2021 in science

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_in_science 

 

Years in science:	2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024
Centuries:	20th century · 21st century · 22nd century
Decades:	1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s 2050s
Years:	2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024

2020 2021 in science 2022

Fields Archaeology Paleontology Space Spaceflight Biotechnology Quantum computing and communication Computing

Extraterrestrial environment Discovered exoplanets Asteroid close approaches

Terrestrial environment Environment and environmental sciences Climate change Tornadoes Earthquakes

Other/related 2021 Birding/ornithology Science fiction film Literature Philosophy History of technology by type List of science timelines

A number of significant scientific events have occurred or are scheduled to occur in 2021.

Events

January

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Science Summary for this section (January)

• 4 January
  • Media reports that engineers worldwide discuss a negative leap second and other possible measures as Earth spun faster in 2020.
  • Researchers describe how the damage to nerve cells caused by motor neurone disease could be repaired by improving the energy levels in mitochondria.
  • Scientists describe a CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing approach which could be used to treat wet age-related macular degeneration caused by VEGFA and herpes simplex type 1: injection of engineered lentiviruses into the affected anatomical regions for transient editing without inducing off-target edits.
• 5 January – Using theoretical calculations, researchers suggest that humans would be unable to control a superintelligent AI.

6 January: The first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management and its impact on human health and life is published.

• 6 January
  • Scientists report the successful use of gene editing in mice with progeria, a premature aging disease.
  • Chinese researchers report that they have built the world's largest integrated quantum communication network, combining over 700 optical fibers with two QKD-ground-to-satellite links for a total distance between nodes of the network of networks of up to ~4,600 km.
  • The first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management and its impact on human health and life is published, providing assessments, suggestions for corrective action, engineering solutions and requests for further research. It finds that about half of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste – or close to one billion tons per year – is either not collected or mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires. Authors conclude that "massive risk mitigation can be delivered" while noting that broad priority areas each lack a "high-quality research base", partly due to the absence of "substantial research funding", which scientists often require.
• 7 January
  • A potential mRNA vaccine for multiple sclerosis is presented by a collaboration including BioNTech, with a study in mice showing great promise for improving symptoms and stopping disease progression.
    
    
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• • Time-series representations of mean relative body size
    Scientists conclude that environmental factors played a major role in the evolution of the slowly-evolving, currently low-diverse Crocodilia (and their ancestor-relatives), with warmer climate being associated with high evolutionary rates and large body sizes.

8 January: News outlets report that scientists, with the Juno spacecraft orbiting Jupiter, detected an FM radio signal from the moon Ganymede which is reportedly caused by cyclotron maser instability and similar to both WiFi-signals and Jupiter's emissions.

• 8 January
  • News outlets report that scientists, with the Juno spacecraft orbiting Jupiter, detected an FM radio signal from the moon Ganymede which is reportedly caused by cyclotron maser instability and similar to both WiFi-signals and Jupiter's radio emissions. A study about the radio emissions was published in September 2020 but did not describe them to be of FM nature or similar to WiFi signals.
  • 

• • Larger populations promote category convergence across populations
    Researchers report that large populations consistently converge on highly similar category systems, relevant to lexical aspects of large communication networks and cultures.

13 January: A group of 17 high-ranking ecologists conclude that current challenges – themselves individually – that humanity faces and which may lead to a "ghastly" future are large and underestimated.

• 13 January
  • A new record high temperature of the world's oceans is reported, measured from the surface level down to a depth of 2,000 metres.
  • In Lyon, France, the first transplant of both arms and shoulders is performed on an Icelandic patient.
  • Astrophysicists report that energy extraction – with high efficiency – from rotating black holes with a high spin via reconnection of magnetic field lines of an externally supplied magnetic field that accelerates escaping plasma particles is possible. Advanced civilizations may be capable of doing so.
  • Scientists report that all glacial periods of ice ages over the last 1.5 M years were associated with northward shifts of melting Antarctic icebergs which changed ocean circulation patterns, leading to more CO₂ being pulled out of the atmosphere. Authors note that this process may be disrupted as the Southern Ocean may be too warm for the icebergs to travel far enough to trigger these changes or effects.
  • A group of 17 high-ranking ecologists publish a perspective piece that reviews a number of studies that, based on current trends, indicate that future environmental conditions will be far more dangerous than currently believed, concluding that current challenges – themselves in specific – that humanity faces are large and underestimated. The small group cautions that such an "optimism bias" is prevalent and that fundamental changes are required, listing a few of such they consider adequate in the form of broad descriptions in their largely static document, published by a scientific journal.
• 15 January
  • Researchers in China report the successful transmission of entangled photons between drones, used as nodes for the development of mobile quantum networks or flexible network extensions, marking the first work in which entangled particles were sent between two moving devices.
  • Scientists from U.S. federal medical agencies report that gut infections increase its microbiota's resistance to subsequent infections and that this is associated with taurine, whose exogenous supply can induce this microbiota alteration.
  • COVID-19 pandemic: Medical scientists in Norway report concerns about the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine, suggesting that the vaccine may be "too risky for the very old and terminally ill".
• 17 January – LauncherOne becomes the first successful all-liquid-fuelled air-launched rocket to reach orbit.
• 20 January
  • Archaeologists report the discovery of what may be earliest evidence of human use of symbols – a ~120-ky-old bone engraved with six lines.
  • Researchers report that myeloid cells are drivers of a maladaptive inflammation element of brain-ageing in mice and that this can be reversed or prevented via inhibition of their EP2 signalling.
  • Scientists report that the MOTS-c peptide in the mitochondrial genome is an AMPK-related regulator of age-dependent physical decline in mice and that its exogenous supply initiated in late-life can substantially increase their physical performance and healthspans.
• 22 January
  • A study described as the "first long-term assessment of global bee decline", which analyzed GBIF-data of over a century, finds that the number of bee species declined steeply after the 1990s, shrinking by a quarter in 2006–2015 compared to before 1990.
  • COVID-19 pandemic: Preliminary analyses indicate that the SARS-CoV-2 variant of concern detected in the U.K. is associated with an increased severity of disease.

