquan, and Liuhebafa,
are practiced by Taoists as methods of cultivating health and longevity
as well as eliciting internal alchemical transformations.However, these methods are not specifically Taoist and are often practiced outside of Taoist contexts.
Another key longevity method is "ingestion", which focuses on
what one absorbs or consumes from one's environment and is seen as
affecting what one becomes. Diatectics, closely influenced by Chinese medicine, is a key element of
ingestion practice, and there are numerous Taoist diet regimens for
different effects (such as ascetic diets, monastic diets, therapeutic
diets, and alchemical diets that use herbs and minerals). One common practice is the avoidance of grains (bigu). In certain cases, practices like vegetarianism and true fasting is also adopted (which may also be termed bigu).
Some Taoists thought of the human body as a spiritual nexus with thousands of shen (often 36,000), gods who were likely thought of as at least somewhat mental in nature
because of the word's other meaning of consciousness, that could be
communed with by doing various methods to manipulate the yin and yang of the body, as well as its qi. These Taoists also thought of the human body as a metaphorical existence where three "cinnabar fields" that represented a higher level of reality or a spiritual kind of
cinnabar that does not exist in normal reality. A method of meditation
used by these Taoists was "visualizing light" that was thought to be qi or another kind of life energy a Taoist substituted for qi or believed in the existence of instead. The light was then channeled
through the three cinnabar fields, forming a "microcosmic orbit" or
through the hands and feet for a "macrocosmic orbit".
The 36,000 shen regulated the body and bodily functions through a bureaucratic system "modeled after the Chinese system of government". Death occurs only when these gods leave, but life can be extended by
meditating while visualizing them, doing good deeds, and avoiding meat and wine.
Meditation
Illustration of Taoist meditation.
There are many methods of Taoist meditation (often referred to as "stillness practice", jinggong), some of which were strongly influenced by Buddhist methods.
Some of the key forms of Taoist meditation are:
Apophatic or quietistic meditation, which was the main method of classical Taoism and can be found in classic texts like the Zhuangzi, where it is termed "fasting the heartmind" (xinzhai). This practice is also variously termed "embracing the one" (baoyi),
"guarding the one" (shouyi), "quiet sitting" (jingzuo), and "sitting
forgetfulness" (zuowang). According to Louis Komjathy, this type of meditation "emphasizes
emptiness and stillness; it is contentless, non-conceptual, and
non-dualistic. One simply empties the heart-mind of all emotional and
intellectual content." The texts of classical Taoism state that this meditation leads to the
dissolution of the self and any sense of separate dualistic identity. Sima Chengzhen's Zuowang lun is a key text that outlines this method. The practice is also closely connected with the virtue of wuwei (inaction).
Concentration meditation, focusing the mind on one theme, like the
breath, a sound, a part of the body (like one of the dantiens), a
diagram or mental image, a deity etc. A subset of this is called
"guarding the one", which is interpreted in different ways.
Observation (guan)—according to Livia Kohn,
this method "encourages openness to all sorts of stimuli and leads to a
sense of free-flowing awareness. It often begins with the recognition
of physical sensations and subtle events in the body but may also
involve paying attention to outside occurrences." Guan is associated with deep listening and energetic sensitivity. The term most often refers to "inner observation" (neiguan), a practice that developed through Buddhist influence (see: Vipaśyanā). Neiguan entails developing introspection of one's body and mind, which
includes being aware of the various parts of the body as well as the
various deities residing in the body.
Zhan zhuang ("post standing")—standing meditation in various postures.
Visualization (cunxiang) of various mental images, including
deities, cosmic patterns, the lives of saints, various lights in the
bodies organs, etc. This method is associated with the Supreme Clarity
school, which first developed it.
Illustration of Taoist neidan from the Xingming guizhi (Pointers on Spiritual Nature and Bodily Life), c. 1615 (Wanli era).
A key element of many schools of Taoism are alchemical
practices, which include rituals, meditations, exercises, and the
creation of various alchemical substances. The goals of alchemy include
physical and spiritual transformation, aligning oneself spiritually with
cosmic forces, undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, improving
physical health, extending one's life, and even becoming an immortal (xian).
