Artist's impression of multi-megawatt VASIMR spacecraft
The Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR) is an electromagnetic thruster under development for possible use in spacecraft propulsion. It uses radio waves to ionize and heat a propellant. Then a magnetic field accelerates the resulting plasma to generate thrust (plasma propulsion engine). It is one of several types of spacecraft electric propulsion systems.
The VASIMR method for heating plasma was originally developed from nuclear fusion research. It is intended to bridge the gap between high-thrust, low-specific impulse and low-thrust, high-specific impulse systems, and is capable of functioning in either mode. Former NASA astronaut Franklin Chang Díaz created the VASIMR concept and has been developing it since 1977.
VASIMRs units for development and test are assembled by Ad Astra Rocket Company in Costa Rica.
Design and operation
VASIMR schematic
VASIMR, sometimes referred to as the Electro-thermal Plasma Thruster or Electro-thermal Magnetoplasma Rocket, uses radio waves
to ionize and heat the propellant, which is then accelerated with
magnetic fields to generate thrust. This engine is electrodeless, of the
same propulsion family as the electrodeless plasma thruster, the microwave arcjet, or the pulsed inductive thruster class. It can be thought of as an electrodeless version of an arcjet rocket
that can reach higher propellant temperature by limiting the heat flux
from the plasma to the structure. Neither type of engine uses electrodes; this eliminates the electrode erosion that shortens the life of other ion thruster designs. Since every part of a VASIMR engine is magnetically shielded
and does not directly contact plasma, the durability of this engine is
predicted to be greater than many other ion/plasma engines.
VASIMR has been described as a convergent-divergent nozzle for ions and electrons. The propellant (a neutral gas such as argon or xenon)
is injected into a hollow cylinder surfaced with electromagnets. On
entering the engine, the gas is first heated to a “cold plasma” by a
helicon RF antenna (also known as a “coupler”) that bombards the gas
with electromagnetic waves, stripping electrons off the propellant atoms
and producing a plasma of ions and loose electrons that flow down the
engine compartment. By varying the amount of energy dedicated to RF
heating and the amount of propellant delivered for plasma generation,
VASIMR is capable of generating either low-thrust, high–specific impulse
exhaust or relatively high-thrust, low–specific impulse exhaust.
The second phase of the engine is a strong electromagnet positioned to
compress the ionized plasma in a similar fashion to a
convergent-divergent nozzle that compresses gas in traditional rocket
engines.
A second coupler, known as the Ion Cyclotron Heating (ICH)
section, emits electromagnetic waves in resonance with the orbits of
ions and electrons as they travel through the engine. Resonance is
achieved through a reduction of the magnetic field in this portion of
the engine that slows the orbital motion of the plasma particles. This
section further heats the plasma to greater than 1,000,000 K
(1,000,000 °C; 1,800,000 °F) —about 173 times the temperature of the Sun's surface.
The path of ions and electrons through the engine approximates
lines parallel to the engine walls; however, the particles actually
orbit those lines while traveling linearly through the engine. The
final, diverging, section of the engine contains an expanding magnetic
field that drives the ions and electrons in steadily expanding spirals
and ejects them from the engine, parallel and opposite to the direction
of motion at velocities as great as 50,000 m/s (110,000 mph).
Advantages and drawbacks
In contrast to the typical cyclotron resonance heating processes, VASIMR ions are immediately ejected from the magnetic nozzle before they achieve thermalized distribution. Based on novel theoretical work in 2004 by Alexey V. Arefiev and Boris N. Breizman of University of Texas at Austin, virtually all of the energy in the ion cyclotron
wave is uniformly transferred to ionized plasma in a single-pass
cyclotron absorption process. This allows for ions to leave the magnetic
nozzle with a very narrow energy distribution, and for significantly
simplified and compact magnet arrangement in the engine.
VASIMR does not use electrodes; instead, it magnetically shields
plasma from most hardware parts, thus eliminating electrode erosion, a
major source of wear in ion engines.