25 January: Global ice loss is found to be accelerating at a record rate in a scientific review, matching the worst-case scenarios of the IPCC.

• 25 January
  • Global ice loss is found to be accelerating at a record rate in a scientific review, matching the worst-case scenarios of the IPCC.
  • Astronomers report the discovery of TOI-178, a rare system of six exoplanets locked in a complex chain of Laplace orbital resonances and variations in the densities that are hard to explain.
  • Australian scientists develop a new cryogenic computer system called Gooseberry, which has potential for scaling up quantum computers from dozens to thousands of qubits.
• 26 January – A study suggests that operating air purifiers or air ventilation systems in confined spaces during their occupancy by multiple people leads to increased airborne virus transmission due to air circulation effects.
• 27 January
  • Researchers report a way to manufacture transparent wood, whose qualities exceed those made with the main process used earlier, that requires substantially less amounts of chemicals and energy – solar-assisted chemical brushing.
  • Scientists report that shark and ray populations have fallen by 71% since 1970 as a result of human actions, primarily overfishing.
• 28 January
  • COVID-19 pandemic: Medical scientists report the first detection of a South African strain, named 501.V2 variant, which current COVID-19 vaccines may not well mitigate.
  • Researchers report the development of a highly efficient single-photon source for quantum IT with a system of gated quantum dots in a tunable microcavity which captures photons released from these excited "artificial atoms".
  • COVID-19 pandemic: Scientists report that reductions in air pollution due to worldwide COVID-19 lockdowns were larger than previously estimated according to their models and conclude that, because of that, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the climate during 2020 was a slight warming of Earth's climate instead of a slight cooling.

February

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Science Summary for this section (February)

• 2 February
  • 

• • 9 February: Updated probabilistic forecast of CO₂ emissions, based on data to 2015 and the method of Raftery et al.
    A study concludes that the rates of emissions reductions need to increase by 80% beyond NDCs to meet the 2 °C upper target range of the Paris Agreement, that the probabilities of major emitters meeting their NDCs without such an increase is very low, estimating that with current trends the probability of staying below 2 °C of warming is 5% and if NDCs were met and continued post-2030 by all signatory systems 26%.
  • A study finds that air pollution by nitrogen dioxide could be a technosignature by which one could detect extraterrestrial civilizations via "atmospheric SETI".
• 10 February
  • The Chinese Tianwen-1 spacecraft successfully enters orbit around Mars.
  • A large trial of semaglutide, a drug already used for type 2 diabetes, shows that it can also offer a 15% reduction in body weight, more than any other obesity drug on the market so far.
  • A journal-accepted preprint suggests observational data for a planet-mass object "Planet 9" at the outer Solar system is not significant and could be selection bias.
  • Scientists deduce in a review that Homo sapiens does not have a single origin in terms of ancestor birthplaces being limited to a small geographic region and that current knowledge about long, continuous and complex – e.g. often non-singular, parallel, nonsimultaneous and/or gradual – emergences of characteristics is consistent with a range of evolutionary histories.
  • Researchers report the development of a wearable thermoelectric generator with characteristics that make it a candidate for devices continuously harvesting body-heat energy and solar energy with applications such as powering wearable electronics.

