Friday, August 22, 2014

^ English is the official language of at least 28 states; some sources give higher figures, based on differing definitions of "official".^[8] English and Hawaiian are both official languages in the state of Hawaii. French is a de facto language in the states of Maine and Louisiana, while New Mexico state law grants Spanish a special status.^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12] Cherokee is an official language in the Cherokee Nation tribal jurisdiction area and in the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians based in east and northeast Oklahoma.^[13]^[14]^[15]

^b.

^ English is the de facto language of American government and the sole language spoken at home by 80 percent of Americans aged five and older. 28 states and five territories have made English an official language. Other official languages include Hawaiian, Samoan, Chamorro, Carolinian, and Spanish.

^c.

^ Whether the United States or China is larger has been disputed. The figure given is from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency's The World Factbook. Other sources give smaller figures. All authoritative calculations of the country's size include only the 50 states and the District of Columbia, not the territories.

^d.

^ See Time in the United States for details about laws governing time zones in the United States.

^e.

^ Except U.S. Virgin Islands.

The United States of America (USA or U.S.A.), commonly referred to as the United States (US or U.S.), America, and sometimes the States, is a federal republic^[16]^[17] consisting of 50 states and a federal district. The 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C., are in central North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is the northwestern part of North America and the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also has five populated and nine unpopulated territories in the Pacific and the Caribbean. At 3.71 million square miles (9.62 million km²) and with around 318 million people, the United States is the world's 3rd or 4th-largest country by total area and third-largest by population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries.^[18] The geography and climate of the United States is also extremely diverse, and it is home to a wide variety of wildlife.

Paleo-Indians migrated from Eurasia to what is now the U.S. mainland around 15,000 years ago,^[19] with European colonization beginning in the 16th century. The United States emerged from 13 British colonies located along the Atlantic seaboard. Disputes between Great Britain and these colonies led to the American Revolution. On July 4, 1776, as the colonies were fighting Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War, delegates from the 13 colonies unanimously issued the Declaration of Independence. The war ended in 1783 with the recognition of independence of the United States from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and was the first successful war of independence against a European colonial empire.^[20]^[21] The current Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787. The first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and guarantee many fundamental civil rights and freedoms.

Driven by the doctrine of manifest destiny, the United States embarked on a vigorous expansion across North America throughout the 19th century.^[22] This involved displacing native tribes, acquiring new territories, and gradually admitting new states.^[22] The American Civil War ended legal slavery in the country.^[23] By the end of the 19th century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean,^[24] and its economy was the world's largest.^[25] The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the country's status as a global military power. The United States emerged from World War II as a global superpower, the first country with nuclear weapons, and a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union left the United States as the sole superpower.

The United States is a developed country and has the world's largest national economy, with an
estimated GDP in 2013 of $16.8 trillion—23% of global nominal GDP and 19% at purchasing-power parity.^[5]^[26] The economy is fueled by an abundance of natural resources and high worker productivity,^[27] with per capita GDP being the world's sixth-highest in 2010.^[5] While the U.S. economy is considered post-industrial, it continues to be one of the world's largest manufacturers.^[28] The U.S. has the highest mean and 4th highest median household income in the OECD as well as the highest gross average wage,^[29]^[30]^[31] though it has the 4th most unequal income distribution,^[32]^[33] with roughly 15% of the population living in poverty as defined by the U.S. Census.^[34] The country accounts for 37% of global military spending,^[35] being the world's foremost economic and military power, a prominent political and cultural force, and a leader in scientific research and technological
innovation.^[36]^[37]^[38]^[39]^[40]

Etymology

In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a world map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere "America" after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci (Latin: Americus Vespucius).^[41] The first documentary evidence of the phrase "United States of America" is from a letter dated January 2, 1776, written by Stephen Moylan, Esq., George Washington's aide-de-camp and Muster-Master General of the Continental Army. Addressed to Lt. Col. Joseph Reed, Moylan expressed his wish to carry the "full and ample powers of the United States of America" to Spain to assist in the revolutionary war effort.^[42]
The first publicly published evidence of the phrase "United States of America" was in an anonymously written essay in The Virginia Gazette newspaper in Williamsburg, Virginia, on April 6, 1776.^[43]^[44] In June 1776, Thomas Jefferson included the phrase "UNITED STATES OF AMERICA" in all capitalized letters in the headline of his "original Rough draught" of the Declaration of Independence.^[45]^[46] In the final Fourth of July version of the Declaration, the pertinent section of the title was changed to read, "The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America".^[47] In 1777 the Articles of Confederation announced, "The Stile of this Confederacy shall be 'The United States of America'".^[48]

The short form "United States" is also standard. Other common forms include the "U.S.", the "U.S.A.", and "America". Colloquial names include the "U.S. of A." and, internationally, the "States". "Columbia", a name popular in poetry and songs of the late 1700s,^[49] derives its origin from Christopher Columbus; it appears in the name "District of Columbia". In non-English languages, the name is frequently the translation of either the "United States" or "United States of America", and colloquially as "America". In addition, an abbreviation (e.g. USA) is sometimes used.^[50]

The phrase "United States" was originally treated as plural, a description of a collection of independent states—e.g., "the United States are"—including in the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1865. It became common to treat it as singular, a single unit—e.g., "the United States is"—after the end of the Civil War. The singular form is now standard; the plural form is retained in the idiom "these United States".^[51] The difference has been described as more significant than one of usage, but reflecting the difference between a collection of states and a unit.^[52]

The standard way to refer to a citizen of the United States is as an "American". "United States", "American" and "U.S." are used to refer to the country adjectivally ("American values", "U.S. forces"). "American" is rarely used in English to refer to subjects not connected with the United States.^[53]

History

Native American and European contact

Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764

The first North American settlers migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge approximately 15,000 or more years ago.^[19]^[54]^[55] Some, such as the pre-Columbian Mississippian culture, developed advanced agriculture, grand architecture, and state-level societies. After European explorers and traders made the first contacts, the native population declined due to various reasons, including diseases such as smallpox and measles,^[56]^[57] intermarriage,^[58] and violence.^[59]^[60]^[61]
In the early days of colonization many settlers were subject to shortages of food, disease and attacks from Native Americans. Native Americans were also often at war with neighboring tribes and allied with Europeans in their colonial wars.^[62] At the same time however many natives and settlers came to depend on each other. Settlers traded for food and animal pelts, natives for guns, ammunition and other European wares.^[63] Natives taught many settlers where, when and how to cultivate corn, beans and squash in the frontier. European missionaries and others felt it was important to "civilize" the Indians and urged them to concentrate on farming and ranching without depending on hunting and gathering.^[64]^[65]

Settlements

After Columbus' first voyage to the New World in 1492 other explorers and settlement followed into the Floridas and the American Southwest.^[66]^[67] There were also some French attempts to colonize the east coast, and later more successful settlements along the Mississippi River. Successful English settlement on the eastern coast of North America began with the Virginia Colony in 1607 at Jamestown and the Pilgrims' Plymouth Colony in 1620. Early experiments in communal living failed until the introduction of private farm holdings.^[68] Many settlers were dissenting Christian groups who came seeking religious freedom. The continent's first elected legislative assembly, Virginia's House of Burgesses created in 1619, and the Mayflower Compact, signed by the Pilgrims before disembarking, established precedents for the pattern of representative self-government and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies.^[69]^[70]

The signing of the Mayflower Compact, 1620

Most settlers in every colony were small farmers, but other industries developed. Cash crops included tobacco, rice and wheat. Extraction industries grew up in furs, fishing and lumber. Manufacturers produced rum and ships, and by the late colonial period Americans were producing one-seventh of the world's iron supply.^[71] Cities eventually dotted the coast to support local economies and serve as trade hubs. English colonists were supplemented by waves of Scotch-Irish and other groups. As coastal land grew more expensive freed indentured servants pushed further west.^[72] Slave cultivation of cash crops began with the Spanish in the 1500s, and was adopted by the English, but life expectancy was much higher in North America because of less disease and better food and treatment, so the numbers of slaves grew rapidly.^[73]^[74]^[75] Colonial society was largely divided over the religious and moral implications of slavery and colonies passed acts for and against the practice.^[76]^[77] But by the turn of the 18th century, African slaves were replacing indentured servants for cash crop labor, especially in southern regions.^[78]

With the colonization of Georgia in 1732, the 13 colonies that would become the United States of America were established.^[79] All had local governments with elections open to most free men, with a growing devotion to the ancient rights of Englishmen and a sense of self-government stimulating support for republicanism.^[80] With extremely high birth rates, low death rates, and steady settlement, the colonial population grew rapidly. Relatively small Native American populations were eclipsed.^[81] The Christian revivalist movement of the 1730s and 1740s known as the Great Awakening fueled interest in both religion and religious liberty.

In the French and Indian War, British forces seized Canada from the French, but the francophone population remained politically isolated from the southern colonies. Excluding the Native Americans, who were being conquered and displaced, those 13 colonies had a population of over 2.1 million in 1770, about one-third that of Britain. Despite continuing new arrivals, the rate of natural increase was such that by the 1770s only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas.^[82] The colonies' distance from Britain had allowed the development of self-government, but their success motivated monarchs to periodically seek to reassert Royal authority.

Independence and expansion

The Declaration of Independence: the Committee of Five presenting their draft to the Second Continental Congress in 1776

The American Revolutionary War was the first successful colonial war of independence against a European power. Americans had developed an ideology of "republicanism" that held government rested on the will of the people as expressed in their local legislatures. They demanded their rights as Englishmen, “no taxation without representation”. The British insisted on administering the empire through Parliament, and the conflict escalated into war.^[83] Following the passage of the Lee Resolution, on July 2, 1776, which was the actual vote for independence, the Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, on July 4, which proclaimed, in a long preamble, that humanity is created equal in their unalienable rights and that those rights were not being protected by Great Britain, and finally declared, in the words of the resolution, that the 13 colonies were independent states and had no allegiance to the British crown in the United States. The latter date, July 4, 1776, is now celebrated annually as America's Independence Day. In 1777, the Articles of Confederation established a weak government that operated until 1789.^[84]

Britain recognized the independence of the United States following their defeat at Yorktown.^[85] In the peace treaty of 1783, American sovereignty was recognized from the Atlantic coast west to the Mississippi River. Nationalists led the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 in writing the United States Constitution, and it was ratified in state conventions in 1788. The federal government was reorganized into three branches for their checks and balances in 1789. George Washington, who had led the revolutionary army to victory, was the first president elected under the new constitution. The Bill of Rights, forbidding federal restriction of personal freedoms and guaranteeing a range of legal protections, was adopted in 1791.^[86]

Although the federal government criminalized the international slave trade in 1808, after 1820 cultivation of the highly profitable cotton crop exploded in the Deep South, and along with it the slave population.^[87]^[88]^[89] The Second Great Awakening, beginning about 1800, converted millions to evangelical Protestantism. In the North it energized multiple social reform movements, including abolitionism,^[90] in the South, Methodists and Baptists proselytized among slave populations.^[91]

Americans' eagerness to expand westward prompted a long series of Indian Wars.^[92] The Louisiana Purchase of French-claimed territory in 1803 almost doubled the nation's size.^[93] The War of 1812, declared against Britain over various grievances and fought to a draw, strengthened U.S. nationalism.^[94] A series of U.S. military incursions into Florida led Spain to cede it and other Gulf Coast territory in 1819.^[95] Expansion was aided by steam power, when steamboats began traveling along America's large water systems, which were connected by new canals, such as the Erie and the I&M; then, even faster railroads began their stretch across the nation's land.^[96]

U.S. territorial acquisitions–portions of each territory were granted statehood since the 18th century.

From 1820 to 1850, Jacksonian democracy began a set of reforms which included wider male suffrage, and it led to the rise of the Second Party System of Democrats and Whigs as the dominant parties from 1828 to 1854. The Trail of Tears in the 1830s exemplified the Indian removal policy that moved Indians into the west to their own reservations. The U.S. annexed the Republic of Texas in 1845 during a period of expansionist Manifest Destiny.^[97] The 1846 Oregon Treaty with Britain led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest.^[98] Victory in the Mexican-American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California and much of the present-day American Southwest.^[99]

The California Gold Rush of 1848–49 spurred western migration and the creation of additional western states.^[100] After the American Civil War, new transcontinental railways made relocation easier for settlers, expanded internal trade and increased conflicts with Native Americans.^[101] Over a half-century, the loss of the buffalo was an existential blow to many Plains Indians cultures.^[102] In 1869, a new Peace Policy sought to protect Native-Americans from abuses, avoid further warfare, and secure their eventual U.S. citizenship.^[103]

Civil War and Reconstruction Era

Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania during the Civil War

From the beginning of the United States, inherent divisions over slavery between the North and the South in American society ultimately led to the American Civil War.^[104] Initially, states entering the Union alternated between slave and free states, keeping a sectional balance in the Senate, while free states outstripped slave states in population and in the House of Representatives. But with additional western territory and more free-soil states, tensions between slave and free states mounted with arguments over federalism and disposition of the territories, whether and how to expand or restrict slavery.^[105]

Following the 1860 election of Abraham Lincoln, the first president from the largely anti-slavery Republican Party, conventions in thirteen states ultimately declared secession and formed the Confederate States of America, while the U.S. federal government maintained secession was illegal.^[105] The ensuing war was at first for Union, then after 1863 as casualties mounted and Lincoln delivered his Emancipation Proclamation, a second war aim became abolition of slavery. The war remains the deadliest military conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of approximately 618,000 soldiers as well as many civilians.^[106]

Following the Union victory in 1865, three amendments to the U.S. Constitution prohibited slavery, made the nearly four million African Americans who had been slaves^[107] U.S. citizens, and promised them voting rights. The war and its resolution led to a substantial increase in federal power^[108] aimed at reintegrating and rebuilding the Southern states while ensuring the rights of the newly freed slaves.^[109] But following the Reconstruction Era, throughout the South Jim Crow laws soon effectively disenfranchised most blacks and some poor whites. Over the subsequent decades, in both the north and south blacks and some whites faced systemic discrimination, including racial segregation and occasional vigilante violence, sparking national movements against these abuses.^[109]

Industrialization

Ellis Island, in New York City, was a major gateway for the massive influx of immigration during the beginning of industrialization.