Taoist alchemy can be found in early Taoist scriptures like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi. There are two main kinds of alchemy, internal alchemy (neidan) and external alchemy (waidan).
Internal alchemy (neidan, literally: "internal elixir"), which focuses
on the transformation and increase of qi in the body, developed during
the late imperial period (especially during the Tang) and is found in
almost all Taoist schools today, though it is most closely associated
with the Quanzhen School. There are many systems of internal alchemy with different methods such as visualization and breathwork. In the late Imperial period, neidan developed into complex systems that
drew on numerous elements, including: classic Taoist texts and
meditations, yangsheng, I Ching symbology, Taoist cosmology, external alchemy concepts and terms, Chinese medicine, and Buddhist influences. Neidan systems tend to be passed on through oral master-disciple lineages that are often to be secret.
Livia Kohn writes that the main goal of internal alchemy is
generally understood as a set of three transformations: "from essence
(jing) to energy (qi), from energy to spirit (shen), and from spirit to Dao." Common methods for this include engaging the subtle body and activating the microcosmic orbit. Louis Komjathy adds that neidan seeks to create a transcendent spirit,
usually called the "immortal embryo" (xiantai) or "yang spirit"
(yangshen).
Texts
A part of a Taoist manuscript, ink on silk, 2nd century BCE, Han dynasty, unearthed from Mawangdui tomb 3rd
Some religious Taoist movements view traditional texts as scriptures
that are considered sacred, authoritative, binding, and divinely
inspired or revealed. However, the Tao Te Ching was originally viewed as "human wisdom" and "written by humans for humans." It and other important texts "acquired authority...that caused them to be regarded...as sacred."
Perhaps the most influential texts are the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi.
Throughout the history of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been a central text, used for ritual, self-cultivation, and philosophical purposes.
According to legend, the Tao Te Ching (also known as the Laozi) was written by Laozi. Authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate and will probably never be known with certainty. The earliest manuscripts of this work (written on bamboo tablets) date back to the late 4th century BCE, and these contain significant differences from the later received edition (of Wang Bi c. 226–249). Apart from the Guodian text and the Wang Bi edition, another alternative version exists, the Mawangdui Tao Te Chings.
Louis Komjathy writes that the Tao Te Ching is "actually a
multi-vocal anthology consisting of a variety of historical and textual
layers; in certain respects, it is a collection of oral teachings of
various members of the inner cultivation lineages." Meanwhile, Russell Kirkland argues that the text arose out of "various traditions of oral wisdom" from the state of Chu that were written, circulated, edited, and rewritten by different hands. He also suggests that authors from the Jixia academy may have been involved in the editing process.
The Tao Te Ching is not organized in any clear fashion and is a collection of different sayings on various themes. The leading themes of the Tao Te Ching revolve around the nature of
Tao, how to attain it and De, the inner power of Tao, as well as the
idea of wei wu-wei. Tao is said to be ineffable and accomplishes great things through
small, lowly, effortless, and "feminine" (yin) ways (which are compared
to the behavior of water).
Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE. Other important commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and the Xiang'er commentary.
The Zhuangzi (Book of Master Zhuang, 莊子), named after its supposed author Zhuang Zhou, is a highly influential composite text of multi-vocal writings from various sources and historical periods. The commentator and editor Guo Xiang
(c. CE 300) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist
thought. One traditional view is that a sage called Zhuang Zhou wrote
the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters"), and his students and
related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the outer and
miscellaneous chapters). However, some modern scholars, like Russell
Kirkland, argue that Guo Xiang
is actually the creator of the 33-chapter Zhuangzi text and that there
is no solid historical data for the existence of Zhuang Zhou himself
(other than the sparse and unreliable mentions in Sima Qian). Zhuangzi also introduced seven versions of the meeting between Laozi
and Confucius. Laozi is portrayed as growing old, and his Taoist
teachings confuse his famous interlocutors. Zhuangzi also provides the
only record of Laozi's death.
