Two men argue at a political protest in New York City.
Argumentation theory, or argumentation, is the interdisciplinary study of how conclusions can be reached through logical reasoning; that is, claims based, soundly or not, on premises. It includes the arts and sciences of civil debate, dialogue, conversation, and persuasion. It studies rules of inference, logic, and procedural rules in both artificial and real world settings.
Argumentation includes deliberation and negotiation which are concerned with collaborative decision-making procedures. It also encompasses eristic dialog, the branch of social debate in which victory over an opponent is the primary goal, and didactic dialogue used for teaching.
This art and science is often the means by which people protect their
beliefs or self-interests—or choose to change them—in rational dialogue,
in common parlance, and during the process of arguing.
Argumentation is used in law, for example in trials, in preparing an argument to be presented to a court, and in testing the validity of certain kinds of evidence. Also, argumentation scholars study the post hoc rationalizations by which organizational actors try to justify decisions they have made irrationally.
Argumentation is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse), along with exposition, description, and narration.
Key components of argumentation
- Understanding and identifying arguments, either explicit or implied, and the goals of the participants in the different types of dialogue.
- Identifying the premises from which conclusions are derived
- Establishing the "burden of proof" – determining who made the initial claim and is thus responsible for providing evidence why his/her position merits acceptance.
- For the one carrying the "burden of proof", the advocate, to marshal evidence for his/her position in order to convince or force the opponent's acceptance. The method by which this is accomplished is producing valid, sound, and cogent arguments, devoid of weaknesses, and not easily attacked.
- In a debate, fulfillment of the burden of proof creates a burden of rejoinder. One must try to identify faulty reasoning in the opponent's argument, to attack the reasons/premises of the argument, to provide counterexamples if possible, to identify any fallacies, and to show why a valid conclusion cannot be derived from the reasons provided for his/her argument.
For example, consider the following exchange, illustrated by the No true Scotsman fallacy:
- Argument: "No Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge."
- Reply: "But my friend Angus likes sugar with his porridge."
- Rebuttal: "Ah yes, but no true Scotsman puts sugar on his porridge."
In this dialogue, the proposer first offers a premise, the premise is
challenged by the interlocutor, and finally the proposer offers a
modification of the premise. This exchange could be part of a larger
discussion, for example a murder trial, in which the defendant is a
Scotsman, and it had been established earlier that the murderer was
eating sugared porridge when he or she committed the murder.
Internal structure of arguments
Typically an argument has an internal structure, comprising the following
- a set of assumptions or premises
- a method of reasoning or deduction and
- a conclusion or point.
An argument has one or more premises and one conclusion.
Often classical logic is used as the method of reasoning so that
the conclusion follows logically from the assumptions or support. One
challenge is that if the set of assumptions is inconsistent then
anything can follow logically from inconsistency. Therefore, it is
common to insist that the set of assumptions be consistent. It is also
good practice to require the set of assumptions to be the minimal set,
with respect to set inclusion, necessary to infer the consequent. Such
arguments are called MINCON arguments, short for minimal consistent.
Such argumentation has been applied to the fields of law and medicine.
A non-classical approach to argumentation investigates abstract
arguments, where 'argument' is considered a primitive term, so no
internal structure of arguments is taken on account.
Types of dialogue
In
its most common form, argumentation involves an individual and an
interlocutor or opponent engaged in dialogue, each contending differing
positions and trying to persuade each other, but there are various types
of dialogue:
- Persuasion dialogue aims to resolve conficting points of view of different positions.
- Negotiation aims to resolve conflicts of interests by cooperation and dealmaking.
- Inquiry aims to resolve general ignorance by the growth of knowledge.
- Deliberation aims to resolve a need to take action by reaching a decision.
- Information seeking aims to reduce one party's ignorance by requesting information from another party that is in a position to know something.
- Eristics aims to resolve a situation of antagonism through verbal fighting.
Argumentation and the grounds of knowledge
Argumentation theory had its origins in foundationalism, a theory of knowledge (epistemology) in the field of philosophy.
It sought to find the grounds for claims in the forms (logic) and
materials (factual laws) of a universal system of knowledge. The
dialectical method was made famous by Plato and his use of Socrates critically questioning various characters and historical figures. But argument scholars gradually rejected Aristotle's systematic philosophy and the idealism in Plato and Kant.