In the North, urbanization and an unprecedented influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe supplied a surplus of labor for the country's industrialization and transformed its culture.^[110] National infrastructure including telegraph and transcontinental railroads spurred economic growth and greater settlement and development of the American Old West. The later invention of electric lights and telephones would also impact communication and urban life.^[111] The end of the Indian Wars further expanded acreage under mechanical cultivation, increasing surpluses for international markets. Mainland expansion was completed by the Alaska Purchase from Russia in 1867. In 1898 the U.S. entered the world stage with important sugar production and strategic facilities acquired in Hawaii. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines were ceded by Spain in the same year, following the Spanish American War.

Rapid economic development at the end of the 19th century produced many prominent industrialists, and the U.S. economy became the world's largest. Dramatic changes were accompanied by social unrest and the rise of populist, socialist, and anarchist movements.^[112] This period eventually ended with the beginning of the Progressive Era, which saw significant reforms in many societal areas, including women's suffrage, alcohol prohibition, regulation of consumer goods, greater antitrust measures to ensure competition and attention to worker conditions.

World War I, Great Depression, and World War II

U.S. troops approaching Omaha Beach during World War II

The United States remained neutral at the outbreak of World War I in 1914, though by 1917, it joined the Allies, helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers. President Woodrow Wilson took a leading diplomatic role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and advocated strongly for the U.S. to join the League of Nations. However, the Senate refused to approve this, and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles that established the League of Nations.^[113]

In 1920, the women's rights movement won passage of a constitutional amendment granting women's suffrage.^[114] The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of radio for mass communication and the invention of early television.^[115] The prosperity of the Roaring Twenties ended with the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression. After his election as president in 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt responded with the New Deal, which included the establishment of the Social Security system.^[116] The Dust Bowl of the mid-1930s impoverished many farming communities and spurred a new wave of western migration.

The United States was at first effectively neutral during World War II's early stages but began supplying material to the Allies in March 1941 through the Lend-Lease program. On December 7, 1941, the Empire of Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, prompting the United States to join the Allies against the Axis powers.^[117] Though the nation lost more than 400,000 soldiers,^[118] it emerged relatively undamaged from the war with even greater economic and military influence.^[119] Allied conferences at Bretton Woods and Yalta outlined a new system of international organizations that placed the United States and Soviet Union at the center of world affairs. As an Allied victory was won in Europe, a 1945 international conference held in San Francisco produced the United Nations Charter, which became active after the war.^[120] The United States developed the first nuclear weapons and used them on Japan; the Japanese surrendered on September 2, ending World War II.^[121]

Cold War and Civil Rights era

US President Ronald Reagan (left) and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, meeting in Geneva in 1985

After World War II the United States and the Soviet Union jockeyed for power during what is known as the Cold War, driven by an ideological divide between capitalism and communism. They dominated the military affairs of Europe, with the U.S. and its NATO allies on one side and the USSR and its Warsaw Pact allies on the other. The U.S. developed a policy of "containment" toward Soviet bloc expansion. While they engaged in proxy wars and developed powerful nuclear arsenals, the two countries avoided direct military conflict. The U.S. often opposed Third World left-wing movements that it viewed as Soviet-sponsored. American troops fought Communist Chinese and North Korean forces in the Korean War of 1950–53. The Soviet Union's 1957 launch of the first artificial satellite and its 1961 launch of the first manned spaceflight initiated a "Space Race" in which the United States became the first to land a man on the moon in 1969.^[122] A proxy war was expanded in Southeast Asia with the Vietnam War.

At home, the U.S. experienced sustained economic expansion and a rapid growth of its population and middle class. Construction of an interstate highway system transformed the nation’s infrastructure over the following decades. Millions moved from farms and inner cities to large suburban housing developments.^[123]^[124] A growing Civil Rights movement used nonviolence to confront segregation and discrimination, with Martin Luther King Jr. becoming a prominent leader and figurehead. A combination of court decisions and legislation, culminating in the Civil Rights Act of 1964, sought to end racial discrimination.^[125]^[126]^[127] Meanwhile, a counterculture movement grew which was fueled by opposition to the Vietnam war, black nationalism, and the sexual revolution. The launch of a "War on Poverty" expanded entitlement and welfare spending.^[128]

The 1970s and early 1980s saw the onset of stagflation. After his election in 1980, President Ronald Reagan responded to economic stagnation with free-market oriented reforms. Following the collapse of détente, he abandoned "containment" and initiated the more aggressive "rollback" strategy towards the USSR.^[129]^[130]^[131]^[132]^[133] After a surge in female labor participation over the previous decade, by 1985 a majority of women age 16 and over were employed.^[134] The late 1980s brought a "thaw" in relations with the USSR, and its collapse in 1991 finally ended the Cold War.^[135]^[136]^[137]^[138]

Contemporary history

The former World Trade Center in Lower Manhattan on 9/11

One World Trade Center, built in its place

After the Cold War, the 1990s saw the longest economic expansion in modern U.S. history, ending in 2001.^[139] Originating in U.S. defense networks, the Internet spread to international academic networks, and then to the public in the 1990s, greatly impacting the global economy, society, and culture.^[140] On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda terrorists struck the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., killing nearly 3,000 people.^[141] In response the United States launched the War on Terror, which includes the ongoing war in Afghanistan and the 2003–11 Iraq War.^[142]^[143] Barack Obama, the first African-American president, was elected in 2008 amid the Great Recession.^[144]

Geography, climate, and environment

A composite satellite image of the contiguous United States and surrounding areas

The land area of the contiguous United States is 2,959,064 square miles (7,663,941 km²). Alaska, separated from the contiguous United States by Canada, is the largest state at 663,268 square miles (1,717,856 km²). Hawaii, occupying an archipelago in the central Pacific, southwest of North America, is 10,931 square miles (28,311 km²) in area.^[145]

The United States is the world's third or fourth largest nation by total area (land and water), ranking behind Russia and Canada and just above or below China. The ranking varies depending on how two territories disputed by China and India are counted and how the total size of the United States is measured: calculations range from 3,676,486 square miles (9,522,055 km²)^[146] to 3,717,813 square miles (9,629,091 km²)^[147] to 3,794,101 square miles (9,826,676 km²).^[148] Measured by only land area, the United States is third in size behind Russia and China, just ahead of Canada.^[149]

The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way further inland to deciduous forests and the rolling hills of the Piedmont. The Appalachian Mountains divide the eastern seaboard from the Great Lakes and the grasslands of the Midwest. The Mississippi–Missouri River, the world's fourth longest river system, runs mainly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat, fertile prairie of the Great Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast.

The Rocky Mountains, at the western edge of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, reaching altitudes higher than 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in Colorado. Farther west are the rocky Great Basin and deserts such as the Chihuahua and Mojave. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast, both ranges reaching altitudes higher than 14,000 feet (4,300 m). The lowest and highest points in the continental United States are in the state of California, and only about 80 miles (130 km) apart. At 20,320 feet (6,194 m), Alaska's Mount McKinley is the tallest peak in the country and in North America. Active volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands, and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in the Rockies is the continent's largest volcanic feature.^[150]

The United States, with its large size and geographic variety, includes most climate types. To the east of the 100th meridian, the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south. The southern tip of Florida is tropical, as is Hawaii. The Great Plains west of the 100th meridian are semi-arid. Much of the Western mountains are alpine. The climate is arid in the Great Basin, desert in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California, and oceanic in coastal Oregon and Washington and southern Alaska. Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar. Extreme weather is not uncommon—the states bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of the world's tornadoes occur within the country, mainly in the Midwest's Tornado Alley.^[151]

The bald eagle has been the national bird of the United States since 1782.

The U.S. ecology is considered "megadiverse": about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and over 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland.^[152] The United States is home to more than 400 mammal, 750 bird, and 500 reptile and amphibian species.^[153] About 91,000 insect species have been described.^[154] The bald eagle is both the national bird and national animal of the United States, and is an enduring symbol of the country itself.^[155]

There are 58 national parks and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas.^[156] Altogether, the government owns 28.8% of the country's land area.^[157] Most of this is protected, though some is leased for oil and gas drilling, mining, logging, or cattle ranching; 2.4% is used for military purposes.^[157]^[158]^[159]

Environmental issues have been on the national agenda since 1970. Environmental controversies include debates on oil and nuclear energy, dealing with air and water pollution, the economic costs of protecting wildlife, logging and deforestation,^[160]^[161] and international responses to global warming.^[162]^[163] Many federal and state agencies are involved. The most prominent is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), created by presidential order in 1970.^[164] The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the Wilderness Act.^[165] The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is intended to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats, which are monitored by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.

Demographics

Population

Largest ancestry groups by county, 2000

The Statue of Liberty in New York City is a symbol of both the U.S. and the ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity.^[167]

The U.S. Census Bureau estimates the country's population now to be 318,605,000,^[4] including an approximate 11.2 million illegal immigrants.^[168] The U.S. population almost quadrupled during the 20th century, from about 76 million in 1900.^[169] The third most populous nation in the world, after China and India, the United States is the only major industrialized nation in which large population increases are projected.^[170]

The United States has a very diverse population—31 ancestry groups have more than one million members.^[171] German Americans are the largest ethnic group (more than 50 million) - followed by Irish Americans (circa 35 million), Mexican Americans (circa 31 million) and English Americans (circa 27 million).^[172]

White Americans are the largest racial group; Black Americans are the nation's largest racial minority and third largest ancestry group.^[171] Asian Americans are the country's second largest racial minority; the three largest Asian American ethnic groups are Chinese Americans, Filipino Americans, and Indian Americans.^[171]

With a birth rate of 13 per 1,000, 35% below the world average, its population growth rate is positive at 0.9%, significantly higher than those of many developed nations.^[173] In fiscal year 2012, over one million immigrants (most of whom entered through family reunification) were granted legal residence.^[174] Mexico has been the leading source of new residents since the 1965 Immigration Act. China, India, and the Philippines have been in the top four sending countries every year.^[175]^[176]

According to a survey conducted by the Williams Institute, nine million Americans, or roughly 3.5% of the adult population identify themselves as homosexual, bisexual, or transgender.^[177] A 2012 Gallup poll also concluded that 3.5% of adult Americans identified as LGBT. The highest percentage coming from the Disctrict of Columbia (10%), while the lowest state was North Dakota at 1.7%.^[178]

In 2010, the U.S. population included an estimated 5.2 million people with some American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry (2.9 million exclusively of such ancestry) and 1.2 million with some native Hawaiian or Pacific island ancestry (0.5 million exclusively).^[179] The census counted more than 19 million people of "Some Other Race" who were "unable to identify with any" of its five official race categories in 2010.^[179]

The population growth of Hispanic and Latino Americans (the terms are officially interchangeable) is a major demographic trend. The 50.5 million Americans of Hispanic descent^[179] are identified as sharing a distinct "ethnicity" by the Census Bureau; 64% of Hispanic Americans are of Mexican descent.^[180] Between 2000 and 2010, the country's Hispanic population increased 43% while the non-Hispanic population rose just 4.9%.^[181] Much of this growth is from immigration; in 2007, 12.6% of the U.S. population was foreign-born, with 54% of that figure born in Latin America.^[182]

Fertility is also a factor; in 2010 the average Hispanic (of any race) woman gave birth to 2.35 children in her lifetime, compared to 1.97 for non-Hispanic black women and 1.79 for non-Hispanic white women (both below the replacement rate of 2.1).^[183] Minorities (as defined by the Census Bureau as all those beside non-Hispanic, non-multiracial whites) constituted 36.3% of the population in 2010,^[184] and over 50% of children under age one,^[185] and are projected to constitute the majority by 2042.^[186] This contradicts the report by the National Vital Statistics Reports, based on the U.S. census data, which concludes that 54% (2,162,406 out of 3,999,386 in 2010) of births were non-Hispanic white.^[183]

About 82% of Americans live in urban areas (including suburbs);^[148] about half of those reside in cities with populations over 50,000.^[187] In 2008, 273 incorporated places had populations over 100,000, nine cities had more than one million residents, and four global cities had over two million (New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Houston).^[188] There are 52 metropolitan areas with populations greater than one million.^[189] Of the 50 fastest-growing metro areas, 47 are in the West or South.^[190] The metro areas of Dallas, Houston, Atlanta, and Phoenix all grew by more than a million people between 2000 and 2008.^[189]