The Zhuangzi uses anecdotes, parables, and dialogues to
express one of its main themes—avoiding cultural constructs and instead
living in a spontaneous way aligned with the natural world. This way of living might be perceived as "useless" by most people who
follow their own "common sense" and social and political rules, but this
uselessness is actually a wiser alternative, since it is more in accord
with reality.
Chinese classics
Daoist deity Zhenwu with the Eight Trigrams (bagua) from the Yijing and the Northern Dipper, surrounded by Taoist talismans.
Taoism draws on numerous Chinese classics
that are not themselves "Taoist" texts but that remain important
sources for Taoists. Perhaps the most important of these is the ancient
divination text called the Yijing (circa 1150 BCE). The divination method in the Yijing and its associated concepts of yin and yang mapped into 64 "hexagrams"—combinations of the 8 trigrams—has influenced Taoism from its inception until today.
Taoism also drew on other non-Taoist Chinese classic texts including:
The Mozi, which was later adopted as a Taoist text by Taoists (who also saw master Mo – Mozi – as a Taoist immortal and included the Mozi into the Taoist canon).
Guiguzi, which its ideas were integrated into Taoist writings
Heguanzi, a collection also contain Taoist writings
Other important Taoist texts
There are many other important Taoist texts, including:
Liezi, a 4th-century BCE classic Taoist work, which during the Tang was seen as the third great Taoist work alongside the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi.
Neiye,
a 4th-century BCE text that describes self-cultivation, meditation, how
to work with qi', and how to train one's heart-mind (xin) as well as
one's body. The ideas found in this text influenced later Taoist conceptions of internal alchemy.
Wenzi; attributed to a Disciple of Laozi but which likely dates to the early Han dynasty.
Huahujing (Classic on converting the barbarians), an old text (5th–6th century BCE) that claims that Laozi traveled to India and is thus the source of Buddhism.
The Taipingjing (Great Peace Scripture), a key source for Han dynasty Taoism.
Liexian Zhuan (Biographies of Immortals), a Han dynasty text that is the earliest Taoist hagiography of Taoist immortals.
Shenxian Zhuan, a Jin dynasty Taoist hagiography of immortals.
The Baopuzi neipian, attributed to Ge Hong, also known as Baopu (Master who embraces simplicity). This text is a major source for the Shangqing School and its inner-cultivation practices.
The Dadong zhenjing (Perfect Scripture of the Great Cavern) and the Lingshu ziwen (Purple Texts Inscribed by the Spirits), the two most influential Supreme Clarity scriptures.
Cāntóng qì (Kinship of the Three)—one of the earliest sources on Taoist internal alchemy (neidan).
Wupian zhenwen (Perfect Writings in Five Sections), the first of the Lingbao scriptures.
Ling Bao Bi Fai (Complete Methods of the Numinous Treasure), a manual of longevity practices and neidan.
Zuowanglun (坐忘論), a work on zuòwàng ("sitting forgetting") meditation by Sima Chengzhen (647–735 CE), which is influenced by Buddhism.
Huángdì Yǐnfújīng (黃帝陰符經, c. 8th century CE), a text on internal alchemy and astrology.
Huàshū (化書), a 10th-century CE classic on internal alchemy.
Qīngjìng Jīng (清靜經, Classic of Clarity and Stillness), Taoist teachings from the Tao Te Ching with Mahayana Buddhist ideas. The text was adopted as one of the key scriptures of the Quanzhen school.
Yinfu jing (Scripture on the Inner Talisman), a 6th-century CE text that was adopted by Quanzen school as one of their key scriptures.
Wùzhēn piān (悟真篇, Folios on Awakening to Reality) is a work on internal alchemy written by Zhang Boduan (張伯端; 987?–1082), a Song era scholar of the three teachings.
The Lijiao shiwu lun (Fifteen discourses to Establish the Teachings) of Wang Chongyang, the founder of Quanzhen.