They questioned and ultimately discarded the idea that argument
premises take their soundness from formal philosophical systems. The
field thus broadened.
One of the original contributors to this trend was the philosopher Chaim Perelman, who together with Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca introduced the French term la nouvelle rhetorique
in 1958 to describe an approach to argument which is not reduced to
application of formal rules of inference. Perelman's view of
argumentation is much closer to a juridical one, in which rules for presenting evidence and rebuttals play an important role.
Karl R. Wallace's seminal essay, "The Substance of Rhetoric: Good Reasons" in the Quarterly Journal of Speech
(1963) 44, led many scholars to study "marketplace argumentation" – the
ordinary arguments of ordinary people. The seminal essay on marketplace
argumentation is Ray Lynn Anderson and C. David Mortensen's "Logic and
Marketplace Argumentation" Quarterly Journal of Speech 53 (1967): 143–150. This line of thinking led to a natural alliance with late developments in the sociology of knowledge. Some scholars drew connections with recent developments in philosophy, namely the pragmatism of John Dewey and Richard Rorty. Rorty has called this shift in emphasis "the linguistic turn".
In this new hybrid approach argumentation is used with or without empirical
evidence to establish convincing conclusions about issues which are
moral, scientific, epistemic, or of a nature in which science alone
cannot answer. Out of pragmatism and many intellectual developments in
the humanities and social sciences, "non-philosophical" argumentation
theories grew which located the formal and material grounds of arguments
in particular intellectual fields. These theories include informal logic, social epistemology, ethnomethodology, speech acts, the sociology of knowledge, the sociology of science, and social psychology.
These new theories are not non-logical or anti-logical. They find
logical coherence in most communities of discourse. These theories are
thus often labeled "sociological" in that they focus on the social
grounds of knowledge.
Approaches to argumentation in communication and informal logic
In
general, the label "argumentation" is used by communication scholars
such as (to name only a few) Wayne E. Brockriede, Douglas Ehninger, Joseph W. Wenzel, Richard Rieke, Gordon Mitchell, Carol Winkler, Eric Gander, Dennis S. Gouran, Daniel J. O'Keefe, Mark Aakhus, Bruce Gronbeck, James Klumpp, G. Thomas Goodnight, Robin Rowland, Dale Hample, C. Scott Jacobs, Sally Jackson, David Zarefsky, and Charles Arthur Willard, while the term "informal logic" is preferred by philosophers, stemming from University of Windsor philosophers Ralph H. Johnson and J. Anthony Blair. Harald Wohlrapp developed a criterion for validness (Geltung, Gültigkeit) as freedom of objections.
Trudy Govier, Douglas N. Walton, Michael Gilbert, Harvey Seigal, Michael Scriven, and John Woods
(to name only a few) are other prominent authors in this tradition.
Over the past thirty years, however, scholars from several disciplines
have co-mingled at international conferences such as that hosted by the University of Amsterdam
(the Netherlands) and the International Society for the Study of
Argumentation (ISSA). Other international conferences are the biannual
conference held at Alta, Utah sponsored by the (US) National Communication Association and American Forensics Association and conferences sponsored by the Ontario Society for the Study of Argumentation (OSSA).
Some scholars (such as Ralph H. Johnson) construe the term
"argument" narrowly, as exclusively written discourse or even discourse
in which all premises are explicit. Others (such as Michael Gilbert)
construe the term "argument" broadly, to include spoken and even
nonverbal discourse, for instance the degree to which a war memorial or
propaganda poster can be said to argue or "make arguments". The
philosopher Stephen Toulmin
has said that an argument is a claim on our attention and belief, a
view that would seem to authorize treating, say, propaganda posters as
arguments. The dispute between broad and narrow theorists is of long
standing and is unlikely to be settled. The views of the majority of
argumentation theorists and analysts fall somewhere between these two
extremes.
Kinds of argumentation
Conversational argumentation
The study of naturally occurring conversation arose from the field of sociolinguistics. It is usually called conversation analysis. Inspired by ethnomethodology, it was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s principally by the sociologist Harvey Sacks and, among others, his close associates Emanuel Schegloff and Gail Jefferson.