Compared to traditional rocket engines with very complex plumbing, high
performance valves, actuators and turbopumps, VASIMR has almost no
moving parts (apart from minor ones, like gas valves), maximizing long
term durability.
However, new problems emerge, such as interaction with strong
magnetic fields and thermal management. The relatively large power at
which VASIMR operates generates substantial waste heat that needs to be channeled away without creating thermal overload and thermal stress. Powerful superconducting electromagnets, necessary to contain hot plasma, generate tesla-range magnetic fields that can cause problems with other onboard devices and produce unwanted torque by interaction with the magnetosphere.
To counter this latter effect, the VF-200 consists of two 100 kW
thruster units packaged with magnetic fields oriented in opposite
directions, making a net zero-torque magnetic quadrupole.
Research and development
The testing vacuum chamber, containing the 50 kW VASIMR, operated in ASPL in 2005–2006
The first VASIMR experiment was conducted at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1983 on the magnetic mirror
plasma device. Important refinements were introduced to the rocket
concept in the 1990s, including the use of the "helicon" plasma source,
which replaced the plasma gun originally envisioned and made the rocket
completely "electrodeless"—adding to durability and long life. A new patent was granted in 2002.
In 1995, the Advanced Space Propulsion Laboratory (ASPL) was founded at NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, in the Sonny Carter Training Facility. The magnetic mirror device was brought from MIT. The first plasma experiment in Houston was conducted with a microwave plasma source. Collaboration was established with University of Houston, UT-Austin, Rice University and other academic institutions.
In 1998, the first helicon plasma experiment was performed at the
ASPL. VASIMR experiment (VX) 10 in 1998 achieved a helicon RF plasma
discharge as great as 10 kW, VX-25 in 2002 as great as 25 kW, and VX-50
as great as 50 kW. In March 2000, the VASIMR group was given a Rotary
National Award for Space Achievement/Stellar Award. By 2005
breakthroughs were obtained at ASPL including full/efficient plasma
production and acceleration of the plasma ions. VX-50 proved capable of
0.5 newtons (0.1 lbf) of thrust.
Published data on VX-50, capable of 50 kW of total radio frequency
power, showed ICRF (second stage) efficiency to be 59% calculated by 90%
NA coupling efficiency × 65% NB ion speed boosting efficiency.
Ad Astra Rocket Company (AARC) was incorporated on January 14, 2005. On June 23, 2005, Ad Astra and NASA signed the first Space Act Agreement to privatize VASIMR Technology. On July 8, 2005, Díaz
retired from NASA after 25 years. Ad Astra’s Board of Directors was
formed and Díaz became chairman and CEO on July 15, 2005. In July 2006,
AARC opened its Costa Rica subsidiary in Liberia on the campus of Earth University.
In December 2006, AARC-Costa Rica performed its first plasma experiment
on the VX-CR device, using helicon ionization of argon.
The 100 kilowatt VASIMR experiment was successfully running by
2007 and demonstrated efficient plasma production with an ionization
cost below 100 eV. VX-100 plasma output tripled the prior record of the VX-50.
Model VX-100 was expected to have NB ion speed boosting efficiency of 80%.
Instead, efficiency losses emerged from the conversion of DC electric
current to radio frequency power and the energy consumption of the
auxiliary equipment for the superconducting magnet. By comparison, 2009
state-of-the-art, proven ion engine designs such as NASA's High Power Electric Propulsion (HiPEP) operated at 80% total thruster/PPU energy efficiency.
200 kW engine
On October 24, 2008 the company announced that the plasma generation component of the VX-200 engine—helicon
first stage or solid-state high frequency power transmitter—had reached
operational status. The key enabling technology, solid-state DC-RF
power-processing, reached 98% efficiency. The helicon discharge used
30 kW of radio waves to turn argon
gas into plasma. The remaining 170 kW of power was allocated for
acceleration of plasma in the second part of the engine, via ion
cyclotron resonance heating.