Taishang Ganying Pian (Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution, C. 12th century) discusses sin and ethics and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries. It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful
lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened
lives.
The key texts of the Dragon Gate School (Longmen Pai), composed by the founder Wang Changyue (1622?–80), focus on Daoist monasticism: Chuzhen jie (Precepts for Novices), Zhongji jie (Precepts of the Central Pole), Tianxian jie (Precepts for Celestial Immortals), and Longmen xinfa (Central Teachings of Dragon Gate).
The Taoist Canon (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Daozang. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The extant version was published during the Ming dynasty. The Ming Daozang includes almost 1,500 texts. Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves" or "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":
The Zhen ("real" or "truth" 眞) grotto, which includes the Shangqing texts.
The Xuan ("mystery" 玄) grotto, which includes the Lingbao scriptures.
The Shen ("divine" 神) grotto, which includes texts predating the Maoshan (茅山) revelations.
Taoist generally do not consult published versions of the
Daozang, but individually choose or inherit texts included in the
Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher
to student.
The Shangqing School
has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is
believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be
rewarded with immortality.
The taijitu, commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin-yang", and the bagua are important symbols in Taoism because they represent key elements of Taoist cosmology (see above). Many Taoist (as well as non-Taoist) organizations make use of these
symbols, and they may appear on flags and logos, temple floors, or
stitched into clerical robes. What has become the standardised yin-yang
taijitu originated as a Taoist symbol in the 10th century CE during the
early Song dynasty.
The tiger and dragon are more ancient symbols for yin and yang respectively, and these two animals are still widely used in Taoist art. Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature dragons, tigers, and phoenixes
(with the phoenix also standing for yin) made from multicolored ceramic
tiles. In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture lacks universal
features that distinguish it from other structures.
Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically
feature mystical writing, talismans, or diagrams and are intended to
fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits
of the dead, bringing good fortune, increasing life span, etc. Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.
Drawings of the Big Dipper (also called the Bushel) are also important symbols. In the Shang dynasty of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper as a deity, while, in later periods, it came to symbolize Taiji. A related symbol is the flaming pearl, which stands for the pole star and may be seen on such roofs between two dragons as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.
Some Taoists saw the stars as "knots in the 'net of Heaven'" that connected everything in "heaven and earth".
Many Taoists saw the Tao as "the [metaphorical] pearl of the sage" and a "conjunction between yin...[and] yang." Taoists also revered pearls more generally, seeing lung dragon
celestials as emerging from the glint of light off of a pearl that
existed "in the mists of chaos" and trapped in an endless cycle where
they continually retrieve the pearl that makes them out of the mists. Some Internal Alchemy Taoists worshipped mercury as "divine water" and
an embodiment of consciousness that was a "flowing pearl".
In the later Qing dynasty, Taoists and intellectuals who leaned towards Taoism used the wuxing as symbols of leadership and good governance, using old religious texts and various historiographies made in prior dynasties to assign a phase from the five wuxing to different Chinese dynasties.
Symbols that represent longevity and immortality are particularly popular, and these include: cranes, pine trees, and the peaches of immortality (associated with the Queen Mother of the West). Natural symbols are also common, and include gourds, caves, clouds, mountains, and the animals of the Chinese zodiac. Other symbols used by Taoists include: the Yellow River Map, the Luoshu Square, I Ching coins, Taoist talismans (fulu), the Four Symbols (mythical creatures), and various Chinese characters (such as the character for Tao and the shou ('longevity') character).
Taoist priests also wear distinctive robes, such as the Daojiao fushi and Taoist versions of the Daopao, which symbolize their status and school affiliation.
Taoist communities can include a wide variety of people and groups, including daoshi, hermits,
monastics, teachers, householders, ascetics, family lineages,
teacher-disciple lineages, urban associations, temples, and monasteries.
According to Russell Kirkland, throughout most of its history, most Taoist traditions "were founded and maintained by aristocrats or by members of the later well-to-do 'gentry' class". The only real exception is the Celestial Masters
movement, which had a strong basis in the lower classes (though even
this movement had a hereditary leadership made up of figures of the
Chang clan for generations).