18 February: NASA's Perseverance rover lands on Mars.

• 11 February
  • COVID-19 pandemic: A study finds that the arthritis drug tocilizumab can reduce deaths from COVID-19, enough to save the lives of one in 25 patients admitted to hospital, and can reduce the need for a mechanical ventilator.
  • The core of globular cluster NGC 6397 is found to contain a dense concentration of compact remnants (white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes), based on new data from the Hubble Space Telescope and the Gaia astrometric mission.
• 12 February
  • Researchers report that brain organoids created with stem cells into which they reintroduced the archaic gene variant NOVA1 present in Neanderthals and Denisovans via CRISPR-Cas9 shows that it has a major impact on neurodevelopment and that such genetic mutations during the evolution of the human brain underlie traits that separate modern humans from extinct Homo species.
• 15 February
  • Scientists report that the impactor that led to the demise of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago was a fragment from a disrupted comet, rather than an asteroid which has long been the leading candidate among scientists.
  • Researchers report, for the first time, the detection of lifeforms 872 m below the ice of Antarctica, at a depth of 1,233 m and 260 km from the open water at the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf's calving margin.
• 16 February – Global warming is found to cause increases of pollen season lengths and concentrations.
• 17 February – Scientists report the first sequencing of DNA from animal remains more than a million years old – in this case of a mammoth.
• 18 February
  • NASA's Mars 2020 mission (containing the Perseverance rover and Ingenuity helicopter drone) lands on Mars at Jezero Crater, after seven months of travel.
  • Astronomers report that Cygnus X-1, one of the first known black holes in the Milky Way galaxy, is substantially more massive than first thought. This finding challenges the way the evolution of massive stars is understood.
  • Teams of cognitive scientists report having established real-time communication with people undergoing a lucid dream and show that they were able to comprehend questions and use working memory.
• 19 February
  • Scientists report that the short global geomagnetic reversal – a geomagnetic excursion – of Earth's magnetic field ~42,000 years ago – the Laschamp event – in combination with grand solar minima, caused major extinctions and environmental changes and may have contributed to the extinction of the Neanderthals and appearances of cave art. It altered the geographical extension of auroras and levels of harmful radiation worldwide. They term the event which they find to constitute a major enviro-archaeological boundary "Adams Transitional Geomagnetic Event".
  • Thomas Metzinger, a German philosopher of cognitive science and applied ethics, calls for a "global moratorium on synthetic phenomenology" which, "until 2050", precautionarily bans "all research that directly aims at or knowingly risks the emergence of artificial consciousness on post-biotic carrier systems" – and could be gradually refined. The paper does not describe mechanisms of global enforcement of proposed regulations which do not consider biotic or semi-biotic systems and aims to limit suffering risks.
• 22 February – Astronomers release, for the first time, a very high-resolution map of 25,000 active supermassive black holes, covering four percent of the Northern celestial hemisphere, based on ultra-low radio wavelengths, as detected by the LOFAR in Europe.
• 25 February – Researchers confirm that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, which includes the Gulf Stream, is at its weakest since about 1,000 years ago, experiencing unprecedented weakening – likely due to global warming – which could result in more extreme weather events – including heatwaves and intense winters – and is moving towards a "tipping point".
• 26 February – COVID-19 pandemic: The Wall Street Journal reports that a purported patient zero of COVID-19 may have been infected by parents who visited a different food market than the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market that has been thought to be the primary source of the infection earlier.
• 28 February – Winchcombe meteorite: Fragments of a carbonaceous chondrite meteorite, the first known in Britain, fall at Winchcombe in the English Cotswolds.

March

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Science Summary for this section

1 March: A review classifies SETI technosignatures.

• 1 March
  • A scientific review produced by the i.a. NASA-sponsored online workshop TechnoClimes 2020 about possible optimal mission concepts for the search of technosignatures and novel classification-schemes is published. They classify signatures based on a metric on the distance of humanity to the capacity of developing the signature's required technology, associated methods of detection and ancillary benefits of their search, with the study's conclusions including robust rationales for searching artifacts within the Solar system.
• 2 March
  • Scientists report substantially more precise and regionally subdivided end times of the Acheulean, finding that it persisted long after the diffusion of Middle Palaeolithic technologies in multiple continental regions and ended over 100,000 years apart.
  • A study of data on half a million U.K. citizens shows associations between meat intake with risks of 25 common conditions including ischaemic heart disease and a lower risk of iron deficiency anaemia. A study published on 31 March finds higher intake of processed meat was associated with "a higher risk of mortality and major CVD".
• 3 March
  • COVID-19 pandemic: Scientists report that a much more contagious SARS-CoV-2 variant, Lineage P.1, first detected in Japan, and more recently found in Brazil, as well as in several places in the United States, may be associated with COVID-19 disease reinfection after recovery from an earlier COVID-19 infection.
  • Scientists demonstrate a bioinspired self-powered soft robot for deep-sea operation at the deepest part of the ocean at the Mariana Trench. The robot features artificial muscles and wings out of pliable materials and electronics distributed within its silicone body and could be used for exploration and environmental monitoring.
  • Scientists report the discovery of an endosymbiont, bacteria Azoamicus ciliaticola, of an anaerobic ciliate to which it provides energy in the stored form of ATP. Unlike mitochondria, which play the same role in eukaryotes, it enables its host to breathe nitrate instead of oxygen.
• 4 March – COVID-19 pandemic: Scientists report a problematic COVID-19 variant, less susceptible to vaccines, a combination of British B.1.1.7 and South African E484K (Eeek) mutations, in the state of Oregon.
• 5 March – NASA names the landing site of the Perseverance rover in Jezero crater as "Octavia E. Butler Landing".
• 8 March
  • Astronomers report the discovery of a quasar known as P172+18, the most distant source of radio emissions known to date, some 13 billion light years away.
  • Scientists propose storing DNA and other biological reproductive structures in a "lunar ark" on the Moon of all 6.7 million species of plants, animals and fungi known on Earth – to help assure their survivability over the years.
  • Study results indicate that limiting global warming to 1.5 °C would prevent most of the tropics from reaching the wet-bulb temperature of the human physiological limit.
  • A new global food emissions database indicates that food systems are responsible for one third of the global anthropogenic GHG emissions.
  • Scientists report that some of Elysia marginata sea slugs can shed and regenerate their parasitised whole body from their head.