Leading population centers (see complete list)
Rank	Core city (cities)	Metro area population	Metropolitan Statistical Area	Region^[191]
1	New York City	19,949,502	New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ-PA MSA	Northeast
2	Los Angeles	13,131,431	Los Angeles–Long Beach–Santa Ana, CA MSA	West
3	Chicago	9,537,289	Chicago–Joliet–Naperville, IL–IN–WI MSA	Midwest
4	Dallas–Fort Worth	6,810,913	Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington, TX MSA	South
5	Houston	6,313,158	Houston–The Woodlands-Sugar Land MSA	South
6	Philadelphia	6,034,678	Philadelphia–Camden–Wilmington, PA–NJ–DE–MD MSA	Mid-Atlantic
7	Washington, D.C.	5,949,859	Washington, DC–VA–MD–WV MSA	Mid-Atlantic
8	Miami	5,828,191	Miami–Fort Lauderdale–Pompano Beach, FL MSA	South
9	Atlanta	5,522,942	Atlanta–Sandy Springs–Marietta, GA MSA	South
10	Boston	4,684,299	Boston–Cambridge–Quincy, MA–NH MSA	Northeast
11	San Francisco	4,516,276	San Francisco–Oakland–Fremont, CA MSA	West
12	Phoenix	4,398,762	Phoenix–Mesa–Glendale, AZ MSA	West
13	San Bernardino-Riverside	4,380,878	San Bernandino–Riverside–Ontario, CA MSA	West
14	Detroit	4,294,983	Detroit–Warren–Livonia, MI MSA	Midwest
15	Seattle	3,610,105	Seattle–Tacoma–Bellevue, WA MSA	West
16	Minneapolis–St. Paul	3,459,146	Minneapolis–St. Paul–Bloomington, MN–WI MSA	Midwest
17	San Diego	3,211,252	San Diego–Carlsbad–San Marcos, CA MSA	West
18	Tampa–St. Petersburg	2,870,569	Tampa–St. Petersburg–Clearwater, FL MSA	South
19	St. Louis	2,810,056	St. Louis–St. Charles–Farmington, MO–IL MSA	Midwest
20	Baltimore	2,770,738	Baltimore–Towson, MD MSA	Mid-Atlantic
based upon 2013 population estimates from the U.S. Census Bureau^[192]

Language

Languages spoken by more than 1,000,000 in the U.S.
as of 2010^[193]
Language	Percent of population	Number of speakers
English	80%	233,780,338
Combined total of all languages other than English	20%	57,048,617
Spanish (excluding Puerto Rico and Spanish Creole)	12%	35,437,985
Chinese (including Cantonese and Mandarin)	0.9%	2,567,779
Tagalog	0.5%	1,542,118
Vietnamese	0.4%	1,292,448
French	0.4%	1,288,833
Korean	0.4%	1,108,408
German	0.4%	1,107,869

English (American English) is the de facto national language. Although there is no official language at the federal level, some laws—such as U.S. naturalization requirements—standardize English. In 2010, about 230 million, or 80% of the population aged five years and older, spoke only English at home. Spanish, spoken by 12% of the population at home, is the second most common language and the most widely taught second language.^[194]^[195] Some Americans advocate making
English the country's official language, as it is in at least 28 states.^[8]

Both Hawaiian and English are official languages in Hawaii, by state law.^[196] While neither has an official language, New Mexico has laws providing for the use of both English and Spanish, as Louisiana does for English and French.^[197] Other states, such as California, mandate the publication of Spanish versions of certain government documents including court forms.^[198] Many jurisdictions with large numbers of non-English speakers produce government materials, especially voting information, in the most commonly spoken languages in those jurisdictions.

Several insular territories grant official recognition to their native languages, along with English: Samoan and Chamorro are recognized by American Samoa and Guam, respectively;^{[citation needed]} Carolinian and Chamorro are recognized by the Northern Mariana Islands;^{[citation needed]} Cherokee is officially recognized by the Cherokee Nation within the Cherokee tribal jurisdiction area in eastern Oklahoma; Spanish is an official language of Puerto Rico and is more widely spoken than English there.^[199]

Religion

The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution guarantees the free exercise of religion and forbids Congress from passing laws respecting its establishment. Christianity is by far the most common religion practiced in the U.S., but other religions are followed, too. In a 2013 survey, 56% of Americans said that religion played a "very important role in their lives", a far higher figure than that of any other wealthy nation.^[201] In a 2009 Gallup poll 42% of Americans said that they attended church weekly or almost weekly; the figures ranged from a low of 23% in Vermont to a high of 63% in Mississippi.^[202] As with other Western countries, the U.S. is becoming less religious. Irreligion is growing rapidly among Americans under 30.^[203] Polls show that overall American confidence in organized religion is declining,^[204] and that younger Americans in particular are becoming increasingly irreligious.^[205]
According to a 2012 survey, 73% of adults identified themselves as Christian,^[206] down from 86.4% in 1990.^[207] Protestant denominations accounted for 48%, while Roman Catholicism, at 22%, was the largest individual denomination.^[206] The total reporting non-Christian religions in 2012 was 6%, up from 4% in 2007.^[206] Other religions include Judaism (1.7%), Buddhism (0.7%), Islam (0.6%), Hinduism (0.4%), and Unitarian Universalism (0.3%).^[206] The survey also reported that 19.6% of Americans described themselves as agnostic, atheist or simply having no religion, up from 8.2% in 1990.^[206]^[207]^[208] There are also Baha'i, Sikh, Jain, Shinto, Confucian, Taoist, Druid, Native American, Wiccan, humanist and deist communities.^[209]

Protestantism is the largest group of religions in the United States, with Baptists being the largest Protestant sect, and the Southern Baptist Convention being the largest Protestant denomination in the U.S. About 19 percent of Protestants are Evangelical, while 15 percent are mainline and 8 percent belong to a traditionally Black church. Roman Catholicism in the U.S. has its origin in the Spanish and French colonization of the Americas, and later grew due to Irish, Italian, Polish, German and Hispanic immigration. Rhode Island is the only state where the majority of the population is Catholic. Lutheranism in the U.S. has its origin in immigration from Northern Europe. North and South Dakota are the only states in which a plurality of the population is Lutheran. Utah is the only state where Mormonism is the religion of the majority of the population. Mormonism is also relatively common in parts of Idaho, Nevada and Wyoming.

The Bible Belt is an informal term for a region in the Southern United States in which socially conservative evangelical Protestantism is a significant part of the culture and Christian church attendance across the denominations is generally higher than the nation's average. By contrast, religion plays the least important role in New England and in the Western United States.^[202]

Family structure

In 2007, 58% of Americans age 18 and over were married, 6% were widowed, 10% were divorced, and 25% had never been married.^[210] Women now work mostly outside the home and receive a majority of bachelor's degrees.^[211]
The U.S. teenage pregnancy rate, 79.8 per 1,000 women, is the highest among OECD nations.^[212] Between 2007 and 2010, the highest teenage birth rate was in Mississippi, and the lowest in New Hampshire.^[213] Abortion is legal throughout the U.S., owing to Roe v. Wade, a 1973 landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. While the abortion rate is falling, the abortion ratio of 241 per 1,000 live births and abortion rate of 15 per 1,000 women aged 15–44 remain higher than those of most Western nations.^[214] In 2011, the average age at first birth was 25.6 and 40.7% of births were to unmarried women.^[215] The total fertility rate (TFR) was estimated for 2013 at 1.86 births per woman.^[216] Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries).^[217] In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the U.S. accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide.^[218] The legal status of same-sex couples adopting varies by jurisdiction.

Same-sex marriage is legally permitted in 19 U.S. states, 8 Native American Tribal Jurisdictions, and the District of Columbia. Limited recognition has been granted to out-of-state same-sex marriages in Alaska, Colorado,^[219] Missouri, Utah, and Ohio.^[220] Polygamy is illegal throughout the U.S.^[221] Although Cousin marriages are illegal in most states, they are legal in many states, the District of Columbia and some territories. Some states have some restrictions or exceptions for cousin marriages and/or recognize such marriages performed out-of-state.

Government and politics

The United States is the world's oldest surviving federation. It is a constitutional republic and representative democracy, "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law".^[222] The government is regulated by a system of checks and balances defined by the U.S. Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document.^[223] For 2012, the U.S. ranked 21st on the Democracy Index^[224] and 19th on the Corruption Perceptions Index.^[225]
In the American federalist system, citizens are usually subject to three levels of government: federal, state, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between county and municipal governments. In almost all cases, executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. There is no proportional representation at the federal level, and it is very rare at lower levels.

Political system of the United States

The federal government is composed of three branches:

Legislative: The bicameral Congress, made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives, makes federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse,^[226] and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.^[227]
Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto legislative bills before they become law (subject to Congressional override), and appoints the members of the Cabinet (subject to Senate approval) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.^[228]
Judicial: The Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the president with Senate approval, interpret laws and overturn those they find unconstitutional.

The House of Representatives has 435 voting members, each representing a congressional district for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population every tenth year. At the 2010 census, seven states had the minimum of one representative, while California, the most populous state, had 53.^[229]

The Senate has 100 members with each state having two senators, elected at-large to six-year terms; one third of Senate seats are up for election every other year. The president serves a four-year term and may be elected to the office no more than twice. The president is not elected by direct vote, but by an indirect electoral college system in which the determining votes are apportioned to the states and the District of Columbia.^[230] The Supreme Court, led by the Chief Justice of the United States, has nine members, who serve for life.^[231]

The state governments are structured in roughly similar fashion; Nebraska uniquely has a unicameral legislature.^[232] The governor (chief executive) of each state is directly elected. Some state judges and cabinet officers are appointed by the governors of the respective states, while others are elected by popular vote.

The original text of the Constitution establishes the structure and responsibilities of the federal government and its relationship with the individual states. Article One protects the right to the "great writ" of habeas corpus, The Constitution has been amended 27 times;^[233] the first ten amendments, which make up the Bill of Rights, and the Fourteenth Amendment form the central basis of Americans' individual rights. All laws and governmental procedures are subject to judicial review and any law ruled by the courts to be in violation of the Constitution is voided. The principle of judicial review, not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was established by the Supreme Court in Marbury v. Madison (1803)^[234] in a decision handed down by Chief Justice John Marshall.^[235]

Political divisions

The United States is a federal union of 50 states. The original 13 states were the successors of the 13 colonies that rebelled against British rule. Early in the country's history, three new states were organized on territory separated from the claims of the existing states: Kentucky from Virginia; Tennessee from North Carolina; and Maine from Massachusetts. Most of the other states have been carved from territories obtained through war or purchase by the U.S. government. One set of exceptions includes Vermont, Texas, and Hawaii: each was an independent republic before joining the union. During the American Civil War, West Virginia broke away from Virginia. The most recent state—Hawaii—achieved statehood on August 21, 1959.^[236] The states do not have the right to unilaterally secede from the union.
The United States also observes tribal sovereignty of the Native Nations. Though reservations are within state borders, the reservation is a sovereign entity. While the United States recognizes this sovereignty, other countries may not.^[240]

(from left to right) House Majority Leader Eric Cantor, House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi, House Speaker John Boehner, President Barack Obama, Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid, Senate Minority Leader Mitch McConnell at the White House in 2011

The United States has operated under a two-party system for most of its history.^[241] For elective offices at most levels, state-administered primary elections choose the major party nominees for subsequent general elections. Since the general election of 1856, the major parties have been the Democratic Party, founded in 1824, and the Republican Party, founded in 1854. Since the Civil War, only one third-party presidential candidate—former president Theodore Roosevelt, running as a Progressive in 1912—has won as much as 20% of the popular vote. The third-largest political party is the Libertarian Party.

Within American political culture, the Republican Party is considered center-right or conservative and the Democratic Party is considered center-left or liberal.^[242] The states of the Northeast and West Coast and some of the Great Lakes states, known as "blue states", are relatively liberal. The "red states" of the South and parts of the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains are relatively conservative.

The winner of the 2008 and 2012 presidential elections, Democrat Barack Obama, is the 44th U.S. president.

In the 113th United States Congress, the House of Representatives is controlled by the Republican Party, while the Democratic Party has control of the Senate. The Senate currently consists of 52 Democrats, two independents who caucus with the Democrats, and 46 Republicans; the House consists of 234 Republicans and 201 Democrats.^[243] There are 30 Republican and 20 Democratic state governors.^[244]

Since the founding of the United States until the 2000s, the country's governance has been primarily dominated by White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs). However, the situation has changed recently and of the top 17 positions (four national candidates of the two major party in the 2012 U.S. presidential election, four leaders in 112th United States Congress, and nine Supreme Court Justices) there is only one WASP.^[245]^[246]^[247]

The United Nations Headquarters has been situated in Midtown Manhattan since 1952.

Foreign relations

The United States has an established structure of foreign relations. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, and New York City is home to the United Nations Headquarters. It is a member of the G8,^[248] G20, and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Almost all countries have embassies in Washington, D.C., and many have consulates around the country. Likewise, nearly all nations host American diplomatic missions. However, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Bhutan, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) do not have formal diplomatic relations with the United States (although the U.S. still supplies Taiwan with military equipment).
The United States has a "special relationship" with the United Kingdom^[249] and strong ties with Canada,^[250] Australia,^[251] New Zealand,^[252] the Philippines,^[253] Japan,^[254] South Korea,^[255] Israel,^[256] and several EU countries, including France, Italy, Germany, Spain and India. It works closely with fellow NATO members on military and security issues and with its neighbors through the Organization of American States and free trade agreements such as the trilateral North American Free Trade Agreement with Canada and Mexico. In 2008, the United States spent a net $25.4 billion on official development assistance, the most in the world. As a share of America's large gross national income (GNI), however, the U.S. contribution of 0.18% ranked last among 22 donor states. By contrast, private overseas giving by Americans is relatively generous.^[257]

The U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for three sovereign nations through Compact of Free Association with Micronesia, the Marshall Islands and Palau, all of which are Pacific island nations which were part of the U.S.-administered Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands beginning after World War II, and gained independence in subsequent years.