Adherents
The
number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of
factors, including defining Taoism. According to a survey of religion in China in 2010, the number of people practicing some form of Chinese folk religion is near to 950 million, which is 70% of Chinese. Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an affiliation with Taoist practices. 12 million people stated that they were "Taoists", a term traditionally
used exclusively for initiates, priests, and experts of Taoist rituals
and methods.
Since the creation of the People's Republic of China, the
government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified
settings. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association was formed to administer the activities of all registered Taoist orders, and received official approval in 1957.
It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao Zedong, but was reestablished in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the Baiyunguan, or White Cloud Temple of Beijing, belonging to the Longmen branch of the Quanzhen tradition. Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools, and clergy ordination has been resumed.
Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese
following until modern times. In Taiwan, 7.5 million people, 33% of the
population, identify themselves as Taoists. Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of Hong Kong and Singapore show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists.
Followers of Daoism are present in Chinese émigré communities
outside Asia. It has attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For
example, in Brazil there are Daoist temples in São Paulo
and Rio de Janeiro that are affiliated with the Taoist Society of
China. Membership of these temples is entirely of non-Chinese ancestry.
Carved Jade boulder with a Taoist paradise.A 16th century painting of the immortal Liezi by Zhang Lu (1464–1538).
Throughout Chinese history, there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoism. Notable painters influenced by Taoism include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang, Mi Fu, Muqi Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, Tang Mi, and Wang Zengzu. Taoist arts and belles-lettres
represents the different regions, dialects, and time spans that are
commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by
the aristocracy; however, scholars masters and adepts also directly
engaged in the art themselves.
Political aspects
Taoism never had a unified political theory. While Huang–Lao positions justified a strong emperor as the legitimate ruler, the Taoist "primitivists" (of chapters 8–11 of the Zhuangzi) argued for a kind of anarchism. A more moderate position is presented in the Inner Chapters of the Zhuangzi in which the political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or perspectivism is preferred.
The syncretist position found in texts like the Huainanzi and some of the Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi blend Taoist positions with Confucian views.
Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism. The philosophical terms Tao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism. Zhuangzi explicitly criticized Confucian and Mohist tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on rituals, hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors "naturalness", spontaneity, and individualism instead.
The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Taoism. Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary. Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism, like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng, knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.
Taoism especially shaped the development of Chan Buddhism, introducing elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment". Zhuangzi's statements that the Tao was omnipresent and that creation escorts animals and humans to death influenced Chinese Buddhist practitioners and scholars, especially Chan Buddhists. On the other hand, Taoism also incorporated Buddhist elements during
the Tang dynasty. Examples of such influence include monasteries,
vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and
collecting scripture in tripartite organization in certain sects.
Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism,Hinduism and Buddhism deeply influenced one another. For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and the I Ching), was a Confucian. The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a humanist
philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time,
most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions
simultaneously. This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school.
Comparisons between Taoism and Epicureanism have focused on the absence of a creator or gods controlling the forces of nature in both. Lucretius' poem De rerum natura describes a naturalist cosmology where there are only atoms and void (a primal duality which mirrors yin-yang
in its dance of assertion/yielding), and where nature takes its course
with no gods or masters. Other parallels include the similarities
between Daoist wu wei (effortless action) and Epicurean lathe biosas (live in obscurity), focus on naturalness (ziran) as opposed to conventional virtues, and the prominence of the Epicurus-like Chinese sage Yang Chu in the foundational Taoist writings.
Some authors have undertaken comparative studies of Taoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for students of the history of religion such as J. J. M. de Groot, among others. A comparison of the teachings of Laozi and Jesus of Nazareth has been made by several authors, such as Martin Aronson, and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that there are parallels that should not be ignored. In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto, the main difference is that Christianity preaches a personal God while Daoism does not. Yet, a number of authors, including Lin Yutang, have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of the religions are similar. In neighboring Vietnam,
Taoist values have been shown to adapt to social norms and formed
emerging sociocultural beliefs together with Confucianism. It also
imitates some Hinduism concept.