9 March: Erik Lentz describes a way warp drives sourced from known and familiar purely positive energy could exist.

• 9 March
  • Physicists report that according to their theoretical model traversable microscopic wormholes may be possible and not require any exotic matter. Another study published on the same day finds that humanly traversable wormholes may be possible if reality can broadly be described by the Randall–Sundrum model 2, which is a brane-based theory similar to string theory.
  • A physicist describes a way warp drives sourced from known and familiar purely positive energy could exist – warp bubbles based on superluminal self-reinforcing "soliton" waves. It may allow for up to faster-than-light speed travel, transfers and communication with the large energy requirements possibly being reducible.
  • Scientists use novel lipid nanoparticles to deliver CRISPR genome editing into the livers of mice, resulting in a 57% reduction of LDL cholesterol levels.
• 10 March
  • Researchers describe a CRISPR-dCas9 epigenome editing method for a potential treatment of chronic pain, an analgesia that represses Na_v1.7 and showed therapeutic potential in three mouse models of pain.
  • A cohort study of patients matched by similarity finds that the probability of increased mortality from VOC-202012/01 is high, increasing from 0.25 to 0.41 % in the low-risk group of the database without controlling for U.K. vaccination campaign effects. A study published on 15 March estimates the strain's mortality-risk to be ~61% (42–82%) higher than that of pre-existing variants.
  • An analysis of the leaked and allegedly manipulated data about COVID-19 vaccines indicates concerns over percentage of intact mRNA in early commercial batches of mRNA vaccines, possibly reflecting a lack of certainty that relates to their efficacy at the time.

11 March: A review finds that the Amazon basin currently emits more greenhouse gases than it absorbs overall.

• 11 March – Results of a scientific synthesis indicate that, in terms of global warming, the Amazon basin with the Amazon rainforest now emits more greenhouse gases than it absorbs overall due to climate change impacts and human activities in the area – mainly deforestation.
• 15 March – Scientists report the discovery of a new unknown bacteria species, for the first time, of Methylobacterium, tentatively named Methylobacterium ajmalii, associated with three new strains, designated IF7SW-B2T, IIF1SW-B5, and IIF4SW-B5, on the International Space Station.
• 16 March – Scientists present evidence that the interstellar object ‘Oumuamua may likely be a piece of a planet similar to Pluto from beyond our Solar System.
• 17 March – A study finds that an optimized globally coordinated marine conservation could be "nearly twice as efficient as uncoordinated, national-level" planning and estimates that bottom trawling releases as much CO₂-emissions as pre-COVID-19 aviation.
• 18 March – A study finds that the severity of heatwave and drought impacts on crop production roughly tripled over the last 50 years in Europe.

March 24: A view of the M87* supermassive black hole in polarised light

• 19 March
  • NASA reports, based on measurements of over 500 Marsquakes by the InSight lander on the planet Mars, that the core of Mars is between 1,810 and 1,860 km (1,120 and 1,160 mi), about half the size of the core of Earth, and significantly smaller – suggesting a core of lighter elements – than thought earlier.
  • Physicists confirm the first detection of an odderon, based on data collected from CERN's Large Hadron Collider.
• 22 March – Astronomers report, for the first time, that the area producing pulses of a repeating fast radio burst (FRB), particularly FRB 180916, is about 1 kilometre (0.62 miles) in scale, based on studies at extremely short timescales.
• 23 March
  • News media announces the public release, for the first time, of a comprehensive report of UFO events accumulated by the United States over the years.
  • A study finds that the snapshot mass-testing for COVID-19 of ~80% of Slovakia's population end of October 2020 was highly efficacious, decreasing observed prevalence by 58% within one week and 70% compared to a hypothetical scenario of no snapshot-mass-testing.
• 24 March
  • A collaboration of scientists using the Event Horizon Telescope present the first polarized-based image of a black hole, at the center of Messier 87, revealing the forces giving rise to quasars.
  • Scientists report that a delayed change in the shape of early brain cells causes the distinctly large human forebrain compared to other apes and identify a genetic regulator of it, ZEB2.
• 26 March – A collision between the asteroid 99942 Apophis and Earth is ruled out, for at least the next hundred years, based on new observations by NASA.
• 29 March
  • Tokamak Energy announces first plasma with its newly-upgraded prototype fusion reactor, the ST40.
  • A study estimates that the national trade-, production- and consumption-patterns of the G7 drive an average annual loss of 3.9 trees per capita.
  • A case-control study of cities finds that redistributing street space for cycling infrastructure – for so-called "pop-up bike lanes" – during the COVID-19 pandemic lead to large additional increases in cycling.
  • The extensive pesticide pollution risks worldwide are estimated with a new environmental model.
• 30 March – Scientists report evidence of subglacial sediment stored since 1966 that indicates that Greenland was ice-free and vegetated at least once within the last million years.
• 31 March
  • The first high-bandwidth, wireless brain-computer interface is demonstrated, with 200 electrodes providing 48 megabits per second (Mbit/s) of neural signals.
  • The first 3D atomic imaging of an amorphous solid is presented, showing the 18,000 atoms in a particle of metallic glass.
  • A report about the leading causes of death in the U.S. for 2020 is published.