Sacks died early in his career, but his work was championed by others
in his field, and CA has now become an established force in sociology,
anthropology, linguistics, speech-communication and psychology. It is particularly influential in interactional sociolinguistics,
discourse analysis and discursive psychology, as well as being a
coherent discipline in its own right. Recently CA techniques of
sequential analysis have been employed by phoneticians to explore the
fine phonetic details of speech.
Empirical studies and theoretical formulations by Sally Jackson
and Scott Jacobs, and several generations of their students, have
described argumentation as a form of managing conversational
disagreement within communication contexts and systems that naturally
prefer agreement.
Mathematical argumentation
The basis of mathematical truth has been the subject of long debate. Frege in particular sought to demonstrate (see Gottlob Frege, The Foundations of Arithmetic, 1884, and Begriffsschrift, 1879) that arithmetical truths can be derived from purely logical axioms and therefore are, in the end, logical truths. The project was developed by Russell and Whitehead in their Principia Mathematica.
If an argument can be cast in the form of sentences in Symbolic Logic,
then it can be tested by the application of accepted proof procedures.
This has been carried out for Arithmetic using Peano axioms.
Be that as it may, an argument in Mathematics, as in any other
discipline, can be considered valid only if it can be shown that it
cannot have true premises and a false conclusion.
Scientific argumentation
Perhaps the most radical statement of the social grounds of scientific knowledge appears in Alan G.Gross's The Rhetoric of Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990). Gross holds that science is rhetorical "without remainder",
meaning that scientific knowledge itself cannot be seen as an idealized
ground of knowledge. Scientific knowledge is produced rhetorically,
meaning that it has special epistemic authority only insofar as its
communal methods of verification are trustworthy. This thinking
represents an almost complete rejection of the foundationalism on which
argumentation was first based.
Interpretive argumentation
Interpretive argumentation is a dialogical process in which participants explore and/or resolve interpretations often of a text of any medium containing significant ambiguity in meaning.
Interpretive argumentation is pertinent to the humanities, hermeneutics, literary theory, linguistics, semantics, pragmatics, semiotics, analytic philosophy and aesthetics. Topics in conceptual interpretation include aesthetic, judicial, logical and religious interpretation. Topics in scientific interpretation include scientific modeling.
Legal argumentation
Legal arguments are spoken presentations to a judge or appellate
court by a lawyer, or parties when representing themselves of the legal
reasons why they should prevail. Oral argument at the appellate level
accompanies written briefs, which also advance the argument of each
party in the legal dispute. A closing argument, or summation, is the
concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important
arguments for the trier of fact, often the jury, in a court case. A
closing argument occurs after the presentation of evidence.
Political argumentation
Political arguments are used by academics, media pundits, candidates
for political office and government officials. Political arguments are
also used by citizens in ordinary interactions to comment about and
understand political events. The rationality of the public is a major question in this line of research. Political scientist Samuel L. Popkin coined the expression "low information voters" to describe most voters who know very little about politics or the world in general.
In practice, a "low information voter" may not be aware of legislation that their representative has sponsored in Congress. A low-information voter may base their ballot box
decision on a media sound-bite, or a flier received in the mail. It is
possible for a media sound-bite or campaign flier to present a
political position for the incumbent
candidate that completely contradicts the legislative action taken in
the Capitol on behalf of the constituents. It may only take a small
percentage of the overall voting group who base their decision on the
inaccurate information, a voter block of 10 to 12%, to swing an overall
election result. When this happens, the constituency at large may have
been duped or fooled. Nevertheless, the election result is legal and
confirmed. Savvy Political consultants will take advantage of low-information voters and sway their votes with disinformation because it can be easier and sufficiently effective. Fact checkers have come about in recent years to help counter the effects of such campaign tactics.
Psychological aspects
Psychology has long studied the non-logical aspects of argumentation. For example, studies have shown that simple repetition of an idea is often a more effective method of argumentation than appeals to reason. Propaganda often utilizes repetition. Nazi rhetoric has been studied extensively as, inter alia, a repetition campaign.
Empirical studies of communicator credibility and attractiveness, sometimes labeled charisma,
have also been tied closely to empirically-occurring arguments. Such
studies bring argumentation within the ambit of persuasion theory and
practice.