Today, there are various living Taoist traditions, the largest and most influential are the Quanzhen School, particularly the Dragon Gate sect, and Zhengyi Dao. Quanzhen lineages are mainly monastic and ascetic tradition, based on
meditation and internal cultivation, while the Orthodox Unity tradition
is based on a lay priests (daoshi) who are expected to master an
extensive ritual repertoire. These two traditions developed during the Song dynasty and grew to
become recognized by the imperial government during late imperial China.
"Some sects are concerned with the ritual control of spirits and
the cosmic currents of yin and yang; others specialize in inner
disciplines of meditation or breath control and mind-body exercise
regimes."
There are also various smaller Taoist groups and traditions of practice. Eva Wong divides the major "systems" of Taoism into the following
categories: Magical Taoism, Divinational Taoism, Ceremonial Taoism,
Internal-Alchemical Taoism and Action and Karma Taoism.
Magical Taoism
Magical Taoism is one of the oldest systems of Taoism and its practices are similar to the shamans and sorcerers of ancient China. Magical Taoism believes there are various natural powers, deities and
spirits (benevolent and malevolent) in the universe that can be made use
of by specialists who know the right methods. Their magic can include rainmaking, protection, exorcism, healing, traveling to the underworld to help the dead and mediumship.
Protection magic can include the use of amulets and fulu, as well as specific rites. Protection rites often include ritual petitions to the celestial deities of the northern bushel. Divination is also a widespread practice. A commonly used method of divination in magical Taoism is sandwriting (planchette writing).
According to Eva Wong, the main sects of magical Taoism today are
the Maoshan sect (a very secretive sect, not to be confused with Shangqing), the Celestial Masters and the Kun-Lun sect (which is strongly influenced by Tibetan magic and make use of Taoist and Buddhist deities).
Divinational Taoism focuses on various divination
techniques to help one predict the future and live accordingly. This
practice can also carry deeper spiritual significance, since it can help
one appreciate the flux of the Tao. This form of Taoism owes much to the ancient fang-shih, the Yin and yang school of thought and often relies on the classic Chinese divination text, the Yijing.
This tradition also relies on the cosmology of Wuji and Taiji, along with the teachings of yin and yang, the five elements and the Chinese calendar. There many forms of Daoist divination, they include: celestial divination (which include various systems of Chinese astrology, like Tzu-wei tu-su), terrestrial divination (feng shui), the casting of incense sticks with hexagrams on them and the interpretation of omens.
Contemporary divinational Taoism is practiced in temples and
monasteries by various individuals and may not be sect specific (it is
even practiced by non-daoists). This Taoist practice can be found in the Mao-shan sorcerers, the Celestial Masters sect and the Dragon Gate Taoism and Wudang Mountains sects. There are also many lay practitioners that are not affiliated with any
specific sect. These lay Taoist practitioners are called "kui-shih".
Ceremonial Taoism
Interior of the Xiaomen Zhengyi Temple
Ceremonial Taoism focuses on ritual
and devotion towards various celestial deities and spirits. The basic
belief of ceremonial Taoism is that through various rites, human beings
can honor the deities and these deities may then grant them with power,
protection and blessings. Rituals and festivals can include chanting, offerings, and the reading of scripture. These rites are mostly performed by ritual masters who have trained
extensively for this role and who may, through their mastery of ritual,
intercede on behalf of laypersons.
There are various kinds of festivals in Ceremonial Taoism,
including "Great Services" (chai-chiao) and Ritual Gatherings (fa-hui)
that can last for days and can focus on repentance, rainmaking, disaster
aversion or petitioning. There are feast days which honor specific deities. 164 Funerals and birthday blessings are a common service.
There is a complex and large pantheon in Taoism. It includes
various deities classified into various ranks within an administrative
structure, at the top of which are the celestial lords (t'ien-tsun).