April

• 7 April
  • Physicists report that results from muon g-2 studies involving the muon subatomic particle challenge the Standard Model and, accordingly, may require an updating of currently understood physics.
  • The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reports the largest annual increase in methane emissions since records began, with a rise of 14.7 parts per billion (ppb) in 2020.
• 9 April – Neuralink reveals a male macaque with chips embedded on each side of its brain, playing a mind-controlled version of Pong.
• 12 April – Scientific American magazine announces that it will stop using the term "climate change" in articles about human-caused global warming and substitute "climate emergency" instead.
• 14 April – Astronomers report that the supermassive black hole M87*, first, and to date, the only black hole to be imaged, will be further studied by many observatories from around the world.
• 15 April
  • The CDC, according to numerous media sources, report that there were 5,800 COVID-19 breakthrough infections, and 74 deaths, in people fully vaccinated for the COVID-19 virus.^{[251][252][253][254][255][256]}
  • Scientists report the creation, for the first time, of human-monkey hybrid embryos.
  • Biologists report that an estimated 2.5 billion adult Tyrannosaurus rex dinosaurs roamed the Earth over the 2.4 million years of their existence.
  • A study published in Frontiers in Forests and Global Change finds that only 3% of the planet's terrestrial surface is ecologically and faunally intact, with low human footprint and healthy populations of native animal species.
  • Researchers at Purdue University demonstrate the whitest ever paint formulation, which reflects up to 98.1% of sunlight and could be used in place of air conditioners.
• 17 April – New Horizons reaches a distance of 50 astronomical units (AU) from the Sun, while remaining fully operational.
• 19 April – NASA's Ingenuity helicopter, part of the Mars 2020 mission, performs the first powered flight on another planet in history. The test location is named "Wright Brothers Field".
• 20 April – Perseverance performs a test of its MOXIE instrument to convert carbon dioxide into oxygen for the first time on Mars.
• 23 April – A malaria vaccine with 77% efficacy is reported by the University of Oxford.
• 27 April – Astronomers report the discovery of TOI-1431b, an "ultra-hot Jupiter" with a dayside temperature of 3,000°K (2,700°C), making it one of the hottest exoplanets found to date.

Predicted and scheduled events

• May/June – The Tianwen-1 spacecraft will deploy a rover on Mars, after entering orbit in February.
• July – Sloan Digital Sky Survey's final data release of SDSS-IV including final data products and catalogs.
• 31 October – The James Webb Space Telescope, "NASA’s most powerful and complex space telescope," is scheduled to launch.
• November – Planned launch of NASA's Artemis 1 mission to the Moon, the first integrated flight of the agency's Orion MPCV and Space Launch System (SLS) rocket.
• 1 November – 12 November – The 2021 UN Climate Change Conference is scheduled to take place in Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom. It was rescheduled from November 9, 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Date unknown

• Early-2021 – The Large Hadron Collider will recommence operations in early 2021; the collider was shut down in December 2018 "to enable major upgrade and renovation works."
• Early/mid-2021 – SATCON2, a workshop to bring astronomers and satellite constellation operators together.
• Mid/late-2021 – Science first light of the Vera C. Rubin Observatory is anticipated for 2021 with full science operations to begin a year later.
• The Indian Space Research Organisation plans to launch the Chandrayaan-3 Moon mission in late 2021 or early 2022.
• The race to lower launch costs in spaceflight continues with the planned maiden flights of Ariane 6 by Arianespace, New Glenn by Blue Origin, Vulcan by United Launch Alliance and various smaller rockets.
• Lucy, a planned NASA space probe that will flyby five Jupiter trojans, asteroids which share Jupiter's orbit around the Sun, orbiting either ahead of or behind the planet and one main belt asteroid, is scheduled for launch.
• Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART), a planned space probe that will demonstrate the kinetic effects of crashing an impactor spacecraft into an asteroid moon for planetary defense purposes, intended to test whether a spacecraft impact could successfully deflect an asteroid on a collision course with Earth, is scheduled for launch.
• China plans to begin construction of a large modular space station.
• Plan S, an initiative for open-access science publishing launched in 2018, requires that from 2021 papers from over 10 European countries that resulted from research funded by public grants must be published under an open licence in compliant journals or platforms, available to all.

Astronomical events

• 26 May – a total lunar eclipse will occur.
• 10 June – an annular solar eclipse will occur.
• 19 November – a partial lunar eclipse will occur.
• 4 December – a total solar eclipse will occur.

The Distribution and Frequency of P681H and D614G Mutations Among All SARS-CoV-2 Sequences by Month Reported in the GISAID Database in Year 2020

COVID-19 pandemic: Scientists report in a preprint that the mutation 'P681H', a characteristic feature of the significant novel SARS-CoV-2 variants detected in the U.K. and Nigeria, is showing a significant exponential increase in worldwide frequency, similar to the now globally prevalent 'D614G'.

• Artist's conception of the quasar J0313–1806, seen as it was only 670 million years after the Big Bang
  Scientists report the discovery of the most distant, and therefore oldest, quasar, J0313–1806. It is located 13 bn light-years away, does not yet have an accepted non-identifier name and significantly challenges theoretical models of early SMBH growth, apparently existing just ∼670 million years after the Big Bang despite its large size.
• Archaeologists report that the African cultural phase, called Middle Stone Age, thought to have lasted from ~300–30 ka, lasted to ~11 ka in some places, highlighting significant spatial and temporal cultural variability.
• A study with mice suggests that childhood diet and exercise can substantially affect adult microbiome composition and diversity.
• WASP-62b is confirmed to be the first hot Jupiter exoplanet without clouds or haze in its observable atmosphere.

