The legal framework for such education varies by locality, and determines any obligation to conform with mainstream standard tests and grades
Alternative pedagogical approaches may include different structures, as in the open classroom, different teacher-student relationships, as in the Quaker and free schools, and/or differing curricula and teaching methods, as in the Waldorf and Montessori schools.
Synonyms for "alternative" in this context include "non-traditional,"
"non-conventional" and "non-standardized". Alternative educators use
terms such as "authentic", "holistic" and "progressive".
Cultural critics such as John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer and George Dennison have examined education from individualist, anarchist, and libertarian perspectives. Other writers, from Paulo Freire to American educators Herbert Kohl and Jonathan Kozol, have criticized mainstream Western education from the viewpoint of liberal
and radical politics. The argument for an approach catering to the
interests and learning style of an individual is supported by research
suggesting that a learner-responsible model is more effective than a
teacher-responsible one. Ron Miller has identified five elements common to educational alternatives:
Respect for the person
Balance
Decentralization of authority
Noninterference among the political, economic, and cultural spheres of society
A holistic worldview.
In modern times, at least in some localities, the legal right to
provide educational alternatives has become established alongside a duty to provide education for school age children.
Alternative education in Canada stems from two philosophical educational points of view, Progressive and Libertarian.
According to Levin, 2006 the term "alternative" was adopted partly to
distinguish these schools from the independent,
parent-student-teacher-run "free" schools that preceded them (and from
which some of the schools actually evolved) and to emphasize the boards'
commitment to options within the public school system. Progressive
educational tradition places emphasis on both the need to incorporate
curriculum and teaching to match the stages of child development and the
gradual integration of the child into adult society through planned
experiential learning. The sources of stimulus would be from the
philosopher John Dewey in the United States, from post WW1 New Schools
in Great Britain and the Steiner/Waldorf schools in Europe. The
Libertarian tradition focuses on the rights of the parents and children
to make their own educational and life choices. As noted by Levin "It is
rooted in the belief to uphold the individual freedom and the innate
goodness of the child against institutional and social conformity and
the corrupting influences of modern society."
School types
The
1980s saw a shift to special schools and/or programs for those students
that excelled in academia, were artistically talented, or through
programs linking schooling with the workplace in a co-operative venture.
It might be considered as a natural evolution of education to offer
options and not a regimented one size fits all approach. Most
alternative high schools falling under public jurisdiction offered
independent study programs, basic-skills programs, and were mini-high
schools with a mixture of conventional and nonconventional courses, and
schools with an arts focus. They also offered smaller classes, closer
and more informal relations with teachers, and greater flexibility in
course selection and timetabling. The most recent development within
alternative education in Canada may be to follow the United States in
their "Charter School" movement. In the US specific states have passed
legislation permitting their departments of education or local school
boards to issue "charters" directly to individual schools wishing to
operate autonomously. Alberta is the first province that has already
embraced this model.
India
Since the early 20th century, educators have discussed and implemented alternative forms of education, such as Rabindranath Tagore's Visva-Bharati University, Sri Aurobindo's Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education, Jiddu Krishnamurti Schools. Traditional learning in India involved students living in gurukulas, where they received free food, shelter and education from a guru ("teacher" in Sanskrit).
Progress was based on tests given by the gurus, and the system aimed to
nurture students' creativity and personality development. Although
mainstream education in India is based on the system introduced by Lord Macaulay, a few projects aim to rejuvenate the earlier method. Some students in these (and similar) projects conduct research in Sanskrit studies, Vedic studies, Vedic science, yoga and ayurveda. Others, after completing their education in a gurukula, enter mainstream higher education.
Japan
Japanese education is a nationwide, standardized system under the Ministry of Education.