Based on data from VX-100 testing, it was expected that the VX-200 engine would have a system efficiency of 60–65% and thrust level of 5 N. Optimal specific impulse
appeared to be around 5,000 s using low cost argon propellant. One of
the remaining untested issues was potential vs actual thrust—whether the
hot plasma actually detached from the rocket. Another issue was waste
heat management. About 60% of input energy became useful kinetic energy.
Much of the remaining 40% is secondary ionizations from plasma crossing
magnetic field lines and exhaust divergence. A significant portion of
that 40% was waste heat. Managing and rejecting that waste heat is critical.
VX-200 plasma engine at full power, employing both stages with full magnetic field
Between April and September 2009, tests were performed on the VX-200 prototype with integrated 2-tesla superconducting magnets. They expanded the power range of the VASIMR to its operational capability of 200 kW.
During November 2010, long duration, full power firing tests were
performed, reaching steady state operation for 25 seconds and
validating basic design characteristics.
Results presented in January 2011 confirmed that the design point
for optimal efficiency on the VX-200 is 50 km/s exhaust velocity, or an
Isp of 5000 s. Based on these data, thruster efficiency of 72% was achieved,
yielding overall system efficiency (DC electricity to thruster power)
of 60% (since the DC to RF power conversion efficiency exceeds 95%) with
argon propellant. VX-200 generates a thrust of around 5.4 N at 200 kW total RF power, and 3.2 N at 100 kW RF power.
The 200 kW VX-200 had executed more than 10,000 engine firings by
2013, while demonstrating greater than 70% thruster efficiency—relative
to RF power input—with argon propellant at full power.
VF-200
The VF-200 flight-rated thruster consists of two 100 kW VASIMR units with opposite magnetic dipoles so that no net torque
is applied to the space station when the thruster magnets are working.
The VF-200-1 is the first flight unit and was slated to be tested in
space attached to the ISS.
NASA partnership
In
June 2005, Ad Astra signed its first Space Act Agreement with NASA,
which led to the development of the VASIMR engine. In December 10, 2007,
AARC and NASA signed an Umbrella Space Act Agreement relating to the
space agency's potential interest in the engine .
In December 8, 2008, NASA and AARC entered into a Space Act Agreement
that could lead to conducting a space flight test of the engine on the
ISS.
From 2008 Ad Astra was working on placing and testing a flight version of the VASIMR thruster for the International Space Station (ISS). The first related agreement with NASA was signed on December 8, 2008, and a formal preliminary design review took plaace on 26 June 2013.
In March 2, 2011, Ad Astra and NASA Johnson Space Center signed a
Support Agreement to collaborate on research, analysis and development
on space-based cryogenic magnet operations and electric propulsion
systems currently under development by Ad Astra.
By February 2011, NASA had assigned 100 people to the project to work
with Ad Astra to integrate the VF-200 onto the International Space
Station. On December 16, 2013, AARC and NASA signed another five-year Umbrella Space Act Agreement.
However, in 2015 NASA ended plans for flying the VF-200 to the
ISS. A NASA spokesperson stated that the ISS "was not an ideal
demonstration platform for the desired performance level of the
engines". Ad Astra stated that tests of a VASIMR thruster on the ISS
would remain an option after a future in-space demonstration.
Work with NASA continued in 2015 under NASA's NextSTEP program with
planning for a 100-hour vacuum chamber test of the VX-200SSTM thruster.
Since the available power from the ISS is less than 200 kW, the
ISS VASIMR would have included a trickle-charged battery system,
allowing for 15-minute pulses of thrust. Testing of the engine on the
ISS would have been valuable, because it orbits at a relatively low altitude and experiences fairly high levels of atmospheric drag, making periodic boosts of altitude
necessary. Currently, altitude reboosting by chemical rockets fulfills
this requirement. The VASIMR test on the ISS might lead to a capability
of maintaining the ISS, or a similar space station, in a stable orbit at
1/20th of the approximately $210 million/year present estimated cost.
VX-200SS
In
March 2015, Ad Astra announced a $10 million award from NASA to advance
the technology readiness of the next version of the VASIMR engine, the VX-200SS (SS stands for steady state) to meet the needs of deep space missions.