Some psychologists such as William J. McGuire believe that the syllogism
is the basic unit of human reasoning. They have produced a large body
of empirical work around McGuire's famous title "A Syllogistic Analysis
of Cognitive Relationships". A central line of this way of thinking is
that logic is contaminated by psychological variables such as "wishful
thinking", in which subjects confound the likelihood of predictions with
the desirability of the predictions. People hear what they want to hear
and see what they expect to see. If planners want something to happen
they see it as likely to happen. If they hope something will not happen,
they see it as unlikely to happen. Thus smokers think that they
personally will avoid cancer, promiscuous people practice unsafe sex,
and teenagers drive recklessly.
Theories
Argument fields
Stephen Toulmin and Charles Arthur Willard have championed the idea of argument fields, the former drawing upon Ludwig Wittgenstein's notion of language games,
(Sprachspiel) the latter drawing from communication and argumentation
theory, sociology, political science, and social epistemology. For
Toulmin, the term "field" designates discourses within which arguments
and factual claims are grounded. For Willard, the term "field" is interchangeable with "community", "audience", or "readership".
Along similar lines, G. Thomas Goodnight has studied "spheres" of
argument and sparked a large literature created by younger scholars
responding to or using his ideas. The general tenor of these field theories is that the premises of arguments take their meaning from social communities.
Field studies might focus on social movements, issue-centered
publics (for instance, pro-life versus pro-choice in the abortion
dispute), small activist groups, corporate public relations campaigns
and issue management, scientific communities and disputes, political
campaigns, and intellectual traditions.
In the manner of a sociologist, ethnographer, anthropologist,
participant-observer, and journalist, the field theorist gathers and
reports on real-world human discourses, gathering case studies that
might eventually be combined to produce high-order explanations of
argumentation processes. This is not a quest for some master language or
master theory covering all specifics of human activity. Field theorists
are agnostic about the possibility of a single grand theory and
skeptical about the usefulness of such a theory. Theirs is a more modest
quest for "mid-range" theories that might permit generalizations about
families of discourses.
Stephen E. Toulmin's contributions
The most influential theorist has been Stephen Toulmin, the Cambridge educated philosopher and educator, best known for his Toulmin model of argument. What follows below is a sketch of his ideas.
An alternative to absolutism and relativism
Throughout many of his works, Toulmin pointed out that absolutism (represented by theoretical or analytic arguments) has limited practical value. Absolutism is derived from Plato's idealized formal logic,
which advocates universal truth; accordingly, absolutists believe that
moral issues can be resolved by adhering to a standard set of moral
principles, regardless of context. By contrast, Toulmin contends that
many of these so-called standard principles are irrelevant to real
situations encountered by human beings in daily life.
To develop his contention, Toulmin introduced the concept of argument fields. In The Uses of Argument
(1958), Toulmin claims that some aspects of arguments vary from field
to field, and are hence called "field-dependent", while other aspects of
argument are the same throughout all fields, and are hence called
"field-invariant". The flaw of absolutism, Toulmin believes, lies in its
unawareness of the field-dependent aspect of argument; absolutism
assumes that all aspects of argument are field invariant.
In Human Understanding (1972), Toulmin suggests that
anthropologists have been tempted to side with relativists because they
have noticed the influence of cultural variations on rational arguments.
In other words, the anthropologist or relativist overemphasizes the
importance of the "field-dependent" aspect of arguments, and neglects or
is unaware of the "field-invariant" elements. In order to provide
solutions to the problems of absolutism and relativism, Toulmin attempts
throughout his work to develop standards that are neither absolutist
nor relativist for assessing the worth of ideas.
In Cosmopolis (1990), he traces philosophers' "quest for certainty" back to René Descartes and Thomas Hobbes, and lauds John Dewey, Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, and Richard Rorty for abandoning that tradition.
Toulmin model of argument
Toulmin
argumentation can be diagrammed as a conclusion established, more or
less, on the basis of a fact supported by a warrant (with backing), and a
possible rebuttal.
Arguing that absolutism lacks practical value, Toulmin aimed to develop a different type of argument, called practical arguments
(also known as substantial arguments). In contrast to absolutists'
theoretical arguments, Toulmin's practical argument is intended to focus
on the justificatory function of argumentation, as opposed to the
inferential function of theoretical arguments. Whereas theoretical
arguments make inferences based on a set of principles to arrive at a
claim, practical arguments first find a claim of interest, and then
provide justification for it. Toulmin believed that reasoning is less an
activity of inference, involving the discovering of new ideas, and more
a process of testing and sifting already existing ideas—an act
achievable through the process of justification.