The only alternative options have been accredited, private schools with
more freedom of curricula (including textbook choice; public schools
are limited to government-approved textbooks), teaching methods and
hiring guidelines. Nearly all private schools require a competitive
entrance examination and charge tuition, with few scholarships available. Interest in alternative education was sparked during the 1980s by student violence and bullying, school refusal, social anxiety disorder and, in the worst cases, suicide; the desire to enable young people to keep up with a globalized economy is an additional impetus.
A free school is a non-profit group (or independent school) which
specializes in the care and education of children who refuse to attend
standard schools. The first democratic school
was founded in 1985 as a shelter for children avoiding the school
environment, and a number of other such schools have been established.
In 1987 the first of seven Waldorf schools in Japan was founded, and
other alternatives include a growing homeschooling movement.
In 1992 Dr Shinichiro Hori, formerly Professor of Education at
Osaka City University, founded the first, Kinokuni Children's Village in
Wakayama Prefecture, of several alternative, democratic schools. In all
he created six schools in Fukui prefecture, Kitakyushu, and Yamanashi
prefecture. As friend and Japanese translator of A.S. Neill his work has been inspired by Summerhill School.
In 2003 Japan introduced Special Zones for Structural Reform (構造改革特別区域), based on China's Special Economic Zone
policy, which enable the opening of government-accredited schools
providing alternative education. Two years later, the first such school
was founded.
Despite the schools' high tuition, some parents send their children to international schools
to acquire fluency in a foreign language (usually English). Although
international schools are not certified by the Japanese government, many
are approved by their native country (the U.S., Canada, Germany,
France, Korea and China) and some offer an International Baccalaureate program.
Philippines
Taiwan
Founded after the lifting of martial law in Taiwan, the Forest School [zh] (森林小學)
was the first alternative education school in Taiwan. It seeks to
diverge from traditional Chinese education methodology and requires
parents of their students to not hit or scold their children. The term
'forest school' has become a generalized term used by schools with
alternative education approaches. There is also the case of the
Caterpillar, which – like the Forest School – is housed in an
unconventional campus and follows a creative and more fluid curriculum. Both these schools charge expensive tuition fees but more personalized instruction.
There is also alternative education that caters to learners with special needs such as the Taipei County's Seedling Elementary School, which opened in 1994.
This school caters to native students, who need a different and less
stressful learning environment. It integrates traditional courses with
strategies that focus on enhancing the learner's bond with nature and
aboriginal culture.
Another example is the so-called "third-way" education that serves the
needs of students that are not local but also not foreign such as the
Taipei American School,
which provides instruction to Taiwanese students with family in the
United States or those with occupations that took them, including their
children, abroad.
United Kingdom
In 2003, there were about 70 schools in the United Kingdom offering education based on philosophies differing from that of the mainstream pedagogy, about half of which are Steiner-Waldorf schools. Summerhill School, established by A.S. Neill in 1921, was the first democratic school; most have since closed, except for Summerhill, Sands School, Hebden Bridge School and democratic schools for children and young people. Though most alternative schools were until recently all fee-paying, state-funded Free Schools were introduced in 2011, only two of which alternative education: the Steiner Academy Frome, Somerset, and the Steiner Academy Hereford.
The United Kingdom also has alternative provision schools and
centres, designed to prevent exclusions from mainstream school, or
improve behavioural problems so that students can re-access mainstream
education. Since 1993, some of the centres have been referred to as Pupil Referral Units (PRU). These units are run by the local authority.
In recent years, in addition to Pupil Referral Units, many
privately funded units (operated by businesses or charities) have set up
versions of PRUs. These are known as private providers of alternative
provision.
The influx of private businesses entering the sector has led to concerns being raised by Ofsted and the Department for Education
in relation to so called illegal schools operating. Illegal schools
refer to alternative provision centres providing students with a full
time education without first registering properly as a school. Operating
in this way means that providers avoid inspection by Ofsted.
United States
A variety of educational alternatives exist at the elementary, secondary and tertiary level in four categories: school choice, independent schools and home-based education. The U.S. Department of Education's document State Regulation of Private Schools reports on the legal requirements that apply to K-12
private schools in each of the states, including any curriculum
requirements. The report states that it is intended as a reference for
public and nonpublic school officials and state policy-makers. The report confirms that similar areas of education are approached in a variety of ways.