In August 2016, Ad Astra announced completion of the milestones
for the first year of its 3-year contract with NASA. This allowed for
first high-power plasma firings of the engines, with a stated goal to
reach 100 hr and 100 kW by mid-2018.
In August 2017, the company reported completing its Year 2 milestones
for the VASIMR electric plasma rocket engine. NASA gave approval for Ad
Astra to proceed with Year 3 after reviewing completion of a 10-hour
cumulative test of the 200SS™ rocket at 100 kW.
Potential applications
VASIMR
is not suitable to launch payloads from the Earth's surface because it
has a low thrust-to-weight ratio and requires an ambient vacuum.
Instead, the engine would function as an upper stage for cargo, reducing
fuel requirements for in-space transport. The engine is anticipated to
perform the following functions at a fraction of the cost of chemical
technologies: drag compensation for space stations, lunar cargo
delivery, satellite repositioning, satellite refueling, maintenance and
repair, in space resource recovery, and deep space robotic missions.
Other applications for VASIMR such as the rapid transportation of
people to Mars would require a very high power, low mass energy source,
such as a nuclear reactor. In 2010 NASA Administrator Charles Bolden
said that VASIMR technology could be the breakthrough technology that
would reduce the travel time on a Mars mission from 2.5 years to 5
months.
In August 2008, Tim Glover, Ad Astra director of development,
publicly stated that the first expected application of VASIMR engine is
"hauling things [non-human cargo] from low-Earth orbit to low-lunar
orbit" supporting NASA's return to Moon efforts.
Space tug/orbital transfer vehicle
The most important near-term application of VASIMR-powered spacecraft
is cargo transport. Studies have shown that, despite longer transit
times, VASIMR-powered spacecraft will be much more efficient than
traditional integrated chemical rockets when moving goods through space.
An orbital transfer vehicle
(OTV)—essentially a "space tug"—powered by a single VF-200 engine would
be capable of transporting about 7 metric tons of cargo from low Earth orbit (LEO) to low Lunar orbit (LLO) with about a six-month transit time.
NASA envisions delivering about 34 metric tons of useful cargo to LLO in a single flight with a chemically propelled vehicle.
To make that trip, about 60 metric tons of LOX-LH2 propellant would be
expended. A comparable OTV would employ 5 VF-200 engines powered by a 1
MW solar array. To do the same job, a VASIMR-powered OTV would need to
expend only about 8 metric tons of argon propellant. The total mass of
such an electric OTV would be in the range of 49 t (outbound &
return fuel: 9 t, hardware: 6 t, cargo 34 t).
OTV transit times can be reduced by carrying lighter loads and/or
expending more argon propellant with VASIMR throttled up to higher
thrust at less efficient (lower Isp) operating
conditions. For instance, an empty OTV on the return trip to Earth
covers the distance in about 23 days at optimal specific impulse of
5,000 s (50 kN·s/kg) or in about 14 days at Isp of
3,000 s (30 kN·s/kg). The total mass of the NASA specifications' OTV
(including structure, solar array, fuel tank, avionics, propellant and
cargo) was assumed to be 100 metric tons (98.4 long tons; 110 short tons)
allowing almost double the cargo capacity compared to chemically
propelled vehicles but requiring even bigger solar arrays (or other
source of power) capable of providing 2 MW.
As of October 2010, Ad Astra Rocket Company was targeting space tug missions to help "clean up the ever-growing problem of space trash". As of 2016 no such commercial product had reached the market.