Toulmin believed that for a good argument to succeed, it needs to
provide good justification for a claim. This, he believed, will ensure
it stands up to criticism and earns a favourable verdict. In The Uses of Argument (1958), Toulmin proposed a layout containing six interrelated components for analyzing arguments:
- Claim (Conclusion)
- A conclusion whose merit must be established. In argumentative essays, it may be called the thesis. For example, if a person tries to convince a listener that he is a British citizen, the claim would be "I am a British citizen" (1).
- Ground (Fact, Evidence, Data)
- A fact one appeals to as a foundation for the claim. For example, the person introduced in 1 can support his claim with the supporting data "I was born in Bermuda" (2).
- Warrant
- A statement authorizing movement from the ground to the claim. In order to move from the ground established in 2, "I was born in Bermuda", to the claim in 1, "I am a British citizen", the person must supply a warrant to bridge the gap between 1 and 2 with the statement "A man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen" (3).
- Backing
- Credentials designed to certify the statement expressed in the warrant; backing must be introduced when the warrant itself is not convincing enough to the readers or the listeners. For example, if the listener does not deem the warrant in 3 as credible, the speaker will supply the legal provisions: "I trained as a barrister in London, specialising in citizenship, so I know that a man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen".
- Rebuttal
- Statements recognizing the restrictions which may legitimately be applied to the claim. The rebuttal is exemplified as follows: "A man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen, unless he has betrayed Britain and has become a spy for another country".
- Qualifier
- Words or phrases expressing the speaker's degree of force or certainty concerning the claim. Such words or phrases include "probably", "possible", "impossible", "certainly", "presumably", "as far as the evidence goes", and "necessarily". The claim "I am definitely a British citizen" has a greater degree of force than the claim "I am a British citizen, presumably".
The first three elements, claim, ground, and warrant, are considered as the essential components of practical arguments, while the second triad, qualifier, backing, and rebuttal, may not be needed in some arguments.
When Toulmin first proposed it, this layout of argumentation was
based on legal arguments and intended to be used to analyze the
rationality of arguments typically found in the courtroom. Toulmin did
not realize that this layout could be applicable to the field of
rhetoric and communication until his works were introduced to
rhetoricians by Wayne Brockriede and Douglas Ehninger. Their Decision by Debate (1963) streamlined Toulmin's terminology and broadly introduced his model to the field of debate. Only after Toulmin published Introduction to Reasoning (1979) were the rhetorical applications of this layout mentioned in his works.
One criticism of the Toulmin model is that it does not fully consider the use of questions in argumentation.
The Toulmin model assumes that an argument starts with a fact or claim
and ends with a conclusion, but ignores an argument's underlying
questions. In the example "Harry was born in Bermuda, so Harry must be a
British subject", the question "Is Harry a British subject?" is
ignored, which also neglects to analyze why particular questions are
asked and others are not.
Toulmin's argument model has inspired research on, for example, goal structuring notation (GSN), widely used for developing safety cases, and argument maps and associated software.
The evolution of knowledge
In 1972, Toulmin published Human Understanding, in which he asserts that conceptual change is an evolutionary process. In this book, Toulmin attacks Thomas Kuhn's account of conceptual change in his seminal work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
(1962). Kuhn believed that conceptual change is a revolutionary process
(as opposed to an evolutionary process), during which mutually
exclusive paradigms compete to replace one another. Toulmin criticized the relativist
elements in Kuhn's thesis, arguing that mutually exclusive paradigms
provide no ground for comparison, and that Kuhn' made the relativists'
error of overemphasizing the "field variant" while ignoring the "field
invariant" or commonality shared by all argumentation or scientific paradigms.
In contrast to Kuhn's revolutionary model, Toulmin proposed an evolutionary model of conceptual change comparable to Darwin's model of biological evolution.
Toulmin states that conceptual change involves the process of
innovation and selection. Innovation accounts for the appearance of
conceptual variations, while selection accounts for the survival and
perpetuation of the soundest conceptions. Innovation occurs when the
professionals of a particular discipline come to view things differently
from their predecessors; selection subjects the innovative concepts to a
process of debate and inquiry in what Toulmin considers as a "forum of
competitions". The soundest concepts will survive the forum of
competition as replacements or revisions of the traditional conceptions.