School choice
Public-school alternatives in the U.S. include separate schools,
classes, programs and semi-autonomous "schools within schools". Public
school-choice options are open to all students, although some have
waiting lists. Among these are charter schools, combining private initiatives and state funding, and magnet schools, which attract students to a particular program (such as the performing arts).
Families seeking alternatives for educational, philosophical or
religious reasons, or if there is no nearby educational alternative may
opt for home-based education. A minor branch is unschooling, an approach based on interest rather than a curriculum. Others enroll in umbrella schools
which provide a curriculum. Homeschool courses give students in-depth,
personal attention in any subject with which they struggle or excel.
Some homeschool families form a cooperative, where parents with
expertise in a subject may teach children from a number of families
while their children are taught by other parents. There is great
variation amongst families who homeschool, from parents who set up
in-home "classrooms" and hold class for a set amount of time each day,
to families that focus on experiential learning opportunities.
Self-education
Self-directed inquiry is recognized at all levels of education, from
the "unschooling" of children to the autodidacticism of adults, and may
occur separately from (or with) traditional forms of education.
Homeschooling or home schooling, also known as home education or elective home education (EHE), is the education of school-aged children at home or a variety of places other than school.
Usually conducted by a parent, tutor, or an online teacher, many
homeschool families use less formal, more personalized and
individualized methods of learning that are not always found in schools.
The actual practice of homeschooling can look very different. The
spectrum ranges from highly structured forms based on traditional school lessons to more open, free forms such as unschooling, which is a lesson- and curriculum-free implementation of homeschooling. Some families who initially attended a school go through a deschool phase to break away from school habits and prepare for homeschooling. While "homeschooling" is the term commonly used in North America, "home education" is primarily used in Europe and many Commonwealth countries. Homeschooling shouldn't be confused with distance education, which generally refers to the arrangement where the student is educated by and conforms to the requirements of an online school, rather than being educated independently and unrestrictedly by their parents or by themselves.
Before the introduction of compulsory school attendance
laws, most childhood education was done by families and local
communities. By the early 19th century, attending a school became the
most common means of education in the developed world. In the mid to
late 20th century, more people began questioning the efficiency and
sustainability of school learning, which again led to an increase in the
number of homeschoolers, especially in the Americas and some European
countries. Today, homeschooling is a relatively widespread form of
education and a legal alternative to public and private schools in many
countries, which many people believe is due to the rise of the Internet,
which enables people to obtain information very quickly. There are also
nations in which homeschooling is regulated or illegal, as recorded in
the article Homeschooling international status and statistics. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many students from all over the world had to study from home
due to the danger posed by the virus. However, this was mostly
implemented in the form of distance education rather than traditional
homeschooling.
There are many different reasons for homeschooling, ranging from personal interests to dissatisfaction with the public school system.
Some parents see better educational opportunities for their child in
homeschooling, for example because they know their child more accurately
than a teacher and can concentrate fully on educating usually one to a
few persons and therefore can respond more precisely to their individual
strengths and weaknesses, or because they think that they can better
prepare their children for the life outside of school. Some children can
also learn better at home, for example, because they are not held back,
disturbed or distracted from school matters, do not feel
underchallenged or overwhelmed with certain topics, find that certain
temperaments are encouraged in school, while others are inhibited, do
not cope well with the very predetermined structure in school or are bullied there.
Homeschooling is also an option for families living in remote rural
areas, those temporarily abroad, those who travel frequently and
therefore face the physical impossibility or difficulty of getting their
children into school and families who want to spend more and better
time with their children. Health reasons and special needs can also play a role in why children cannot attend a school regularly and are at least partially homeschooled.