12 January

• Scientists report the use of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing to produce a tenfold increase in super-bug targeting formicamycin antibiotics.
• COVID-19 pandemic: The National Institute of Infectious Diseases of Japan reports the detection of significant variant of SARS-CoV-2 Lineage P.1 via testing of travelers from Brazil, which was later reported to originate from widespread circulation in Brazil.
• 

• 2 February: Effeciveness of Sputnik-V vaccine is shown to be 92%.
  COVID-19 pandemic: Russia's Sputnik V vaccine is shown to be 92% effective against COVID-19, according to late stage trial results published in The Lancet.
• COVID-19 pandemic: Medical scientists in the United Kingdom report the detection of E484K (in 11 out of 214,000 samples), a mutation of the U.K. coronavirus variant that may compromise current vaccine effectiveness.
• Astronomers report that Tabby's Star, observed to dim in very unusual ways, has been found to be a binary stellar system.

5 February

• COVID-19 pandemic: A study suggests that climate change may have driven the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, by increasing the growth of forest habitats favoured by bats carrying the virus.
• A new theory aims to explain ʻOumuamua's peculiarities naturally and estimates, if true, ~4% of astronomical bodies in the interstellar medium to be N₂ ice fragments.
• A study identifies genes for face shape and, for the first time, finds that a version of a gene – which was possibly selected for due to adaption to cold climate via fat distribution – is associated with a facial feature, lip thickness, and introgressed from ancient humans – Denisovans – into modern humans, Native Americans.
• Researchers demonstrate a first prototype of quantum-logic gates for distributed quantum computers.

8 February – Scientists report an updated status of studies considering the possible detection of lifeforms on Venus (via of phosphine) and Mars (via methane).

9 February

• The UAE's Hope spacecraft becomes the first Arabian mission to successfully enter orbit around Mars.
• A study using a high spatial resolution model and an updated concentration-response function finds that 10.2 million global excess deaths in 2012 and 8.7 million in 2018 – or a fifth – were due to air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion, significantly higher than earlier estimates and with spatially subdivided mortality impacts.
• 

 

Ethnocentrism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocentrism 

 

Polish sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz is believed to have coined the term "ethnocentrism" in the 19th century, although he may have merely popularized it.

Ethnocentrism in social science and anthropology—as well as in colloquial English discourse—means to apply one's own culture or ethnicity as a frame of reference to judge other cultures, practices, behaviors, beliefs, and people, instead of using the standards of the particular culture involved. Since this judgement is often negative, some people also use the term to refer to the belief that one's culture is superior to, or more correct or normal than, all others—especially regarding the distinctions that define each ethnicity's cultural identity, such as language, behavior, customs, and religion. In common usage, it can also simply mean any culturally biased judgment. For example, ethnocentrism can be seen in the common portrayals of the Global South and the Global North.

Ethnocentrism is sometimes related to racism, stereotyping, discrimination, or xenophobia. However, the term "ethnocentrism" does not necessarily involve a negative view of the others' race or indicate a negative connotation. The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, which means to understand a different culture in its own terms without subjective judgments.

The term "ethnocentrism" was first applied in the social sciences by American sociologist William G. Sumner. In his 1906 book, Folkways, Sumner describes ethnocentrism as "the technical name for the view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it." He further characterized ethnocentrism as often leading to pride, vanity, the belief in one's own group's superiority, and contempt for outsiders.

Over time, ethnocentrism developed alongside the progression of social understandings by people such as social theorist, Theodore W. Adorno. In Adorno's The Authoritarian Personality, he and his colleagues of the Frankfurt School established a broader definition of the term as a result of "in group-out group differentiation," stating that ethnocentrism "combines a positive attitude toward one's own ethnic/cultural group (the in-group) with a negative attitude toward the other ethnic/cultural group (the out-group)." Both of these juxtaposing attitudes are also a result of a process known as social identification and social counter-identification.

Origins and development

The term ethnocentrism derives from two Greek words: "ethnos," meaning nation, and "kentron," meaning center. Scholars believe this term was coined by Polish sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz in the 19th century, although alternate theories suggest that he only popularized the concept as opposed to inventing it. He saw ethnocentrism as a phenomenon similar to the delusions of geocentrism and anthropocentrism, defining Ethnocentrism as "the reasons by virtue of which each group of people believed it had always occupied the highest point, not only among contemporaneous peoples and nations, but also in relation to all peoples of the historical past."

Subsequently, in the 20th century, American social scientist William G. Sumner proposed two different definitions in his 1906 book Folkways. Sumner stated that "Ethnocentrism is the technical name for this view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it." In the War and Other Essays (1911), he wrote that "the sentiment of cohesion, internal comradeship, and devotion to the in-group, which carries with it a sense of superiority to any out-group and readiness to defend the interests of the in-group against the out-group, is technically known as ethnocentrism." According to Boris Bizumic it is a popular misunderstanding that Sumner originated the term ethnocentrism, stating that in actuality he brought ethnocentrism into the mainstreams of anthropology, social science, and psychology through his English publications.