From the absolutists'
point of view, concepts are either valid or invalid regardless of
contexts. From the relativists' perspective, one concept is neither
better nor worse than a rival concept from a different cultural context.
From Toulmin's perspective, the evaluation depends on a process of
comparison, which determines whether or not one concept will improve
explanatory power more than its rival concepts.
Pragma-dialectics
Scholars at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands have pioneered a rigorous modern version of dialectic under the name pragma-dialectics. The intuitive idea is to formulate clearcut rules that, if followed, will yield rational discussion and sound conclusions. Frans H. van Eemeren, the late Rob Grootendorst, and many of their students have produced a large body of work expounding this idea.
The dialectical conception of reasonableness is given by ten
rules for critical discussion, all being instrumental for achieving a
resolution of the difference of opinion (from Van Eemeren, Grootendorst,
& Snoeck Henkemans, 2002, p. 182-183). The theory postulates this
as an ideal model, and not something one expects to find as an empirical
fact. The model can however serve as an important heuristic and
critical tool for testing how reality approximates this ideal and point
to where discourse goes wrong, that is, when the rules are violated. Any
such violation will constitute a fallacy.
Albeit not primarily focused on fallacies, pragma-dialectics provides a
systematic approach to deal with them in a coherent way.
Van Eemeren and Grootendorst identified various stages of
argumentative dialogue. These stages can be regarded as an argument
protocol. In a somewhat loose interpretation, the stages are as follows:
- Confrontation: Presentation of the problem, such as a debate question or a political disagreement
- Opening: Agreement on rules, such as for example, how evidence is to be presented, which sources of facts are to be used, how to handle divergent interpretations, determination of closing conditions
- Argumentation: Application of logical principles according to the agreed-upon rules
- Closing: This occurs when the termination conditions are met—among these could be, for example, a time limitation or the determination of an arbiter
Van Eemeren and Grootendorst provide a detailed list of rules that must be applied at each stage of the protocol.
Moreover, in the account of argumentation given by these authors, there
are specified roles of protagonist and antagonist in the protocol which
are determined by the conditions which set up the need for argument.
Walton's logical argumentation method
Douglas N. Walton
developed a distinctive philosophical theory of logical argumentation
built around a set of practical methods to help a user identify, analyze
and evaluate arguments in everyday conversational discourse and in more
structured areas such as debate, law and scientific fields. There are four main components: argumentation schemes, dialogue structures, argument mapping
tools, and formal argumentation systems. The method uses the notion of
commitment in dialogue as the fundamental tool for the analysis and
evaluation of argumentation rather than the notion of belief.
Commitments are statements that the agent has expressed or formulated,
and has pledged to carry out, or has publicly asserted. According to the
commitment model, agents interact with each other in a dialogue in
which each takes its turn to contribute speech acts. The dialogue
framework uses critical questioning as a way of testing plausible
explanations and finding weak points in an argument that raise doubt
concerning the acceptability of the argument.
Walton's logical argumentation model took a view of proof and justification different from analytic philosophy's dominant epistemology, which was based on a justified true belief framework.
On the logical argumentation approach, knowledge is seen as form of
belief commitment firmly fixed by an argumentation procedure that tests
the evidence on both sides, and use standards of proof to determine
whether a proposition qualifies as knowledge. On this evidence-based
approach, knowledge must be seen as defeasible.
Artificial intelligence
Efforts have been made within the field of artificial intelligence
to perform and analyze the act of argumentation with computers.
Argumentation has been used to provide a proof-theoretic semantics for non-monotonic logic,
starting with the influential work of Dung (1995). Computational
argumentation systems have found particular application in domains where
formal logic and classical decision theory are unable to capture the
richness of reasoning, domains such as law and medicine. In Elements of Argumentation,
Philippe Besnard and Anthony Hunter show how classical logic-based
techniques can be used to capture key elements of practical
argumentation.
Within computer science, the ArgMAS workshop series (Argumentation in Multi-Agent Systems), the CMNA workshop series, and now the COMMA Conference, are regular annual events attracting participants from every continent. The journal Argument & Computation
is dedicated to exploring the intersection between argumentation and
computer science. ArgMining is a workshop series dedicated specifically
to the related argument mining task.
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