Government finance

Taxes are levied in the United States at the federal, state and local government level. These include taxes on income, payroll, property, sales, imports, estates and gifts, as well as various fees. In 2010 taxes collected by federal, state and municipal governments amounted to 24.8% of GDP.^[258] During FY2012, the federal government collected approximately $2.45 trillion in tax revenue, up $147 billion or 6% versus FY2011 revenues of $2.30 trillion. Primary receipt categories included individual income taxes ($1,132B or 47%), Social Security/Social Insurance taxes ($845B or 35%), and corporate taxes ($242B or 10%).^[259]
U.S. taxation is generally progressive, especially the federal income taxes, and is among the most progressive in the developed world,^[260]^[261]^[262]^[263]^[264] but the incidence of corporate income tax has been a matter of considerable ongoing controversy for decades.^[265]^[266]^[267]^[268] In 2009 the top 10% of earners, with 36% of the nation's income, paid 78.2% of the federal personal income tax burden, while the bottom 40% had a negative liability.^[263] However, payroll taxes for Social Security are a flat regressive tax, with no tax charged on income above $113,700 and no tax at all paid on unearned income from things such as stocks and capital gains.^[269]^[270] The historic reasoning for the regressive nature of the payroll tax is that entitlement programs have not been viewed as welfare transfers.^[271]^[272] The top 10% paid 51.8% of total federal taxes in 2009, and the top 1%, with 13.4% of pre-tax national income, paid 22.3% of federal taxes.^[263] In 2013 the Tax Policy Center projected total federal effective tax rates of 35.5% for the top 1%, 27.2% for the top quintile, 13.8% for the middle quintile, and −2.7% for the bottom quintile.^[273]^[274] State and local taxes vary widely, but are generally less progressive than federal taxes as they rely heavily on broadly borne regressive sales and property taxes that yield less volatile revenue streams, though their consideration does not eliminate the progressive nature of overall taxation.^[261]^[275]

During FY 2012, the federal government spent $3.54 trillion on a budget or cash basis, down $60 billion or 1.7% vs. FY 2011 spending of $3.60 trillion. Major categories of FY 2012 spending included: Medicare & Medicaid ($802B or 23% of spending), Social Security ($768B or 22%), Defense Department ($670B or 19%), non-defense discretionary ($615B or 17%), other mandatory ($461B or 13%) and interest ($223B or 6%).^[259]

National debt

US federal debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP, from 1790 to 2013

The total national debt in the United States was $18.527 trillion (106% of the GDP), according to an estimate for 2014 by the International Monetary Fund.^[276] In May 2014, U.S. federal government debt held by the public was approximately $12.495 trillion, or about 75% of U.S. GDP. Intra-governmental holdings stood at $5 trillion, giving a combined total debt of $17.494 trillion.^[277]^[278] By 2012, total federal debt had surpassed 100% of U.S. GDP.^[279] The U.S. has a credit rating of AA+ from Standard & Poor's, AAA from Fitch, and Aaa from Moody's.^[280]

Historically, the U.S. public debt as a share of GDP increased during wars and recessions, and subsequently declined. For example, debt held by the public as a share of GDP peaked just after World War II (113% of GDP in 1945), but then fell over the following 30 years. In recent decades, large budget deficits and the resulting increases in debt have led to concern about the long-term sustainability of the federal government's fiscal policies.^[281] However, these concerns are not universally shared.^[282]

Military

The president holds the title of commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces and appoints its leaders, the Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The United States Department of Defense administers the armed forces, including the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force. The Coast Guard is run by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and by the Department of the Navy during times of war. In 2008, the armed forces had 1.4 million personnel on active duty. The Reserves and National Guard brought the total number of troops to 2.3 million. The Department of Defense also employed about 700,000 civilians, not including contractors.^[283]

The carrier strike groups of the Kitty Hawk, Ronald Reagan, and Abraham Lincoln with aircraft from the Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force.

Military service is voluntary, though conscription may occur in wartime through the Selective Service System.^[284] American forces can be rapidly deployed by the Air Force's large fleet of transport aircraft, the Navy's 10 active aircraft carriers, and Marine Expeditionary Units at sea with the Navy's Atlantic and Pacific fleets. The military operates 865 bases and facilities abroad,^[285] and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries.^[286] The extent of this global military presence has prompted some scholars to describe the United States as maintaining an "empire of bases".^[287]

The Military budget of the United States in 2011, was more than $700 billion, 41% of global military spending and equal to the next 14 largest national military expenditures combined. At 4.7% of GDP, the rate was the second-highest among the top 15 military spenders, after Saudi Arabia.^[288] U.S. defense spending as a percentage of GDP ranked 23rd globally in 2012 according to the CIA.^[289] Defense's share of U.S. spending has generally declined in recent decades, from Cold War peaks of 14.2% of GDP in 1953 and 69.5% of federal outlays in 1954 to 4.7% of GDP and 18.8% of federal outlays in 2011.^[290]

The proposed base Department of Defense budget for 2012, $553 billion, was a 4.2% increase over 2011; an additional $118 billion was proposed for the military campaigns in Iraq and Afghanistan.^[291] The last American troops serving in Iraq departed in December 2011;^[292] 4,484 servicemen were killed during the Iraq War.^[293] Approximately 90,000 U.S. troops were serving in Afghanistan in April 2012;^[294] by November 8, 2013 2,285 had been killed during the War in Afghanistan.^[295]

Crime and law enforcement

Law enforcement in the U.S. is maintained primarily by local police departments. The New York City Police Department (NYPD) is the largest in the country.^[296]

Law enforcement in the United States is primarily the responsibility of local police and sheriff's departments, with state police providing broader services. Federal agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have specialized duties.^[297] At the federal level and in almost every state, jurisprudence operates on a common law system. State courts conduct most criminal trials; federal courts handle certain designated crimes as well as certain appeals from the state criminal courts. Plea bargaining in the United States is very common; the vast majority of criminal cases in the country are settled by plea bargain rather than jury trial.^[298]^[299]

In 2012 there were 4.7 murders per 100,000 persons in the United States, a 54% decline from the modern peak of 10.2 in 1980.^[300]^[301]^[302] Among developed nations, the United States has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence and homicide.^[303] A cross-sectional analysis of the World Health Organization Mortality Database from 2003 showed that United States "homicide rates were 6.9 times higher than rates in the other high-income countries, driven by firearm homicide rates that were 19.5 times higher."^[304] Gun ownership rights continue to be the subject of contentious political debate.

Capital punishment is sanctioned in the United States for certain federal and military crimes, and used in 32 states.^[305] No executions took place from 1967 to 1977, owing in part to a U.S. Supreme Court ruling striking down arbitrary imposition of the death penalty. In 1976, that Court ruled that, under appropriate circumstances, capital punishment may constitutionally be imposed. Since the decision there have been more than 1,300 executions, a majority of these taking place in three states: Texas, Virginia, and Oklahoma.^[306] Meanwhile, several states have either abolished or struck down death penalty laws. In 2010, the country had the fifth highest number of executions in the world, following China, Iran, North Korea, and Yemen.^[307]

The United States has the highest documented incarceration rate and total prison population in the world.^[308]^[309]^[310]^[311] At the start of 2008, more than 2.3 million people were incarcerated, more than one in every 100 adults.^[312] The prison population has quadrupled since 1980.^[313] African-American males are jailed at about six times the rate of white males and three times the rate of Hispanic males.^[314] The country's high rate of incarceration is largely due to changes in sentencing guidelines and drug policies.^[315] In 2008, Louisiana had the highest incarceration rate, and Maine the lowest.^[316] In 2012, Louisiana had the highest rate of murder and non negligent manslaughter in the U.S., and New Hampshire the lowest.^[317]

Economy

United States export treemap (2011): The U.S. is the world's second-largest exporter.

The United States has a capitalist mixed economy which is fueled by abundant natural resources and high productivity.^[325] According to the International Monetary Fund, the U.S. GDP of $16.8 trillion constitutes 24% of the gross world product at market exchange rates and over 19% of the gross world product at purchasing power parity (PPP).^[5] Its national GDP was about 5% larger at PPP in 2014 than the European Union's, whose population is around 62% higher.^[326] However, the US's nominal GDP is estimated to be $17.528 trillion as of 2014, which is about 5% smaller than that of the European Union.^[327] From 1983 to 2008, U.S. real compounded annual GDP growth was 3.3%, compared to a 2.3% weighted average for the rest of the G7.^[328] The country ranks ninth in the world in nominal GDP per capita and sixth in GDP per capita at PPP.^[5] The U.S. dollar is the world's primary reserve currency.^[329]

The United States is the largest importer of goods and second largest exporter, though exports per capita are relatively low. In 2010, the total U.S. trade deficit was $635 billion.^[330] Canada, China, Mexico, Japan, and Germany are its top trading partners.^[331] In 2010, oil was the largest import commodity, while transportation equipment was the country's largest export.^[330] China is the largest foreign holder of U.S. public debt.^[332] The largest holder of the U.S. debt are American entities, including federal government accounts and the Federal Reserve, who hold the majority of the debt.^[333]^[334]^[335]^[336]

In 2009, the private sector was estimated to constitute 86.4% of the economy, with federal government activity accounting for 4.3% and state and local government activity (including federal transfers) the remaining 9.3%.^[337] While its economy has reached a postindustrial level of development and its service sector constitutes 67.8% of GDP, the United States remains an industrial power.^[338] The leading business field by gross business receipts is wholesale and retail trade; by net income it is manufacturing.^[339]

Chemical products are the leading manufacturing field.^[340] The United States is the third largest producer of oil in the world, as well as its largest importer.^[341] It is the world's number one producer of electrical and nuclear energy, as well as liquid natural gas, sulfur, phosphates, and salt. While agriculture accounts for just under 1% of GDP,^[338] the United States is the world's top producer of corn^[342] and soybeans.^[343] The National Agricultural Statistics Service maintains agricultural statistics^{[dead link]} for products that include peanuts, oats, rye, wheat, rice, cotton, corn, barley, hay, sunflowers, and oilseeds. In addition, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) provides livestock statistics regarding beef, poultry, pork, and dairy products. The National Mining Association provides data pertaining to coal and minerals that include beryllium, copper, lead, magnesium, zinc, titanium and others.^[344]^[345] In the franchising business model, McDonald's and Subway are the two most recognized brands in the world. Coca-Cola is the most recognized soft drink company in the world.^[346]

Consumer spending comprises 71% of the U.S. economy in 2013.^[347] In August 2010, the American labor force consisted of 154.1 million people. With 21.2 million people, government is the leading field of employment. The largest private employment sector is health care and social assistance, with 16.4 million people. About 12% of workers are unionized, compared to 30% in Western Europe.^[348] The World Bank ranks the United States first in the ease of hiring and firing workers.^[349] The United States is the only advanced economy that does not guarantee its workers paid vacation^[350] and is one of just a few countries in the world without paid family leave as a legal right, with the others being Papua New Guinea, Suriname and Liberia.^[351] In 2009, the United States had the third highest labor productivity per person in the world, behind Luxembourg and Norway. It was fourth in productivity per hour, behind those two countries and the Netherlands.^[352]

The 2008-2012 global recession had a significant impact on the United States, with output still below potential according to the Congressional Budget Office.^[353] It brought high unemployment (which has been decreasing but remains above pre-recession levels), along with low consumer confidence, the continuing decline in home values and increase in foreclosures and personal bankruptcies, an escalating federal debt crisis, inflation, and rising petroleum and food prices. There remains a record proportion of long-term unemployed, continued decreasing household income, and tax and federal budget increases.^[354]^[355]^[356] A 2011 poll found that more than half of all Americans think the U.S. is still in recession or even depression, despite official data that shows a historically modest recovery.^[357] In 2011 the Census Bureau defined poverty rate increased to roughly 16% of the population.^[358]

Income, poverty and wealth

Productivity and Real Median Family Income Growth 1947–2009

A tract housing development in San Jose, California

Americans have the highest average household and employee income among OECD nations, and in 2007 had the second highest median household income.^[30]^[359] According to the Census Bureau real median household income was $50,502 in 2011, down from $51,144 in 2010.^[360] The Global Food Security Index ranked the U.S. number one for food affordability and overall food security in March 2013.^[361] Americans on average have over twice as much living space per dwelling and per person as European Union residents, and more than every EU nation.^[362] For 2013 the United Nations Development Programme ranked the United States 5th among 187 countries in its Human Development Index and 28th in its inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI).^[363]

There has been a widening gap between productivity and median incomes since the 1970s.^[364] While inflation-adjusted ("real") household income had been increasing almost every year from 1947 to 1999, it has since been flat and even decreased recently.^[365] The rise in the share of total annual income received by the top 1 percent, which has more than doubled from 9 percent in 1976 to 20 percent in 2011, has had a significant impact on income inequality,^[366] leaving the United States with one of the widest income distributions among OECD nations.^[367]^[368]^[369] The post-recession income gains have been very uneven, with the top 1 percent capturing 95 percent of the income gains from 2009 to 2012.^[370]

Wealth, like income and taxes, is highly concentrated; the richest 10% of the adult population possess 72% of the country's household wealth, while the bottom half claim only 2%.^[371] This is the second-highest share among developed nations.^[372] Between June 2007 and November 2008 the global recession led to falling asset prices around the world. Assets owned by Americans lost about a quarter of their value.^[373] Since peaking in the second quarter of 2007, household wealth is down $14 trillion.^[374] At the end of 2008, household debt amounted to $13.8 trillion.^[375]

There were about 643,000 sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons in the U.S. in January 2009, with almost two-thirds staying in an emergency shelter or transitional housing program. In 2011 16.7 million children lived in food-insecure households, about 35% more than 2007 levels, though only 1.1% of U.S. children, or 845,000, saw reduced food intake or disrupted eating patterns at some point during the year, and most cases were not chronic.^[376]

Infrastructure

Transportation

The Interstate Highway System, which extends 46,876 miles (75,440 km)^[377]

Personal transportation is dominated by automobiles, which operate on a network of 13 million roads, including one of the world's longest highway systems.^[378] The world's second largest automobile market,^[379] the United States has the highest rate of per-capita vehicle ownership in the world, with 765 vehicles per 1,000 Americans.^[380] About 40% of personal vehicles are vans, SUVs, or light trucks.^[381] The average American adult (accounting for all drivers and non-drivers) spends 55 minutes driving every day, traveling 29 miles (47 km).^[382]

Mass transit accounts for 9% of total U.S. work trips.^[383]^[384] While transport of goods by rail is extensive, relatively few people use rail to travel,^[385] though ridership on Amtrak, the national intercity passenger rail system, grew by almost 37% between 2000 and 2010.^[386] Also, light rail development has increased in recent years.^[387] Bicycle usage for work commutes is minimal.^[388]

The civil airline industry is entirely privately owned and has been largely deregulated since 1978, while most major airports are publicly owned. The three largest airlines in the world by passengers carried are U.S.-based; American Airlines is number one after its 2013 acquisition of US Airways.^[389] Of the world's 30 busiest passenger airports, 12 are in the United States, including the busiest, Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport.^[390]

Energy

The Hoover Dam when completed in 1936 was both the world's largest electric-power generating station and the world's largest concrete structure.