Critics of homeschooling argue that children may lack social
contact at home, possibly resulting in children having poorer social
skills. Some are also concerned that some parents may not have the
skills required to guide and advise their children in life skills.
Critics also say that a child might not encounter people of other
cultures, worldviews, and socioeconomic groups if they are not enrolled
in a school. Therefore, these critics believe that homeschooling cannot
guarantee a comprehensive and neutral education and children can be indoctrinated
and manipulated when there is no external influence and surveillance by
controlling authorities. There are many studies that show that
homeschooled children score better on standardized tests and have equal
or higher developed social skills and participate more in cultural and
family activities on average than public school students.
In addition, studies suggest that homeschoolers are generally more
likely to have higher self-esteem, deeper friendships, and better
relationships with adults, and are less susceptible to peer pressure.
For most of history and in different cultures, homeschooling was a common practice by family members and local communities.
Enlisting professional tutors was an option available only to the
wealthy. Homeschooling declined in the 19th and 20th centuries with the
enactment of compulsory school attendance laws. However, it continued to
be practised in isolated communities. Homeschooling began a resurgence
in the 1960s and 1970s with educational reformists dissatisfied with
industrialized education.
The earliest public schools in modern Western culture were established during the reformation with the encouragement of Martin Luther in the German states of Gotha and Thuringia in 1524 and 1527.
From the 1500s to 1800s the literacy rate increased until a majority of
adults were literate, but development of the literacy rate occurred
before the implementation of compulsory attendance and universal
education.
Home education and apprenticeship continued to remain the main form of education until the 1830s. However, in the 18th century, the majority of people in Europe lacked formal education.
Since the early 19th century, formal classroom schooling became the
most common means of schooling throughout the developed countries.
In 1647, New England provided compulsory elementary education.
Regional differences in schooling existed in colonial America. In the
south, farms and plantations were so widely dispersed that community
schools such as those in the more compact settlements of the north were
impossible. In the middle colonies, the educational situation varied
when comparing New York with New England.
Most Native American tribal cultures traditionally used
homeschooling and apprenticeship to pass knowledge to children. Parents
were supported by extended relatives and tribal leaders in the education
of their children. The Native Americans vigorously resisted compulsory
education in the United States.
In the 1960s, Rousas John Rushdoony began to advocate homeschooling, which he saw as a way to combat the secular nature of the public school system in the United States. He vigorously attacked progressiveschool reformers such as Horace Mann and John Dewey, and argued for the dismantling of the state's influence in education in three works: Intellectual Schizophrenia, The Messianic Character of American Education, and The Philosophy of the Christian Curriculum. Rushdoony was frequently called as an expert witness by the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) in court cases. He frequently advocated the use of private schools.
During this time, American educational professionals Raymond and
Dorothy Moore began to research the academic validity of the rapidly
growing Early Childhood Education
movement. This research included independent studies by other
researchers and a review of over 8,000 studies bearing on early
childhood education and the physical and mental development of children.
They asserted that formal schooling before ages 8–12 not only
lacked the anticipated effectiveness but also harmed children. The
Moores published their view that formal schooling was damaging young
children academically, socially, mentally, and even physiologically. The
Moores presented evidence that childhood problems such as juvenile
delinquency, nearsightedness, increased enrollment of students in special education classes and behavioral problems were the results of increasingly earlier enrollment of students. The Moores cited studies demonstrating that orphans who were given surrogate mothers
were measurably more intelligent, with superior long-term effects –
even though the mothers were "mentally retarded teenagers" – and that
illiterate tribal mothers in Africa produced children who were socially
and emotionally more advanced than typical western children, "by western
standards of measurement".
Their primary assertion was that the bonds and emotional
development made at home with parents during these years produced
critical long-term results that were cut short by enrollment in schools,
and could neither be replaced nor corrected in an institutional setting
afterwards. Recognizing a necessity for early out-of-home care for some children, particularly special needs and impoverished children and children from exceptionally inferior homes,
they maintained that the vast majority of children were far better
situated at home, even with mediocre parents, than with the most gifted
and motivated teachers in a school setting. They described the
difference as follows: "This is like saying, if you can help a child by
taking him off the cold street and housing him in a warm tent, then warm
tents should be provided for all children – when obviously most children already have even more secure housing."