Mars in 39 days
In order to conduct a crewed trip to Mars in just 39 days, the VASIMR would require an electrical power level available only by nuclear propulsion (specifically the nuclear electric type) by way of nuclear power in space. This kind of nuclear fission reactor might use a traditional Rankine/Brayton/Stirling conversion engine such as that used by the SAFE-400 reactor (Brayton cycle) or the DUFF Kilopower reactor (Stirling cycle)
to convert heat to electricity. However, the vehicle might be better
served with non-moving parts and non-steam based power conversion using a
thermocell technology of the thermoelectric (including graphene-based thermal power conversion), pyroelectric, thermophotovoltaic, or thermionic magnetohydrodynamic type. Thermoelectric materials are also an option for converting heat energy (being both black-body radiation
and the kinetic thermal vibration of molecules and other particles) to
electric current energy (electrons flowing through a circuit). Avoiding
the need for "football-field sized radiators" (Zubrin quote) for a "200,000 kilowatt (200 megawatt) reactor with a power-to-mass density of 1,000 watts per kilogram" (Díaz quote) this reactor would require efficient waste heat capturing technology. For comparison, a Seawolf-class nuclear-powered fast attack submarine uses a 34 megawatt reactor, and the Gerald R. Ford-class aircraft carrier uses a 300 megawatt A1B reactor.
Zubrin criticisms
The crewed Mars mission advocate Robert Zubrin
has called VASIMR a hoax, claiming that it is less efficient than other
electric thrusters that are now operational. He also believes that
electric propulsion is not necessary to get to Mars; therefore, budgets
should not be assigned to develop it. His second critique concentrates
on the lack of a suitable power source. Ad Astra responded in a press release:
In the near term, using solar-electric power at levels of 100 kW to 1 MW, VASIMR propulsion could transfer heavy payloads to Mars using only one to four first-generation thrusters in relatively simple engine architectures.[...] It is abundantly clear that the nuclear reactor technology required for such missions [fast manned Mars transport] is not available today and major advances in reactor design and power conversion are needed.
— Ad Astra Rocket Company, Facts About the VASIMR Engine and its Development
As a response to VASIMR being labeled as a hoax by Zubrin, Ad Astra added a section to their FAQ:
It [the hoax claim] was made by an individual who never visited the MIT or NASA facilities where the research originated or the Ad Astra Rocket Company laboratories where the development continues and, despite an open invitation, has never bothered to see any of the prototypes being fired in the vacuum chamber and reviewed the copious amounts of calibrated and validated data available. It is unclear whether this person has read or understood the numerous peer-reviewed and published articles regarding this work.— Ad Astra Rocket Company, Is VASIMR Propulsion a Hoax?
Zubrin Comments Regarding VASIMIR
Original link: https://spacenews.com/vasimr-hoax/Date:
“[C]ritical to deep space exploration will be the development of breakthrough propulsion systems.” — U.S. President Barack Obama, Kennedy Space Center, April 15, 2010 The Obama administration claims that it is developing a new breakthrough propulsion system, known as VASIMR, which uniquely will make it possible for astronauts to travel safely and quickly to Mars. We can’t go to Mars until we have the revolutionary VASIMR, they say, but just wait; it’s on the way, and once it arrives, all things will be possible. Washington is a city known for its smoke and mirrors, but rarely has such total falsehood been touted as a basis for science policy. VASIMR, or the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket, is not new. Rather, it has been researched at considerable government expense by its inventor, Franklin Chang Diaz, for three decades. More importantly, it is neither revolutionary nor particularly promising. Rather, it is just another addition to the family of electric thrusters, which convert electric power to jet thrust, but are markedly inferior to the ones we already have. Existing ion thrusters routinely achieve 70 percent efficiency and have operated successfully both on the test stand and in space for thousands of hours. In contrast, after 30 years of research, the VASIMR has only obtained about 50 percent efficiency in test stand burns of a few seconds’ duration, and that is only at high specific impulse. When the specific impulse is reduced, the efficiency drops in direct proportion. This means that the VASIMR’s much chanted (but always doubtful) claim that it could offer significant mission benefit by trading specific impulse for thrust is simply false. In contrast, this capability has been demonstrated by the ion-drive that propelled Dawn spacecraft on its way to an asteroid. Finally, if it is to be used in space, VASIMR will require practical high temperature superconducting