The United States energy market is 29,000 terawatt hours per year. Energy consumption per capita is 7.8 tons of oil equivalent per year, the 10th highest rate in the world. In 2005, 40% of this energy came from petroleum, 23% from coal, and 22% from natural gas. The remainder was supplied by nuclear power and renewable energy sources.^[391] The United States is the world's largest consumer of petroleum.^[392]

For decades, nuclear power has played a limited role relative to many other developed countries, in part because of public perception in the wake of a 1979 accident. In 2007, several applications for new nuclear plants were filed.^[393] The United States has 27% of global coal reserves.^[394] It is the world's largest producer of natural gas and crude oil.^[395]

Science and technology

Astronaut James Irwin walking on the Moon next to Apollo 15's landing module and lunar rover in 1971. The effort to reach the Moon was triggered by the Space Race.

The United States has been a leader in scientific research and technological innovation since the late 19th century. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was awarded the first U.S. patent for the telephone. Thomas Edison's laboratory developed the phonograph, the first long-lasting light bulb, and the first viable movie camera.^[396] In the early 20th century, the automobile companies of Ransom E. Olds and Henry Ford popularized the assembly line. The Wright brothers, in 1903, made the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight.^[397]

The rise of Nazism in the 1930s led many European scientists, including Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, and John von Neumann, to immigrate to the United States.^[398] During World War II, the Manhattan Project developed nuclear weapons, ushering in the Atomic Age. The Space Race produced rapid advances in rocketry, materials science, and computers.^{[citation needed]} Advancements by American microprocessor companies such as Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), and Intel along with both computer software and hardware companies that include Sun Microsystems, IBM, GNU-Linux, Apple Computer, and Microsoft refined and popularized the personal computer.^{[citation needed]}

The ARPANET was developed in the 1960s to meet Defense Department requirements, and became the first of a series of networks which evolved into the Internet. Today, 64% of research and development funding comes from the private sector.^[399] The United States leads the world in scientific research papers and impact factor.^[400] As of April 2010, 77% of American households owned at least one computer, and 68% had broadband Internet service.^[401] 85% of Americans also own a mobile phone as of 2011.^[402] The country is the primary developer and grower of genetically modified food, representing half of the world's biotech crops.^[403]

Education

The University of Virginia, founded by Thomas Jefferson in 1819, is one of the many public universities in the United States.

American public education is operated by state and local governments, regulated by the United States Department of Education through restrictions on federal grants. In most states, children are required to attend school from the age of six or seven (generally, kindergarten or first grade) until they turn 18 (generally bringing them through twelfth grade, the end of high school); some states allow students to leave school at 16 or 17.^[404] About 12% of children are enrolled in parochial or nonsectarian private schools. Just over 2% of children are homeschooled.^[405] The U.S. spends more on education per student than any nation in the world, spending more than $11,000 per elementary student in 2010 and more than $12,000 per high school student.^[406] Some 80% of U.S. college students attend public universities.^[407]

The United States has many competitive private and public institutions of higher education. According to prominent international rankings, 13 or 15 American colleges and universities are ranked among the top 20 in the world.^[408]^[409] There are also local community colleges with generally more open admission policies, shorter academic programs, and lower tuition. Of Americans 25 and older, 84.6% graduated from high school, 52.6% attended some college, 27.2% earned a bachelor's degree, and 9.6% earned graduate degrees.^[410] The basic literacy rate is approximately 99%.^[148]^[411] The United Nations assigns the United States an Education Index of 0.97, tying it for 12th in the world.^[412]

As for public expenditures on higher education, the U.S. trails some other OECD nations but spends more per student than the OECD average, and more than all nations in combined public and private spending.^[406]^[413] As of 2012, student loan debt exceeded one trillion dollars, more than Americans owe on credit cards.^[414]

Health

The United States has a life expectancy of 78.4 years at birth, up from 75.2 years in 1990, ranking it 50th among 221 nations, and 27th out of the 34 industrialized OECD countries, down from 20th in 1990.^[415]^[416] Increasing obesity in the United States and health improvements elsewhere have contributed to lowering the country's rank in life expectancy from 1987, when it was 11th in the world.^[417] Obesity rates in the United States are among the highest in the world.^[418] Approximately one-third of the adult population is obese and an additional third is overweight;^[419] the obesity rate, the highest in the industrialized world, has more than doubled in the last quarter-century.^[420]
Obesity-related type 2 diabetes is considered epidemic by health care professionals.^[421] The infant mortality rate of 6.17 per thousand places the United States 169th highest out of 224 countries.^[422]

In 2010, coronary artery disease, lung cancer, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, and traffic accidents caused the most years of life lost in the U.S. Low back pain, depression, musculoskeletal disorders, neck pain, and anxiety caused the most years lost to disability. The most deleterious risk factors were poor diet, tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, physical inactivity, and alcohol use. Alzheimer's disease, drug abuse, kidney disease and cancer, and falls caused the most additional years of life lost over their age-adjusted 1990 per-capita rates.^[416] U.S. teenage pregnancy and abortion rates are substantially higher than in other Western nations.

The U.S. is a global leader in medical innovation. America solely developed or contributed significantly to 9 of the top 10 most important medical innovations since 1975 as ranked by a 2001 poll of physicians, while the EU and Switzerland together contributed to five. Since 1966, Americans have received more Nobel Prizes in Medicine than the rest of the world. From 1989 to 2002, four times more money was invested in private biotechnology companies in America than in Europe.^[423]^[424] The U.S. health-care system far outspends any other nation, measured in both per capita spending and percentage of GDP.^[425] Health-care coverage in the United States is a combination of public and private efforts and is not universal. In 2010, 49.9 million residents or 16.3% of the population did not carry health insurance. The subject of uninsured and underinsured Americans is a major political issue.^[426]^[427] In 2006, Massachusetts became the first state to mandate universal health insurance.^[428] Federal legislation passed in early 2010 would ostensibly create a near-universal health insurance system around the country by 2014, though the bill and its ultimate impact are issues of controversy.^[429]^[430]

Culture

The United States is home to many cultures and a wide variety of ethnic groups, traditions, and values.^[18]^[431] Aside from the relatively small Native American and Native Hawaiian populations, nearly all Americans or their ancestors settled or immigrated within the past five centuries.^[432] Mainstream American culture is a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of European immigrants with influences from many other sources, such as traditions brought by slaves from Africa.^[18]^[433] More recent immigration from Asia and especially Latin America has added to a cultural mix that has been described as both a homogenizing melting pot, and a heterogeneous salad bowl in which immigrants and their descendants retain distinctive cultural characteristics.^[18] Core American culture was established by Protestant British colonists and shaped by the frontier settlement process, with the traits derived passed down to descendants and transmitted to immigrants through assimilation. Americans have traditionally been characterized by a strong work ethic, competitiveness, and individualism, as well as a unifying belief in an "American creed" emphasizing liberty, equality, private property, democracy, rule of law, and a preference for limited government.^[434] Americans are extremely charitable by global standards. According to a 2006 British study, Americans gave 1.67% of GDP to charity, more than any other nation studied, more than twice the second place British figure of 0.73%, and around twelve times the French figure of 0.14%.^[435]^[436]

The American Dream, or the perception that Americans enjoy high social mobility, plays a key role in attracting immigrants.^[437] Whether this perception is realistic has been a topic of debate.^[438]^[439]^[440]^[441]^[328]^[442] While mainstream culture holds that the United States is a classless society,^[443] scholars identify significant differences between the country's social classes, affecting socialization, language, and values.^[444] Americans' self-images, social viewpoints, and cultural expectations are associated with their occupations to an unusually close degree.^[445] While Americans tend greatly to value socioeconomic achievement, being ordinary or average is generally seen as a positive attribute.^[446]

Mass media

The four major broadcasters in the U.S. are the National Broadcasting Company (NBC), Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and Fox. Americans are the heaviest television viewers in the world,^[447] and the average viewing time continues to rise, reaching five hours a day in 2006.^[448] The four major broadcast television networks are all commercial entities. Americans listen to radio programming, also largely commercial, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day.^[449]
In 1998, the number of U.S. commercial radio stations had grown to 4,793 AM stations and 5,662 FM stations. In addition, there are 1,460 public radio stations. Most of these stations are run by universities and public authorities for educational purposes and are financed by public and/or private funds, subscriptions and corporate underwriting. Much public-radio broadcasting is supplied by NPR (formerly National Public Radio). NPR was incorporated in February 1970 under the Public Broadcasting Act of 1967; its television counterpart, PBS, was also created by the same legislation. (NPR and PBS are operated separately from each other.)

Aside from web portals and search engines, the most popular websites are Facebook, YouTube, Wikipedia, Blogger, eBay, and Craigslist.^[450]

Well-known newspapers are The New York Times, USA Today and The Wall Street Journal. Although the cost of publishing has increased over the years, the price of newspapers has generally remained low, forcing newspapers to rely more on advertising revenue and on articles provided by a major wire service, such as the Associated Press or Reuters, for their national and world coverage. With very few exceptions, all the newspapers in the U.S. are privately owned, either by large chains such as Gannett or McClatchy, which own dozens or even hundreds of newspapers; by small chains that own a handful of papers; or in a situation that is increasingly rare, by individuals or families. Major cities often have "alternative weeklies" to complement the mainstream daily paper(s), for example, New York City's Village Voice or Los Angeles' L.A. Weekly, to name two of the best-known. Major cities may also support a local business journal, trade papers relating to local industries, and papers for local ethnic and social groups.

In Spanish, the second most widely spoken mother tongue behind English, more than 800 publications are published.^[451]^[452]

Cinema

The Hollywood Sign in Los Angeles, California

The world's first commercial motion picture exhibition was given in New York City in 1894, using Thomas Edison's Kinetoscope. The next year saw the first commercial screening of a projected film, also in New York, and the United States was in the forefront of sound film's development in the following decades. Since the early 20th century, the U.S. film industry has largely been based in and around Hollywood, California.

Director D. W. Griffith was central to the development of film grammar and Orson Welles's Citizen Kane (1941) is frequently cited as the greatest film of all time.^[453]^[454] American screen actors like John Wayne and Marilyn Monroe have become iconic figures, while producer/entrepreneur Walt Disney was a leader in both animated film and movie merchandising. Hollywood is also one of the leaders in motion picture production.^[455]

Comics

Early versions of the American newspaper comic strip and the American comic book began appearing in the 19th century. In 1938, Superman, the quintessential comic book superhero of DC Comics, developed into an American icon.^[456] Additional comic book publishers include; Marvel Comics, created in 1939, Image Comics, created in 1992, Dark Horse Comics, created in 1986, and numerous small press comic book companies. In celebration of the industry's success, annual comic conventions take place at The San Diego Comic-Con International, which has an attendance of over 130,000 visitors.

Music

The rhythmic and lyrical styles of African-American music have deeply influenced American music at large, distinguishing it from European traditions. Elements from folk idioms such as the blues and what is now known as old-time music were adopted and transformed into popular genres with global audiences. Jazz was developed by innovators such as Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington early in the 20th century. Country music developed in the 1920s, and rhythm and blues in the 1940s.^[457]
Elvis Presley and Chuck Berry were among the mid-1950s pioneers of rock and roll. In the 1960s, Bob Dylan emerged from the folk revival to become one of America's most celebrated songwriters and James Brown led the development of funk. More recent American creations include hip hop and house music. American pop stars such as Presley, Michael Jackson, and Madonna have become global celebrities.^[457]

Literature, philosophy, and the arts

Mark Twain, American author and humorist

In the 18th and early 19th centuries, American art and literature took most of its cues from Europe. Writers such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, and Henry David Thoreau established a distinctive American literary voice by the middle of the 19th century. Mark Twain and poet Walt Whitman were major figures in the century's second half; Emily Dickinson, virtually unknown during her lifetime, is now recognized as an essential American poet.^[458] A work seen as capturing fundamental aspects of the national experience and character—such as Herman Melville's Moby-Dick (1851), Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), and F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby (1925)—may be dubbed the "Great American Novel".^[459]

Eleven U.S. citizens have won the Nobel Prize in Literature, most recently Toni Morrison in 1993. William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway are often named among the most influential writers of the 20th century.^[460] Popular literary genres such as the Western and hardboiled crime fiction developed in the United States. The Beat Generation writers opened up new literary approaches, as have postmodernist authors such as John Barth, Thomas Pynchon, and Don DeLillo.