The Moores embraced homeschooling after the publication of their first work, Better Late Than Early, in 1975, and became important homeschool advocates and consultants with the publication of books such as Home Grown Kids (1981), and Homeschool Burnout.
Simultaneously, other authors published books questioning the premises and efficacy of compulsory schooling, including Deschooling Society by Ivan Illich in 1970 and No More Public School by Harold Bennet in 1972.
In 1976, educator John Holt published Instead of Education; Ways to Help People Do Things Better. In its conclusion, he called for a "Children's Underground Railroad" to help children escape compulsory schooling.
In response, Holt was contacted by families from around the U.S. to
tell him that they were educating their children at home. In 1977, after
corresponding with a number of these families, Holt began producing the
magazine Growing Without Schooling (GSW), a newsletter dedicated to home education. Holt was nicknamed the "father of homeschooling." Holt later wrote a book about homeschooling, Teach Your Own, in 1981.
In 1980, Holt said,
"I want to make it clear that I
don't see homeschooling as some kind of answer to badness of schools. I
think that the home is the proper base for the exploration of the world
which we call learning or education. The home would be the best base no
matter how good the schools were."
One
common theme in the homeschool philosophies of both Holt and that of
the Moores is that home education should not attempt to bring the school
to construct into the home, or a view of education as an academic
preliminary to life. They viewed home education as a natural,
experiential aspect of life that occurs as the members of the family are
involved with one another in daily living.
Homeschooling can be used as a form of supplemental education and
as a way of helping children learn under specific circumstances. The
term may also refer to instruction in the home under the supervision of correspondence schools or umbrella schools. Some jurisdictions require adherence to an approved curriculum.
In the 1970s, a modern homeschooling movement began when American
educator and author John Holt questioned the efficiency of schools and
the sustainability of school learning, arguing that schools focus on
strictly doing "skill drill" instead of other methods of learning. The influence of Raymond Moore is sometimes also held responsible for this movement on the religious right. A curriculum-free philosophy of homeschooling called "unschooling"
also emerged around this time, although it would take a few more
decades for this form of education to become popular. The term was
coined in 1977 by Holt's GWS. The term emphasizes the more spontaneous,
less structured learning environment in which a child's interests drive
his pursuit of knowledge. Some parents provide a liberal arts education using the trivium and quadrivium as the main models.
While "homeschooling" is the term commonly used in the United States and other nations in North America, "home education" is primarily used in the United Kingdom, elsewhere in Europe and many Commonwealth countries.
Some believe that homeschooling has become more attractive and popular
than ever before since the days of quick information retrieval on the
Internet.
The COVID-19 pandemic led to school closures around the world, which is why many students had to study from home. Since the material to be learned was mainly outsourced to home and specified and checked by virtual schools, it can be said that this was mostly implemented in the form of distance education
rather than traditional homeschooling in which parents educate their
child independent from school. Because the transition to homeschooling
often happened overnight without any possibilities of preparation for
parents, teachers and children, this caused economic, educational, political and psychological distress.
Motivations
When
homeschooling is a choice, families have different reasons for choosing
it. This cake diagram shows the motivations regarded as most important
for homeschooling in the United States as of 2007.
There are a multitude of sometimes complex reasons why parents and
children choose to homeschool, some of which overlap with those for unschooling and may be very different depending on the country and (current) situation of parents and children.
Parents commonly cite two main motivations for homeschooling
their children: dissatisfaction with the local schools and the interest
in increased involvement with their children's learning and development.
Parental dissatisfaction with available schools typically includes
concerns about the school environment, the quality of academic
instruction, the curriculum, bullying, racism and lack of faith in the
school's ability to cater to their children's special needs.