Several theories have been reinforced through the social and psychological understandings of ethnocentrism including T.W Adorno's Authoritarian Personality Theory (1950), Donald T. Campbell's Realistic Group Conflict Theory (1972), and Henri Tajfel's Social identity theory (1986). These theories have helped to distinguish ethnocentrism as a means to better understand the behaviors caused by in-group and out-group differentiation throughout history and society.

Ethnocentrism in social sciences

William Graham Sumner

In social sciences, ethnocentrism means to judge another culture based on the standard of one's own culture instead of the standard of the other particular culture. When people use their own culture as a parameter to measure other cultures, they often tend to think that their culture is superior and see other cultures as inferior and bizarre. Ethnocentrism can be explained at different levels of analysis. For example, at an intergroup level, this term is seen as a consequence of a conflict between groups; while at the individual level, in-group cohesion and out-group hostility can explain personality traits. Also, ethnocentrism can helps us to explain the construction of identity. Ethnocentrism can explain the basis of one's identity by excluding the outgroup that is the target of ethnocentric sentiments and used as a way of distinguishing oneself from other groups that can be more or less tolerant. This practice in social interactions creates social boundaries, such boundaries define and draw symbolic boundaries of the group that one wants to be associated with or belong to. In this way, ethnocentrism is a term not only limited to anthropology but also can be applied to other fields of social sciences like sociology or psychology.   

Anthropology

The classifications of ethnocentrism originate from the studies of anthropology. With its omnipresence throughout history, ethnocentrism has always been a factor in how different cultures and groups related to one another. Examples including how historically, foreigners would be characterized as "Barbarians," or how China believed their nation to be the "Empire of the Center" and viewed foreigners as privileged subordinates. However, the anthropocentric interpretations initially took place most notably in the 19th century when anthropologists began to describe and rank various cultures according to the degree to which they had developed significant milestones, such as monotheistic religions, technological advancements, and other historical progressions.

Most rankings were strongly influenced by colonization and the belief to improve societies they colonized, ranking the cultures based on the progression of their western societies and what they classified as milestones. Comparisons were mostly based on what the colonists believed as superior and what their western societies have accomplished. Thomas Macaulay, an English politician in the 19th Century, attempted to validate the opinion that "one shelf of a Western library" had more knowledge then the years of text and literature developed by the Eastern societies. Ideas developed by Charles Darwin has ethnocentric ideals where societies who believed they were superior were most likely to survive and prosper. Edward Said's orientalist concept represented how Western reactions to non-Western societies were based on an "unequal power relationship" that Western peoples developed due to colonization and the influence it held over non-Western societies.

The ethnocentric classification of "primitive" were also used by 19th and 20th century anthropologists and represented how unawareness in cultural and religious understanding changed overall reactions to non-Western societies. Modern anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor wrote about "primitive" societies in Primitive Culture (1871) creating a "civilization" scale where it was implied that ethnic cultures preceded civilized societies. The use of "savage" as a classification is modernly known as "tribal" or "pre-literate" where it was usually referred as a derogatory term as the "civilization" scale became more common. Examples that demonstrate a lack of understanding include when European travelers judged different languages based on that fact that they could not understand it and displayed a negative reaction, or the intolerance displayed by Westerners when exposed to unknown religions and symbolisms. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, a German philosopher, justified Western colonization by reasoning that since the non-Western societies were "primitive" and "uncivilized," their culture and history was not worth conserving and should allow Westernization.

Anthropologist Franz Boas saw the flaws in this formulaic approach to ranking and interpreting cultural development and committed himself to overthrowing this inaccurate reasoning due to many factors involving their individual characteristics. With his methodological innovations, Boas sought to show the error of the proposition that race determined cultural capacity. In his 1911 book The Mind of Primitive Man, Boas wrote that:

It is somewhat difficult for us to recognize that the value which we attribute to our own civilization is due to the fact that we participate in this civilization, and that it has been controlling all our actions from the time of our birth; but it is certainly conceivable that there may be other civilizations, based perhaps on different traditions and on a different equilibrium of emotion and reason, which are of no less value than ours, although it may be impossible for us to appreciate their values without having grown up under their influence.

Together, Boas and his colleagues propagated the certainty that there are no inferior races or cultures. This egalitarian approach introduced the concept of cultural relativism to anthropology, a methodological principle for investigating and comparing societies in as unprejudiced as possible and without using a developmental scale as anthropologists at the time were implementing. Boas and anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentric views that could blind any scientist's ultimate conclusions.

Both had also urged anthropologists to conduct ethnographic fieldwork to overcome their ethnocentrism. To help, Malinowski would develop the theory of functionalism as guides for producing non-ethnocentric studies of different cultures. Classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology include Margaret Mead's Coming of Age in Samoa (1928), which in time has met with severe criticism for its incorrect data and generalisations, Malinowski's The Sexual Life of Savages in North-Western Melanesia (1929), and Ruth Benedict's Patterns of Culture (1934). Mead and Benedict were two of Boas's students.

Scholars generally agree that Boas developed his ideas under the influence of the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. Legend has it that, on a field trip to the Baffin Islands in 1883, Boas would pass the frigid nights reading Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. In that work, Kant argued that human understanding could not be described according to the laws that applied to the operations of nature, and that its operations were therefore free, not determined, and that ideas regulated human action, sometimes independent of material interests. Following Kant, Boas pointed out the starving Eskimos who, because of their religious beliefs, would not hunt seals to feed themselves, thus showing that no pragmatic or material calculus determined their values.