The transcendentalists, led by Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, established the first major American philosophical movement. After the Civil War, Charles Sanders Peirce and then William James and John Dewey were leaders in the development of pragmatism. In the 20th century, the work of W. V. O. Quine and Richard Rorty, and later Noam Chomsky, brought analytic philosophy to the fore of American philosophical academia. John Rawls and Robert Nozick led a revival of political philosophy. Cornel West and Judith Butler have led a continental tradition in American philosophical academia. Globally influential Chicago school economists like Milton Friedman, James M. Buchanan, and Thomas Sowell have transcended discipline to impact various fields in social and political philosophy.^[461]^[462]

In the visual arts, the Hudson River School was a mid-19th-century movement in the tradition of European naturalism. The realist paintings of Thomas Eakins are now widely celebrated. The 1913 Armory Show in New York City, an exhibition of European modernist art, shocked the public and transformed the U.S. art scene.^[463] Georgia O'Keeffe, Marsden Hartley, and others experimented with new, individualistic styles. Major artistic movements such as the abstract expressionism of Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning and the pop art of Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein developed largely in the United States. The tide of modernism and then postmodernism has brought fame to American architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright, Philip Johnson, and Frank Gehry.

Times Square in New York City, the hub of the Broadway theater district.

One of the first major promoters of American theater was impresario P. T. Barnum, who began operating a lower Manhattan entertainment complex in 1841. The team of Harrigan and Hart produced a series of popular musical comedies in New York starting in the late 1870s. In the 20th century, the modern musical form emerged on Broadway; the songs of musical theater composers such as Irving Berlin, Cole Porter, and Stephen Sondheim have become pop standards. Playwright Eugene O'Neill won the Nobel literature prize in 1936; other acclaimed U.S. dramatists include multiple Pulitzer Prize winners Tennessee Williams, Edward Albee, and August Wilson.

Though little known at the time, Charles Ives's work of the 1910s established him as the first major U.S. composer in the classical tradition, while experimentalists such as Henry Cowell and John Cage created a distinctive American approach to classical composition. Aaron Copland and George Gershwin developed a new synthesis of popular and classical music. Choreographers Isadora Duncan and Martha Graham helped create modern dance, while George Balanchine and Jerome Robbins were leaders in 20th-century ballet. Americans have long been important in the modern artistic medium of photography, with major photographers including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, and Ansel Adams.

Food

Apple pie is a food synonymous with American culture.

Mainstream American cuisine is similar to that in other Western countries. Wheat is the primary cereal grain. Traditional American cuisine uses indigenous ingredients, such as turkey, venison, potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, squash, and maple syrup, which were consumed by Native Americans and early European settlers.^{[citation needed]}

Slow-cooked pork and beef barbecue, crab cakes, potato chips, and chocolate chip cookies are distinctively American foods. Soul food, developed by African slaves, is popular around the South and among many African Americans elsewhere. Syncretic cuisines such as Louisiana Creole, Cajun, and Tex-Mex are regionally important. The confectionery industry in the United States includes The Hershey Company, the largest chocolate manufacturer in North America. In addition, Frito-Lay, a subsidiary of PepsiCo, is the largest globally distributed snack food company in the world. The United States has a vast breakfast cereal industry that includes brands such as Kellogg's and General Mills.

Characteristic dishes such as apple pie, fried chicken, pizza, hamburgers, and hot dogs derive from the recipes of various immigrants. French fries, Mexican dishes such as burritos and tacos, and pasta dishes freely adapted from Italian sources are widely consumed.^[464] Americans generally prefer coffee to tea. Marketing by U.S. industries is largely responsible for making orange juice and milk ubiquitous breakfast beverages.^[465]^[466]

The American fast food industry, the world's largest, pioneered the drive-through format in the 1930s. Fast food consumption has sparked health concerns. During the 1980s and 1990s, Americans' caloric intake rose 24%;^[464] frequent dining at fast food outlets is associated with what public health officials call the American "obesity epidemic".^[467] Highly sweetened soft drinks are widely popular, and sugared beverages account for nine percent of American caloric intake.^[468]

Sports

Swimmer Michael Phelps is the most decorated Olympic athlete of all time.

The market for professional sports in the United States is roughly $69 billion, roughly 50% larger than that of all of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa combined.^[469] Baseball has been regarded as the national sport since the late 19th century, while American football is now by several measures the most popular spectator sport.^[470] Basketball and ice hockey are the country's next two leading professional team sports. These four major sports, when played professionally, each occupy a season at different, but overlapping, times of the year. College football and basketball attract large audiences.^[471] Boxing and horse racing were once the most watched individual sports,^[472] but they have been eclipsed by golf and auto racing, particularly NASCAR.^[473] In the 21st century, televised mixed martial arts has also gained a strong following of regular viewers.^[474]^[475] While soccer is less popular in the United States than in many other nations, the country hosted the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the men's national soccer team has been to the past six World Cups and the women are first in the women's world rankings.

While most major U.S. sports have evolved out of European practices, basketball, volleyball, skateboarding, snowboarding, and cheerleading are American inventions, some of which have become popular in other countries. Lacrosse and surfing arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact.^[476] Eight Olympic Games have taken place in the United States. The United States has won 2,400 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, more than any other country, and 281 in the Winter Olympic Games, the second most behind Norway.^[477]

Scientists: Climate change is real

By Chris Gayomali May 16, 2013 1:04 PM The Week

Original Link: http://news.yahoo.com/scientists-climate-change-real-170400003.html

Yeah, that's not good for the planet.

An overwhelming 97 percent of climatologists endorse the idea of human-caused global warming

As if the backing of NASA, 18 independent American scientific societies, and an intergovernmental panel established under the United Nations weren't enough to quell the protests popping up in comment sections across the Internet, a new study published in the journal Environmental Research Letters confirms — once again — that climatologists almost unanimously believe that climate change is directly related to human-made carbon emissions.

Researchers pored over nearly 12,000 peer-reviewed scientific papers from 1991 to 2011. These papers, according to Michael Todd at Pacific Standard, represented the work of 29,083 authors and 1,980 journals. The conclusion could hardly be stronger: 97 percent of scientists agree that anthropogenic, or human-caused, global warming exists.

"That suggests both a consensus, and an overwhelming one," adds Todd.

"The public perception of a scientific consensus on [anthropogenic global warming] is a necessary element in public support for climate policy," conclude the study's authors. And yet, according to Pew Internet Research (PDF), 57 percent of Americans are unaware that there is an overwhelming scientific consensus.

Why the discrepancy? Big Oil is at least partly to blame. Following the negotiation of the Kyoto Protocol in 1998, Popular Science reports that the American Petroleum Institute organized a task force to spend $5.9 million to "discredit climate scientists and quash growing public support of curbing emissions." The strategy, according to a leaked memo titled the "Global Climate Science Communications Plan," included efforts to "recruit, train, and pay willing scientists to sow doubt about climate science among the media and the public."

Blame politicians, too. When the president of the United States casts doubt on the link between human-made emissions and climate change, people are sure to follow.

Times may be changing, though. Although "conservative white males" are more likely to be skeptics, as Scientific American noted in a controversial study published in 2011, the issue is beginning to divide conservatives, with more Republicans coming out in support of climate science. (When asked if he believed in man-made global warming in April, Mayor Rex Parris of Lancaster, California, responded: "I may be a Republican. I'm not an idiot.")

"There is a divide within the party," Samuel Thernstrom, an environmental policy scholar who served on President George W. Bush's Council on Environmental Quality, told National Journal earlier this month. "The position that climate change is a hoax is untenable."

Thursday, August 21, 2014

A semi-artificial leaf faster than 'natural' photosynthesis

Featured Research

from universities, journals, and other organizations

A semi-artificial leaf faster than 'natural' photosynthesis

Date:

August 20, 2014

Source:

Ruhr-Universitaet-Bochum

Summary:

Cooperation between chemists and biologists has resulted in a new method for the very efficient integration of photosynthetic proteins in photovoltaics. Their research offers a new immobilization strategy that yields electron transfer rates exceeding for the first time rates observed in natural photosynthesis. This discovery opens the possibility for the construction of semi-artificial leaves functioning as photovoltaic devices with drastically increased performance.

While leaves turn the energy of the sunlight for the conversion of carbon dioxide to biomass, photovoltaic devices harness the light to produce electricity.

Cooperation between chemists and biologists from the Ruhr-University Bochum has resulted in a new method for the very efficient integration of photosynthetic proteins in photovoltaics. Their recent report in Chemistry -- a European Journal, selected as a very important paper (VIP) by the journal, offers a new immobilization strategy that yields electron transfer rates exceeding for the first time rates observed in natural photosynthesis. This discovery opens the possibility for the construction of semi-artificial leaves functioning as photovoltaic devices with drastically increased performance.

Photosystem 1, a robust and efficient light harvesting protein
In leaves, photosystem 1 (PS1) absorbs light and its energy is finally utilized for the conversion of carbon dioxide to biomass. Photovoltaic devices, mostly build from silicon based semiconductors, also harness solar light but produce electricity. One approach for the development of cheaper and renewable photovoltaics consists in replacing the semi-conductor with the isolated membrane protein complexes of photosynthesis. Prof. Dr. Matthias Rögner's team isolates a highly stable PS1 from thermophilic cyanobacteria that live in a hot spring in Japan. However, the integration of this natural component into artificial devices faces one major challenge. PS1 displays both hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains which complicate its immobilization on electrodes.

Stimuli responsive redox hydrogels as artificial matrix for photosystem 1
Dr. Nicolas Plumeré's and Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Schuhmann's teams develop complex electron-conducting materials, so-called redox hydrogels, with stimuli responsive properties. The researchers embedded PS1 in this artificial matrix and where able to fine tune the local environment of the natural photosynthetic proteins. The hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties of the hydrogel can be controlled by pH shift and were adjusted to the hydrophobic requirement of the photosystem. This purpose-built environment provides the optimal conditions for PS1 and overcomes the kinetic limiting steps, which are found in natural leaves. This procedure yields the highest photocurrents observed to date for semi-artificial bio-photoelectrodes while the electron transfer rate exceeds by one order of magnitude the one observed in nature.

Toward higher efficiency and flexible photovoltaics
This improvement increases the efficiency of our initial biophotovoltaic concept from the nanowatt to the microwatt range. In the short term, silicon-based photovoltaics will still outperform the bio-devices in terms of stability and efficiency. Nevertheless, initial applications of bio-photovoltaics do not overlap with their semi-conductor counter parts. In particular, they may be used to generate the power of micro-sized medical devices such as sensors implanted in contact lenses. As future prospect, the photosystem provides the basis for developing cheap and flexible solar cells to be applied on uneven surfaces.

Project funding
This work was supported by the Cluster of Excellence RESOLV (EXC 1069) funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), by the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) within the Project Taschentuchlabor (03IS2201F)and by the COST Action TD1102 PHOTOTECH

Story Source:
The above story is based on materials provided by Ruhr-Universitaet-Bochum. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length.

Journal Reference:

Tim Kothe, Sascha Pöller, Fangyuan Zhao, Philippe Fortgang, Matthias Rögner, Wolfgang Schuhmann, Nicolas Plumeré. Engineered Electron-Transfer Chain in Photosystem 1 Based Photocathodes Outperforms Electron-Transfer Rates in Natural Photosynthesis. Chemistry - A European Journal, 2014; DOI: 10.1002/chem.201402585

People More Influenced by Self Interest

Neuroscience News

August 21, 2014 from link: http://neurosciencenews.com/psychology-self-interest-inequity-1243/

Featured, Psychology

A new study reports humans are less concerned about inequity to others.

Strongly influenced by their self-interest, humans do not protest being overcompensated, even when there are no consequences, researchers in Georgia State University’s Brains and Behavior Program have found.

This could imply that humans are less concerned than previously believed about the inequity of others, researchers said. Their findings are published in the journal Brain Connectivity. These findings suggest humans’ sense of unfairness is affected by their self-interest, indicating the interest humans show in others’ outcomes is a recently evolved propensity.

It has long been known that humans show sensitivity when they are at a disadvantage by refusing or protesting outcomes more often when they are offered less money than a social partner. But the research team of physics graduate students Bidhan Lamichhane and Bhim Adhikari and Brains and Behavior faculty Dr. Sarah Brosnan, associate professor of psychology, and Dr. Mukesh Dhamala, associate professor of physics and astronomy, reports that, contrary to expectations, humans do not show any sensitivity when they are overcompensated. They conclude that humans are more interested in their own outcomes than those of others.

“A true sense of fairness means that I get upset if I get paid more than you because I don’t think that’s fair,” Brosnan said. “We thought that people would protest quite a bit in the fixed decision game because it’s a cost-free way to say, ‘This isn’t fair.’ But that’s not what we saw at all. People protested higher offers at roughly the same rate that they refused offers where they got more, indicating that this lack of refusal in advantaged situations may not be because of the cost of refusing. It may just be because people don’t care as much as we thought they did if they’re getting more than someone else.”

This image shows the location of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in the brain.

The study helped researchers gain new insights into the functional role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and related networks of brain regions for advantageous inequity and protest. This image is for illustrative purposes only. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is labeled and highlighted pink in this brain image. Credit Natalie M. Zahr, Ph.D./Edith V. Sullivan, Ph.D/NIH.