These include judges, heralds, officers, generals, clerks and
messengers.
The main division is between "earlier heaven" deities, who have existed
since the beginning of time and "later heaven" deities, mortals who
later became immortal.
The largest and most prominent sect of Ceremonial Taoism is the Way of the Celestial Masters, also known as Zhengyi Dao. The patriarch of this sect resides in Taiwan and this tradition
performs numerous ceremonies which are often sponsored by the Taiwanese
government. The training for Zhengyi priesthood, who are not celibate, focuses
mainly on learning extensive rituals and liturgy, so that they can
perform them flawlessly.
Ceremonies are practiced, to a lesser extent, in the Longmen (Dragon Gate) sect of the Quanzhen School and in the Xiantiandao sect, though these schools understand ritual as mainly a way to develop internal alchemy. During the Song dynasty, a popular form of ceremonial Taoism was the
Thunder Rites (leifa), which focused on exorcism and protection.
Internal Alchemy Taoism or Transformation Taoism focuses on internal
transformation through the use of various self-cultivation techniques
like qigong, neidan (internal alchemy), Yangsheng and so forth.
The basic worldview of this Taoist tradition is that all beings are born with certain forms of energy (mainly the three treasures of jing, qi and shen), which become dissipated, weak and lost as we age. To prevent this and to increase our inner vital energies, one must
practice various methods of "internal alchemy" (neidan) to harmonize the
internal energy in one's body and refine the "golden elixir" (jindan)
inside the body. These meditative inner alchemical practices are
believed to lead to greater longevity and even immortality (union with
the Tao at death).
Another worldview is that beings must "harmonize yin and yang forces internally to achieve immortality." A term used by some Taoists that sums up traditions that do not use these practices is "singular path". Most traditions follow the "singular path". These include the Longmen (Dragon Gate) sect of the Quanzhen School, the Xiantiandao (Earlier Heaven Way) sect, the Wuliupai sect, and the Wudang quan sect.
The Quanzhen School was founded by Wang Chongyang (1112–1170), a hermit in the Zhongnan mountains who was said in legends to have met and learned secret methods from two immortals: Lu Dongbin and Zhongli Quan. He then moved to Shandong and preached his teachings, founding various religious communities. His school popularized Internal Alchemy Taoism and the usage of the term.
One of his "seven perfected" disciples, Qiu Chuji (1148–1227), founded the Dragon Gate lineage. Chuji was also made the leader of all religions in China by Genghis Khan, making his tradition the most powerful in all of China, and contributing to Longmen's lasting influence. Another important Quanzhen lineage is the Qingjing pai, founded by the nun Sun Bu'er (1119–1182), the only female member of the "seven perfected". Today, Quanzhen is mainly made up of celibate monastics who practice vegetarianism, sobriety, internal alchemy and recite daily liturgies. The largest lineage is Dragon Gate Taoism.
Much like Taoists who see writings made by influential members of
their faith as having a divine nature, some Taoists view
self-cultivation as a way for emotions and self to partake in divinity, and a smaller subset of these view some mythologicalbeings such as xian as being divine. Xian were viewed in many lights and as completely different types of
beings over different times and in different places. They were sometimes
viewed as deities,
parts of the celestial hierarchy, metaphorical ideals that people
should strive to be like, reclusive Taoist masters who know how to
control and harness spiritual energies or shamans.
Hygiene Taoism
Hygiene Taoism is a Taoist tradition meant to increase life and "physical and mental harmony". Some Taoists from the "Hygiene School" believed that they could survive
only on their own breath and saliva to purify their bodies.
Much of Taoism in general is about cleanliness in some way and involves free thinking, as well as rejecting the gratification of the senses, in order to
purify oneself to make the mind like "the sky", "sun", and nature in
general.