Causes

Ethnocentrism is believed to be a learned behavior embedded into a variety of beliefs and values of an individual or group.

Due to enculturation, individuals in in-groups have a deeper sense of loyalty and are more likely to following the norms and develop relationships with associated members. Within relation to enculturation, ethnocentrism is said to be a transgenerational problem since stereotypes and similar perspectives can be enforced and encouraged as time progresses. Although loyalty can increase better in-grouper approval, limited interactions with other cultures can prevent individuals to have an understanding and appreciation towards cultural differences resulting in greater ethnocentrism.

The social identity approach suggests that ethnocentric beliefs are caused by a strong identification with one's own culture that directly creates a positive view of that culture. It is theorized by Henri Tajfel and John C. Turner that to maintain that positive view, people make social comparisons that cast competing cultural groups in an unfavorable light.

Alternative or opposite perspectives could cause individuals to develop naïve realism and be subject to limitations in understandings. These characteristics can also lead to individuals to become subject to ethnocentrism, when referencing out-groups, and black sheep effect, where personal perspectives contradict those from fellow in-groupers.

Realistic conflict theory assumes that ethnocentrism happens due to "real or perceived conflict" between groups. This also happens when a dominant group may perceive the new members as a threat. Scholars have recently demonstrated that individuals are more likely to develop in-group identification and out-group negatively in response to intergroup competition, conflict, or threat.

Although the causes of ethnocentric beliefs and actions can have varying roots of context and reason, the effects of ethnocentrism has had both negative and positive effects throughout history. The most detrimental effects of ethnocentrism resulting into genocide, apartheid, slavery, and many violent conflicts. Historical examples of these negative effects of ethnocentrism are The Holocaust, the Crusades, the Trail of Tears, and the internment of Japanese Americans. These events were a result of cultural differences reinforced inhumanely by a superior, majority group. In his 1976 book on evolution, The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretative in terms of Hamilton's genetic theory." Simulation-based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.

The positive examples of ethnocentrism throughout history have aimed to prohibit the callousness of ethnocentrism and reverse the perspectives of living in a single culture. These organizations can include the formation of the United Nations; aimed to maintain international relations, and the Olympic Games; a celebration of sports and friendly competition between cultures.

Effects

A study in New Zealand was used to compare how individuals associate with in-groups and out-groupers and has a connotation to discrimination. Strong in-group favoritism benefits the dominant groups and is different from out-group hostility and/or punishment. A suggested solution is to limit the perceived threat from the out-group that also decreases the likeliness for those supporting the in-groups to negatively react.

Ethnocentrism also influences consumer preference over which goods they purchase. A study that used several in-group and out-group orientations have shown a correlation between national identity, consumer cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, and the methods consumer choose their products, whether imported or domestic.

Ethnocentrism and racism

Ethnocentrism is usually associated with racism. However, as mentioned before, ethnocentrism does not necessarily implicate a negative connotation. In European research the term racism is not linked to ethnocentrism because Europeans avoid applying the concept of race to humans; meanwhile, using this term is not a problem for American researchers. Since ethnocentrism implicated a strong identification with one's in-group, it mostly automatically leads to negative feelings and stereotyping to the members of the outgroup, which can be confused with racism. Finally, scholars agree that avoiding stereotypes is an indispensable prerequisite to overcome ethnocentrism; and mass media play a key role regarding this issue.

Effects of ethnocentrism in the media

Ethnocentrism in Western films

Mass media plays an important role in our current society. We are constantly exposed to media content every day. Researchers had found that ethnocentrism is dysfunctional in communication and similar fields because the lack of acceptance of other cultures leads to the creation of barriers for people of different backgrounds to interact with each other. The presence of ethnocentrism in media content creates an issue in the exchange of messages in the communication process. The media industry is dominated by the Global North, so Western ethnocentrism tends to be exposed in the media. This can be seen in the predominance of Westerner content in TV shows, film, and other forms of mass media. Some Western shows tend to depict foreign cultures as inferior or strange in contrast to their own culture.

Film

Aladdin from Disney as an example of ethnocentrism

Cinema has been around our society since the beginning of the 20th century, and it is an important tool that allow to entertain and/or educate the viewer. Western companies are usually the leaders of the film industry. Thus, it is common to be exposed to content based on Westerners' point of view. Examples of ethnocentrism are constantly seen in films whether intentionally or unintentionally. A clear example of this can be seen on the American animated film Aladdin by Disney in 1992; the opening song of the movie is "Arabian Nights," it is mentioned on the lyrics that that land "it's barbaric, hey, but it's home," which had caused debates among the audience because it could lead to thinking that the Arabic culture is barbaric. Examples like this abound on many Hollywood films. Experts on the field propose that a way of overcoming ethnocentrism is to avoid the use of stereotypes in films. Therefore, the presence of ethnocentrism in cinema leads to stereotypical images of cultures that differ from ours.

Social media

A considerable number of people are exposed to social media, whose purpose is to encourage interaction among users. However, that exchange of information can be hindered by ethnocentrism because it can diminish the interest of interacting with people from other cultures.