The researchers also used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study the underlying brain mechanisms from 18 participants, who played three two-person economic exchange games that involved inequity in their favor and not in their favor. Overcompensated offers triggered a different brain circuit than undercompensated offers and indicate that people may be responding to overcompensation as if it were a reward. This could explain the lack of refusals in this unfair situation, researchers said.

Each game involved three offers for how $100 would be split: fair (amount between $40 to $60), unfair-low (disadvantageous to the subject, amount between $0 to $20) and unfair-overcompensated (advantageous to the subject, amount between $80 to $100). Participants played 30 rounds of each game and earned about two percent of the total amount from the games.

In the first two games, the subject received an offer for how much money they would receive and were then asked whether they wanted to reject or accept it. In the Ultimatum Game, if the responder rejected the offer, neither player received any money, leading to a fair outcome. In the Impunity Game, if the subject rejected the offer, only he or she lost the payoff, meaning the outcome was even more unfair than the offer. The subject got nothing, but the partner still got their proposed amount. In the Fixed Decision Game, the subject could choose to protest or not protest the offers, but this didn’t change the outcome for either player. This allowed subjects to protest offers without an associated cost.

The blood-oxygen level dependent signals of the brain were recorded by an MRI scanner as participants played the games. The results of brain response provided new insights into the functional role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and related networks of brain regions for advantageous inequity and protest.

A network of brain regions consisting of the left caudate, right cingulate and right thalamus had a higher level of activity for overcompensated offers than for fair offers. For protest, a different network, consisting of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, left ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and left substantia nigra, came into play. The researchers also mapped out how the brain activity flow occurred within these networks during decision-making.

Notes about this psychology research

The study was funded by a grant from the Brains and Behavior Program at Georgia State.

Source: LaTina Emerson – Georgia State University

Contact: Georgia State University press release

Image Source: The image is credited to Natalie M. Zahr, Ph.D./Edith V. Sullivan, Ph.D/NIH and is in the public domain

Original Research: Abstract for “The Neural Basis of Perceived Unfairness in Economic Exchanges” by Mr. Bidhan Lamichhane, Mr. Bhim Mani Adhikari, Dr. Sarah F Brosnan, and Dr. Mukesh Dhamala in Brain Connectivity. Published online August 4 2014 doi:10.1089/brain.2014.0243

Children with Autism Have Extra Synapses in Brain

Neuroscience News

August 21, 2014

Original link: http://neurosciencenews.com/autism-autophagy-synapses-neuroscience-1241/

Autism, Electrophysiology, Featured

May be possible to prune synapses with drug after diagnosis.

Children and adolescents with autism have a surplus of synapses in the brain, and this excess is due to a slowdown in a normal brain “pruning” process during development, according to a study by neuroscientists at Columbia University Medical Center (CUMC). Because synapses are the points where neurons connect and communicate with each other, the excessive synapses may have profound effects on how the brain functions. The study was published in the August 21 online issue of the journal Neuron.

A drug that restores normal synaptic pruning can improve autistic-like behaviors in mice, the researchers found, even when the drug is given after the behaviors have appeared.
“This is an important finding that could lead to a novel and much-needed therapeutic strategy for autism,” said Jeffrey Lieberman, MD, Lawrence C. Kolb Professor and Chair of Psychiatry at CUMC and director of New York State Psychiatric Institute, who was not involved in the study.

This image is a neuron from the brain of a young person with autism.

A neuron from the brain of young person with autism. A new study finds that young people with autism have excess synapses. Credit Guomei Tang and Mark S. Sonders/CUMC.

Although the drug, rapamycin, has side effects that may preclude its use in people with autism, “the fact that we can see changes in behavior suggests that autism may still be treatable after a child is diagnosed, if we can find a better drug,” said the study’s senior investigator, David Sulzer, PhD, professor of neurobiology in the Departments of Psychiatry, Neurology, and Pharmacology at CUMC.

During normal brain development, a burst of synapse formation occurs in infancy, particularly in the cortex, a region involved in autistic behaviors; pruning eliminates about half of these cortical synapses by late adolescence. Synapses are known to be affected by many genes linked to autism, and some researchers have hypothesized that people with autism may have more synapses.

To test this hypothesis, co-author Guomei Tang, PhD, assistant professor of neurology at CUMC, examined brains from children with autism who had died from other causes. Thirteen brains came from children ages two to 9, and thirteen brains came from children ages 13 to 20. Twenty-two brains from children without autism were also examined for comparison.

Dr. Tang measured synapse density in a small section of tissue in each brain by counting the number of tiny spines that branch from these cortical neurons; each spine connects with another neuron via a synapse.

By late childhood, she found, spine density had dropped by about half in the control brains, but by only 16 percent in the brains from autism patients.

“It’s the first time that anyone has looked for, and seen, a lack of pruning during development of children with autism,” Dr. Sulzer said, “although lower numbers of synapses in some brain areas have been detected in brains from older patients and in mice with autistic-like behaviors.”

Clues to what caused the pruning defect were also found in the patients’ brains; the autistic children’s brain cells were filled with old and damaged parts and were very deficient in a degradation pathway known as “autophagy.” Cells use autophagy (a term from the Greek for self-eating) to degrade their own components.

The image shows neurons from a control brain and a brain of a person with autism.

Autistic brains do not undergo normal pruning during childhood and adolescence. The images show representative neurons from autistic (left) and control (right) brains; the spines on the neurons indicate the location of synapses. Credit Guomei Tang and Mark S. Sonders/CUMC.

Using mouse models of autism, the researchers traced the pruning defect to a protein called mTOR. When mTOR is overactive, they found, brain cells lose much of their “self-eating” ability. And without this ability, the brains of the mice were pruned poorly and contained excess synapses. “While people usually think of learning as requiring formation of new synapses, “Dr. Sulzer says, “the removal of inappropriate synapses may be just as important.”

The researchers could restore normal autophagy and synaptic pruning—and reverse autistic-like behaviors in the mice—by administering rapamycin, a drug that inhibits mTOR. The drug was effective even when administered to the mice after they developed the behaviors, suggesting that such an approach may be used to treat patients even after the disorder has been diagnosed.

Because large amounts of overactive mTOR were also found in almost all of the brains of the autism patients, the same processes may occur in children with autism.

“What’s remarkable about the findings,” said Dr. Sulzer, “is that hundreds of genes have been linked to autism, but almost all of our human subjects had overactive mTOR and decreased autophagy, and all appear to have a lack of normal synaptic pruning. This says that many, perhaps the majority, of genes may converge onto this mTOR/autophagy pathway, the same way that many tributaries all lead into the Mississippi River. Overactive mTOR and reduced autophagy, by blocking normal synaptic pruning that may underlie learning appropriate behavior, may be a unifying feature of autism.”
Alan Packer, PhD, senior scientist at the Simons Foundation, which funded the research, said the study is an important step forward in understanding what’s happening in the brains of people with autism.

The image is shows two brain slices, one shows the impairment in neurons of autistic patients with decreased autophagy marker.

A “self-eating” impairment in the neurons of autism patients is shown with the decrease of an autophagy marker (red color) compared to unaffected neurons. Credit Guomei Tang/CUMC.

“The current view is that autism is heterogeneous, with potentially hundreds of genes that can contribute. That’s a very wide spectrum, so the goal now is to understand how those hundreds of genes cluster together into a smaller number of pathways; that will give us better clues to potential treatments,” he said.

“The mTOR pathway certainly looks like one of these pathways. It is possible that screening for mTOR and autophagic activity will provide a means to diagnose some features of autism, and normalizing these pathways might help to treat synaptic dysfunction and treat the disease.”

Notes about this Autism research

The paper is titled, “Loss of mTOR-dependent macroautophagy causes autistic-like synaptic pruning deficits.” Other authors are: Kathryn Gudsnuk, Sheng-Han Kuo, Marisa L. Cotrina, Gorazd Rosoklija, AlexanderSosunov, Mark S. Sonders, Ellen Kanter, Candace Castagna, Ai Yamamoto, OttavioArancio, Bradley S. Peterson, Frances Champagne, Andrew J. Dwork, and James Goldman from CUMC; and Zhenyu Yue (Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai). Marisa Cotrina is now at the University of Rochester.

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

This study was supported by the Simons Foundation, with additional funding from the U.S. Department of Defense (TS110056), the Parkinson’s Disease Foundation, JPB Foundation, National Institutes of Health (K01MH096956, R01MH64168, DP2OD001674, R01NS049442), and the American Heart Association. Harvard Brain Bank and Maryland NICHD Brain & Tissue Bank provided brain tissue.

Source: Karin Eskenazi – Columbia University Medical Center

Contact: Columbia University Medical Center press release

Image Source: The images are credited to Guomei Tang and Mark S. Sonders, and are adapted from the Columbia University Medical Center press release

Original Research: Abstract for “Loss of mTOR-Dependent Macroautophagy Causes Autistic-like Synaptic Pruning Deficits” by Guomei Tang, Kathryn Gudsnuk, Sheng-Han Kuo, Marisa L. Cotrina, Gorazd Rosoklija, Alexander Sosunov, Mark S. Sonders, Ellen Kanter, Candace Castagna, Ai Yamamoto, Zhenyu Yue, Ottavio Arancio, Bradley S. Peterson, Frances Champagne, Andrew J. Dwork, James Goldman, and David Sulzer in Neuron. Published online August 21 2014 doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2014.07.040

Catch-22

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Catch-22
First edition cover
Author	Joseph Heller
Cover artist	Paul Bacon^[1]
Country	USA
Language	English
Genre	Black humor, absurdist fiction, satire, war fiction, historical fiction
Publisher	Simon & Schuster
Publication date	11 November 1961
Media type	Print (hardback)
Pages	453 pp (1st edition hardback)
ISBN	0-684-83339-5
OCLC	35231812
Dewey Decimal	813/.54 22
LC Class	PS3558.E476 C3 2004
Followed by	Closing Time (1994)

Catch-22 is a satirical novel by the American author Joseph Heller. He began writing it in 1953; the novel was first published in 1961. It is set during World War II from 1942 to 1944. It is frequently cited as one of the greatest literary works of the twentieth century.^[2] It uses a distinctive non-chronological third-person omniscient narration, describing events from the points of view of different characters. The separate storylines are out of sequence so that the timeline develops along with the plot.

The novel follows Captain John Yossarian, a U.S. Army Air Forces B-25 bombardier. Most of the events in the book occur while the fictional 256th Squadron is based on the island of Pianosa, in the Mediterranean Sea, west of Italy. The novel looks into the experiences of Yossarian and the other airmen in the camp. It focuses on their attempts to keep their sanity in order to fulfill their service requirements so that they may return home.

The phrase "Catch-22" has entered the English language, referring to a type of unsolvable logic puzzle.

Concept

Strictly speaking, a "Catch-22" is "a problematic situation for which the only solution is denied by a circumstance inherent in the problem or by a rule."^[3] For example, losing something is typically a conventional problem; to solve it, you look for the lost item until you find it. But if the thing you've lost is your glasses, you can't see to look for them – a Catch-22. A few more examples: If the lights are out in a room, you can't see to find the light switch. If you lock your keys in your car, you can't unlock the car to retrieve them. If you don't have work experience, you can't get a job to gain experience. If you don't have money, you can't invest to make money. The term "Catch-22" is also used more broadly to mean a tricky problem or a no-win or absurd situation.

In the book, Catch-22 is a military rule typifying bureaucratic operation and reasoning. The rule is never explicitly stated, but the principal example in the book fits the definition above: If you are crazy, you can be discharged from the army. But you have to apply for the discharge, and applying demonstrates that you are not crazy. As a result, you will not be discharged. The narrator explains:

There was only one catch and that was Catch-22, which specified that a concern for one's safety in the face of dangers that were real and immediate was the process of a rational mind. Orr was crazy and could be grounded. All he had to do was ask; and as soon as he did, he would no longer be crazy and would have to fly more missions. Orr would be crazy to fly more missions and sane if he didn't, but if he were sane he had to fly them. If he flew them he was crazy and didn't have to; but if he didn't want to he was sane and had to. Yossarian was moved very deeply by the absolute simplicity of this clause of Catch-22 and let out a respectful whistle. (p. 56, ch. 5)

Other forms of Catch-22 are invoked throughout the novel to justify various bureaucratic actions. At one point, victims of harassment by military police quote the MPs' explanation of one of Catch-22's provisions: "Catch-22 states that agents enforcing Catch-22 need not prove that Catch-22 actually contains whatever provision the accused violator is accused of violating." Another character explains: "Catch-22 says they have a right to do anything we can't stop them from doing."

Yossarian comes to realize that Catch-22 does not actually exist, but because the powers that be claim it does, and the world believes it does, it nevertheless has potent effects. Indeed, because it does not exist, there is no way it can be repealed, undone, overthrown, or denounced. The combination of force with specious and spurious legalistic justification is one of the book's primary motifs.

The motif of bureaucratic absurdity is further explored in 1994's Closing Time, Heller's sequel to Catch-22. This darker, slower-paced, apocalyptic novel explores the pre- and post-war lives of some of the major characters in Catch-22, with particular emphasis on the relationship between Yossarian and tailgunner Sammy Singer.