Karmic Taoism
Karmic
Taoism, or "Action and Karma Taoism", according to Wong, focuses on
ethics and is grounded in the idea that the sacred celestial powers aid
and reward those who do good and punish those who do evil. This tradition can be traced back to Song dynasty Taoist Li Ying-chang
and his Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao (T'ai-shang kan-ying
p'ien). Li sparked a popular movement which focused on the everyday life of
ordinary persons instead of on temples, monasteries and sages. At the core of this tradition is living in harmony with the Tao and
with the Way of Heaven, which means acting with benevolence, kindness
and compassion. Doing evil is considered a transgression against the way and this evil
will be punished by deities, celestial ministers and judges.
These ideas are quite ancient, the Taiping Jing (Scripture of
Great Peace) states: "accumulate good deeds, and prosperity will come to
you from the Tao". Besides wealth and prosperity, Karmic Taoism also believes that doing good increases longevity, while doing evil decreases it. Another common idea in this group of Taoist traditions is that there
deities, like the Kitchen Lord, who monitor our actions and report to
Heaven and the Jade Emperor (who tallies them and metes out punishment
and reward).
Karmic Taoism is a nonsectarian tradition adopted by many Taoist
sects. The Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao is studied in
Quanzhen Taoism, Hsien-t'ien Tao and in the Wu-Liu sect. All major schools of Taoism view ethics as the foundation for spirituality. Furthermore, there are those who are not affiliated with a Taoist sect who may still follow Karmic Taoism in daily life.
Other divisions of Taoism
Taoism has traditionally been divided into religious Taoism and philosophical Taoism (Dàojiào and Dàojiā), respectively.
Religious Taoism
Some Taoist sects are expressly religious in the Western sense. "Lord Heaven" and "Jade Emperor" were terms for a Taoist supreme deity also used in Confucianism and Chinese folk religion, and some conceptions of this deity thought of the two names as synonymous.
The Taoist Jade Emperor in the first millennium AD was a primary deity among polytheists who had a heaven that contained numerous ministries and officials and which was "modelled on...the earthly emperor['s rule]".
Polytheist Taoists venerated one or more of these kinds of spiritual entities: "deified heroes...forces of nature" and "nature spirits", xian, spirits, gods, devas and other celestial beings from Chinese Buddhism, Indian Buddhism, and Chinese folk religion,various kinds of beings occupying heaven, members of the celestial bureaucracy, ghosts, "mythical emperors", Laozi, a trinity of high gods that varied in how it was thought of, and the Three Pure Ones. Some Taoists chose not to worship beings they saw as gods, and only worshipped guardian spirits or "celestials", such as devas, various kinds of beings occupying heaven, members of the celestial bureaucracy, and xian. In some Taoist sects, the Tao was the primary thing that was venerated
and beings that would be gods in other sects were merely treated as
supernatural beings similar to gods who could only act in accordance
with the Tao's wishes.
When the Tao Te Ching was written, many Taoists told stories and legends about heroes "whose bodies had been rendered invulnerable". This could be achieved by making contact with "dragon's blood" or a
river in the afterlife, or drinking the "waters of the 'Well of Life'
and eating the 'fungus of immortality'".
Ordinary Chinese in the early Tang dynasty often worshipped local gods, Buddhist gods and devas, and Taoist gods simultaneously, and this population included a significant amount of the Taoists who have ever worshipped devas throughout history.
The trinity is thought by scholars to have evolved into the Three Pure Ones. It was thought of in the early Han dynasty as the three gods Tianyi, Diyi, and "the Taiyi". These beings were varyingly interpreted as relatively simple heavenly, earthly, and all-purpose gods respectively, the "supreme deity" (an intangible god that represented the mind of the
Tao), "his disciple", the Lord Tao (a more physical god representing
the Tao), and Lord Lao (Laozi "deified"), or an emanation of the Tao that was ultimately singular in nature.
An unrelated trinity was the Three Great Emperor-Officials, three of the highest shen in some branches of religious Taoism thought to be able to pardon sins.
The Tao was not worshipped alone, although gods do exist that anthropomorphize it in various ways. Laozi
was sometimes thought to be a god or "the image of the Tao".
"Some Taoist adepts" worshipped thousands of gods that were thought to exist in the body.
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