magnets, which do not exist. But wait, there’s more. To achieve his much-repeated claim that VASIMR could enable a 39-day one-way transit to Mars, Chang Diaz posits a nuclear reactor system with a power of 200,000 kilowatts and a power-to-mass ratio of 1,000 watts per kilogram. In fact, the largest space nuclear reactor ever built, the Soviet Topaz, had a power of 10 kilowatts and a power-to-mass ratio of 10 watts per kilogram. There is thus no basis whatsoever for believing in the feasibility of Chang Diaz’s fantasy power system. Space nuclear reactors with power in the range of 50 to 100 kilowatts, and power-to-mass ratios of 20 to 30 watts per kilogram, are feasible, and would be of considerable value in enabling ion-propelled high-data-rate probes to the outer solar system, as well as serving as a reliable source of surface power for a Mars base. However, rather than spend its research dollars on such an actually useful technology, the administration has chosen to fund VASIMR. No electric propulsion system — neither the inferior VASIMR nor its superior ion-drive competitors — can achieve a quick transit to Mars, because the thrust-to-weight ratio of any realistic power system (even without a payload) is much too low. If generous but potentially realistic numbers are assumed (50 watts per kilogram), Chang Diaz’s hypothetical 200,000-kilowatt nuclear electric spaceship would have a launch mass of 7,700 metric tons, including 4,000 tons of very expensive and very radioactive high-technology reactor system hardware requiring maintenance support from a virtual parallel universe of futuristic orbital infrastructure. Yet it would still get to Mars no quicker than the 6-month transit executed by the Mars Odyssey spacecraft using chemical propulsion in 2001, and which could be readily accomplished by a human crew launched directly to Mars by a heavy-lift booster no more advanced than the (140-ton-to-orbit) Saturn 5 employed to send astronauts to the Moon in the 1960s. That said, the fact that the administration is not making an effort to develop a space nuclear reactor of any kind, let alone the gigantic super-advanced one needed for the VASIMR hyper drive, demonstrates that the program is being conducted on false premises. Far from enabling a human mission to Mars, VASIMR is primarily useful as a smokescreen for those who wish to avoid embracing such a program. Yet their entire case is disingenuous, because in reality, there is no need to develop any faster propulsion system before humans venture to the red planet. As noted, the current one-way transit time is six months, exactly the same as a standard crew rotation on the space station. The six-month transit trajectory is actually the best one to use for a human crew because it provides for a free return orbit, an important safety feature which a faster trajectory would lack. Thus even if we had a truly superior and practical propulsion technology, such as nuclear thermal rockets (which the Obama administration is also not developing), we would use its capability to increase the mission payload, rather than shorten the transit. The argument that we must go much faster to avoid cosmic rays is demonstrably false, as proven not only by standard radiation risk analysis — which estimates about a 1 percent cancer risk for the 50 rem dose that astronauts would receive on a Mars round trip — but by the fact that about a dozen astronauts and cosmonauts have already received such a cumulative cosmic ray dose during repeated flights on the international space station or Mir, and, as expected, none of them have evidenced any radiological health effects. (Cosmic ray dose rates on the space station are fully half of those in interplanetary space — half because the Earth blocks out half the sky. The Earth’s magnetic field does not shield effectively against cosmic rays. As a result, over the next 10 years, space station crews will receive the same number of person-rems of cosmic radiation as would have been received by five crews of equal size flying to Mars and back over the same period.) As for avoiding zero-gravity deconditioning, the practical answer is to simply prevent it entirely by rotating the spacecraft to provide artificial gravity rather than waste decades and vast sums in a futile effort to develop warp drive. NASA has spent a lot on VASIMR, but its real cost is not the tens of millions spent on the thruster but the tens of billions that will be wasted as the human spaceflight program is kept mired in Earth orbit for the indefinite future, accomplishing nothing while waiting for the false vision to materialize. That is why, as unpleasant as it might be, this illusion needs to be exposed. The Mars Society is holding its next international convention in Dallas, Aug. 4-7, 2011. Currently, we have a panel scheduled, titled: “VASIMR: Silver Bullet or Hoax.” I invite Chang Diaz and a colleague to come and take two of the four spots on it and defend the practical value of their concept in formal public debate. Let the truth prevail.