Synopsis

The development of the novel can be split into segments. The first (chapters 1–11) broadly follows the story fragmented between characters, but in a single chronological time in 1943. The second (chapters 12–20) flashes back to focus primarily on the "Great Big Siege of Bologna" before once again jumping to the chronological "present" of 1943 in the third part (chapter 21–25). The fourth (chapters 26–28) flashes back to the origins and growth of Milo's syndicate, with the fifth part (chapter 28–32) returning again to the narrative "present" but keeping to the same tone of the previous four. In the sixth and final part (chapter 32 on) while remaining in the "present" time the novel takes a much darker turn and spends the remaining chapters focusing on the serious and brutal nature of war and life in general.^[4]

While the first five parts "sections" develop the novel in the present and through use of flash-backs, the novel significantly darkens in chapters 32–41. Previously the reader had been cushioned from experiencing the full horror of events, but now the events are laid bare, allowing the full effect to take place. The horror begins with the attack on the undefended Italian mountain village, with the following chapters involving despair (Doc Daneeka and the Chaplain), disappearance in combat (Orr and Clevinger), disappearance caused by the army (Dunbar) or death of most of Yossarian's friends (Nately, McWatt, Mudd, Kid Sampson, Dobbs, Chief White Halfoat and Hungry Joe), culminating in the unspeakable horrors of Chapter 39, in particular the rape and murder of Michaela, who represents pure innocence.^[4] In Chapter 41, the full details of the gruesome death of Snowden are finally revealed.

Despite this, the novel ends on an upbeat note with Yossarian learning of Orr's miraculous escape to Sweden and Yossarian's pledge to follow him there.

Style

Many events in the book are repeatedly described from differing points of view, so the reader learns more about each event from each iteration, with the new information often completing a joke, the punchline of which was told several chapters previously. The narrative's events are out of sequence, but events are referred to as if the reader is already familiar with them, so that the reader must ultimately piece together a timeline of events. Specific words, phrases, and questions are also repeated frequently, generally to comic effect.

Much of Heller's prose in Catch-22 is circular and repetitive, exemplifying in its form the structure of a Catch-22. Heller revels in paradox, for example: "The Texan turned out to be good-natured, generous and likable. In three days no one could stand him", and "The case against Clevinger was open and shut. The only thing missing was something to charge him with." This atmosphere of apparently logical irrationality pervades the book.

While a few characters are most prominent, notably Yossarian and the Chaplain, the majority of named characters are described in detail with fleshed out or multidimensional personas to the extent that there are few if any "minor characters."

Although its non-chronological structure may at first seem aleatoric, Catch 22 is actually highly structured. A structure of free association, ideas run into one another through seemingly random connections. For example, Chapter 1 entitled "The Texan" ends with "everybody but the CID man, who had caught cold from the fighter captain and come down with pneumonia."^[5] Chapter 2, entitled "Clevinger", begins with "In a way the CID man was pretty lucky, because outside the hospital the war was still going on."^[6] The CID man connects the two chapters like a free association bridge and eventually Chapter 2 flows from the CID man to Clevinger through more free association links.
Yossarian comes to fear his commanding officers more than he fears the Germans attempting to shoot him down and he feels that "they" are "out to get him." Key among the reasons Yossarian fears his commanders more than the enemy is that as he flies more missions, Colonel Cathcart increases the number of required combat missions before a soldier may return home; he reaches the magic number only to have it retroactively raised. He comes to despair of ever getting home and is greatly relieved when he is sent to the hospital for a condition that is almost jaundice. In Yossarian's words:

The enemy is anybody who's going to get you killed, no matter which side he's on, and that includes Colonel Cathcart. And don't you forget that, because the longer you remember it, the longer you might live.^[7]

While the military's enemies are Germans, none appear in the story as an enemy combatant. This ironic situation is epitomized in the single appearance of German personnel in the novel, who act as pilots employed by the squadron's Mess Officer, Milo Minderbinder, to bomb the American encampment on Pianosa. This predicament indicates a tension between traditional motives for violence and the modern economic machine, which seems to generate violence simply as another means to profit, quite independent of geographical or ideological constraints. Heller emphasizes the danger of profit seeking by portraying Milo without "evil intent"; Milo's actions are portrayed as the result of greed, not malice.^[8]

Influences

Heller wanted to be a writer from an early age; his experiences as a bombardier during World War II inspired Catch-22;^[9] Heller later said that he "never had a bad officer." In a 1977 essay on Catch-22, Heller stated that the "antiwar and antigovernment feelings in the book" were a product of the Korean War and the 1950s rather than World War II itself. Heller's criticisms are not intended for World War II but for the Cold War and McCarthyism.^[10]

The influence of the 1950s on Catch-22 is evident through Heller's extensive use of anachronism. Though the novel is ostensibly set in World War II, Heller intentionally included anachronisms like loyalty oaths and computers (IBM machines) to situate the novel in the context of the 1950s.^[8] Many of the characters are based on or connected to individuals from the 1950s:

Milo Minderbinder's maxim "What's good for M&M Enterprises is good for the country" alludes to former president of General Motors Charles Erwin Wilson's statement before the Senate "What's good for General Motors is good for the country."^[8]
The question of "Who promoted Major Major?" alludes to Joseph McCarthy's questioning of the promotion of Major Peress, an army dentist who refused to sign loyalty oaths.^[8]

Czech writer Arnošt Lustig recounts in his book 3x18 that Joseph Heller told him that he would never have written Catch-22 had he not first read The Good Soldier Švejk by Jaroslav Hašek.^[11]

In 1998, some critics raised the possibility that Heller's book had questionable similarities to Louis Falstein's 1950 novel, Face of a Hero. Falstein never raised the issue between Catch-22's publication and his death in 1995 and Heller claimed never to have been aware of the obscure novel. Heller said that the novel had been influenced by Céline, Waugh and Nabokov. Many of the similarities have been stated to be attributable to the authors' experiences, both having served as U.S. Air Force aircrew in Italy in World War II. However, their themes and styles are different.^[12]

Literary allusions

Catch-22 contains allusions to many works of literature. Howard Jacobson, in his 2004 introduction to the Vintage Classics publication, wrote that the novel was "positioned teasingly ... between literature and literature's opposites – between Shakespeare and Rabelais and Dickens and Dostoevsky and Gogol and Céline and the Absurdists and of course Kafka on the one hand, and on the other vaudeville and slapstick and Bilko and Abbott and Costello and Tom and Jerry and the Goons (if Heller had ever heard of the Goons)."^[13] One critic argues that it is Kafka's influence that can be seen most strongly in the novel:

Like Kafka's heroes, Yossarian is riddled with anxiety and caught in an inexorable nightmare – in his case created by Colonel Cathcart and the inevitability of him raising the number of missions he has to fly.^[14]

Historical context

The idea for Catch-22 was based on Joseph Heller's personal experience in World War II. The feelings that Yossarian and the other bomber pilots felt were taken directly from problems he suffered while on duty. Heller flew 60 bombing missions from May to October in 1944. Heller mentions that he should have been killed three times over, since the average death rate was 5% per mission. Heller was able to make it out of the war, but the experience tortured him and it took until 1953 before he could start writing about it. The war experience turned Heller into a "tortured, funny, deeply peculiar human being".^[15]

After publication in 1961, Catch-22 became very popular among teenagers at the time. Catch-22 seemed to embody the feelings that young people had toward the Vietnam War. It was joked around that every student who went off to college at the time took along a copy of Catch-22. The popularity of the book created a cult following, which led to over eight million copies being sold in the United States. There are many^[who?]^{[not in citation given]} who feel that "the comic fable that ends in horror has become more and more clearly a reflection of the altogether uncomic and horrifying realities of the world in which we live and hope to survive."^[16]

Explanation of the novel's title

The title is a reference to a fictional bureaucratic stipulation which embodies forms of illogical and immoral reasoning. The opening chapter of the novel was originally published in New World Writing as Catch-18 in 1955, but Heller's agent, Candida Donadio, requested that he change the title of the novel, so it would not be confused with another recently published World War II novel, Leon Uris's Mila 18. The number 18 has special meaning in Judaism (it means Alive in Gematria; see Chai) and was relevant to early drafts of the novel which had a somewhat greater Jewish emphasis.^[17]

The title Catch-11 was suggested, with the duplicated 1 paralleling the repetition found in a number of character exchanges in the novel, but because of the release of the 1960 movie Ocean's Eleven, this was also rejected. Catch-17 was rejected so as not to be confused with the World War II film Stalag 17, as was Catch-14, apparently because the publisher did not feel that 14 was a "funny number." Eventually the title came to be Catch-22, which, like 11, has a duplicated digit, with the 2 also referring to a number of déjà vu-like events common in the novel.^[17]

Publication and movie rights

Catch-22 was sold to Simon & Schuster, where it had been championed by editor Robert Gottlieb, who would edit and oversee the marketing of the book. Nina Bourne also participated in editing the book. Officially published on 10 October 1961, the hardcover sold for $5.95. The book was not a best-seller in hardcover in the United States. Though it sold 12,000 copies by Thanksgiving, it never entered the New York Times Bestseller List. Catch-22 got good notices and was nominated for the National Book Award in March 1962. (Heller lost out to Walker Percy's The Moviegoer.) It went through four printings in hardcover, but only sold well on the East Coast. The book never established itself nationally until it was published in paperback for 75 cents.^[18]

Upon publication in Great Britain, the book became the #1 best-seller.^[18] Don Fine of Dell Paperbacks bought the paperback reprint rights to Catch-22 for $32,000. Between the paperback's release in September 1962 and April 1963, it sold 1.1 million copies.^[18] In August 1962, Donadio brokered the sale of movie rights to Columbia Pictures for $100,000 plus $25,000 to write a treatment or a first draft of a screenplay.^[18]

Reception

The initial reviews of the book ranged from very positive to very negative. There were positive reviews from The Nation, ("the best novel to come out in years"), the New York Herald Tribune ("A wild, moving, shocking, hilarious, raging, exhilarating, giant roller-coaster of a book") and The New York Times ("A dazzling performance that will outrage nearly as many readers as it delights"). On the other hand, The New Yorker, ("doesn't even seem to be written; instead, it gives the impression of having been shouted onto paper," "what remains is a debris of sour jokes") and a second review from the New York Times ("repetitive and monotonous. Or one can say that it is too short because none of its many interesting characters and actions is given enough play to become a controlling interest")^[19] disliked it. One commentator of Catch-22 recognized that "many early audiences liked the book for just the same reasons that caused others to hate it"^[20] The book had a cult following though, especially among teenagers and college students. Heller remarks that in 1962, after appearing on the Today show he went out drinking with the host at the time, John Chancellor, who handed him stickers that Chancellor got privately printed reading "YOSSARIAN LIVES". Heller also said that Chancellor had been secretly putting them on the walls of the corridors and executive bathrooms in the NBC building.^[20]

Although the novel won no awards upon release, it has remained in print and is seen as one of the most significant American novels of the 20th century.^[2] Scholar and fellow World War II veteran Hugh Nibley said it was the most accurate book he ever read about the military.^[21] Since its release in 1961, the book has sold 10 million copies.

Rankings

The Modern Library ranked Catch-22 as the 7th (by review panel) and 12th (by public) greatest English language novel of the 20th century.^[22]
The Radcliffe Publishing Course rank Catch-22 as number 15 of the 20th century's top 100 novels.^[23]
The Observer listed Catch-22 as one of the 100 greatest novels of all time.^[24]
TIME puts Catch-22 in the top 100 English language modern novels (1923 onwards, unranked).^[25]
The Big Read by the BBC ranked Catch-22 as number 11 on a web poll of the UK's best-loved book.^[26]

Adaptations

Opening title of the film adaptation

Catch-22 was adapted into a feature film of the same name in 1970, directed by Mike Nichols.
Catch-22 (play): Aquila Theatre produced a stage adaptation of Catch-22, based on Heller's 1971 stage adaption. It was directed by Peter Meineck. This production toured the USA in 2007/8 with a New York City production in the fall of 2008.^[27]
A pilot for a comedy series based upon Catch-22 was made and televised in 1973, with Richard Dreyfuss in the starring role of Capt. Yossarian.^[28]

Selected releases

This list covers the first and most recent printed publications by the original publisher Simon & Schuster as well as all other formats. Other print publishers include Dell, Corgi, Vintage, Knopf, Black Swan, Grasset & Fasquelle and Wahlström & Widstrand.

The original manuscript is held by Brandeis University.^[29]

1961, Simon & Schuster ISBN 0-671-12805-1, pub date June 1961, Hardback
1961, Simon & Schuster ISBN 0-440-51120-8, advance Paperback with signed bookplate
1978, Franklin Library ISBN 0-8124-1717-8, signed limited edition Leather Bound
1996, Simon & Schuster ISBN 0-684-83339-5, pub date September 1996 Paperback
1999, Simon & Schuster ISBN 0-684-86513-0, pub date October 1999, Hardback
1980, Books On Tape ISBN 0-7366-8962-1, unabridged Audio Cassette reader Wolfram Kandinsky
1984, Caedmon Audio ISBN 0-694-50253-7, Audio Cassette
1990, Books On Tape ISBN 0-7366-9085-9, unabridged Audio CD reader Jim Weiss
1994, DH Audio ISBN 0-88646-125-1, abridged edition Audio Cassette reader Alan Arkin
2007, Caedmon ISBN 978-0-06-126246-3, unabridged Audio CD reader Jay O. Sanders
2008, Hachette Audio ISBN 978-1-4055-0387-7, unabridged Audio CD reader Trevor White^{[disambiguation needed]}

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Friday, August 22, 2014

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Thursday, August 21, 2014

Featured Research

A semi-artificial leaf faster than 'natural' photosynthesis

People More Influenced by Self Interest

Children with Autism Have Extra Synapses in Brain

Notes about this Autism research

Catch-22

Concept

Synopsis

Style

Influences

Literary allusions

Historical context

Explanation of the novel's title

Publication and movie rights

Reception

Rankings

Adaptations

Selected releases