Some parents homeschool in order to have greater control over what and
how their children are taught, to cater more adequately to an individual
child's aptitudes and abilities, to provide instruction from a specific
religious or moral
position, and to take advantage of the efficiency of one-to-one
instruction and thus allow the child to spend more time on childhood
activities, socializing, and non-academic learning.
Some African-American families choose to homeschool as a way of
increasing their children's understanding of African-American history –
such as the Jim Crow laws
that resulted in African Americans being prevented from reading and
writing – and to limit the harm caused by the unintentional and
sometimes subtle systemic racism that affects most American schools.
Some parents have objections to the secular nature of public
schools and homeschool in order to give their children a religious
education. Use of a religious curriculum is common among these families.
Some parents are of the opinion that certain temperaments are
promoted in school, while others are inhibited which may also be a
reason to homeschool their children.
Another argument for homeschooling children may be the protection against physical and emotional violence, bullying,
exclusion, drugs, stress, sexualization, social pressures, excessive
performance thoughts, socialization groups or role models with negative
impact and degrading treatment in school.
Some children may also prefer to or can learn more efficiently at
home, for example, because they are not distracted or slowed down by
school matters and can, for example, spend several hours dealing with
the same topic undisturbed. There are studies that show that
homeschooled children are more likely to graduate and perform better at university.
Homeschooling may also be a factor in the choice of parenting style.
Homeschooling can be a matter of consistency for families living in
isolated rural locations, for those temporarily abroad, and for those
who travel frequently.
Many young athletes, actors, and musicians are taught at home to
accommodate their training and practice schedules more conveniently.
Homeschooling can be about mentorship and apprenticeship, in which a
tutor or teacher is with the child for many years and becomes more
intimately acquainted with the child.
Many parents also homeschool their children and return their child into
the school system later on, for example because they think that their
child is too young or not yet ready to start school.
Some children also have health issues and therefore cannot attend a school regularly and are at least partially homeschooled or take distance education instead.
Another commonly cited reason for choosing homeschooling is the flexibility and freedom which parents and children have.
According to Elizabeth Bartholet,
surveys of homeschoolers show that a majority of homeschoolers in the
USA are motivated by "conservative Christian beliefs, and seek to remove
their children from mainstream culture".
Teaching methods, forms and philosophies
Homeschooling is usually conducted by a parent, tutor, or an online teacher,
but the concrete practice can be very different. The spectrum ranges
from highly structured forms based on traditional school lessons to more
open, free forms like unschooling. This is a curriculum-free implementation of homeschooling that involves teaching children based on their interests.
Many homeschool families use a wide variety of methods and
materials and less formal educational methods, which represent a variety
of educational philosophies and paradigms. Some of the methods or learning environments used include classical education (including Trivium, Quadrivium), Charlotte Mason education, Montessori method, theory of multiple intelligences, unschooling, Waldorf education, school-at-home (curriculum choices from both secular and religious publishers), A Thomas Jefferson Education,
unit studies, curriculum made up from private or small publishers,
apprenticeship, hands-on-learning, distance learning (both online and
correspondence), dual enrollment in local schools or colleges, and
curriculum provided by local schools and many others. Some of these
approaches are used in private and public schools.
Educational research and studies support the use of some of these
methods. Unschooling, natural learning, Charlotte Mason Education,
Montessori, Waldorf, apprenticeship, hands-on-learning, unit studies are
supported to varying degrees by research by constructivist learning theories and situated cognition theories. Elements of these theories may be found in the other methods as well.
A student's education may be customized to support his or her learning level, style, and interests.
It is not uncommon for a student to experience more than one approach
as the family discovers what works best for their student. Many families
use an eclectic approach, picking and choosing from various suppliers.
For sources of curricula
and books, a study found that 78 per cent utilized "a public library";
77 per cent used "a homeschooling catalogue, publisher, or individual
specialist"; 68 per cent used "retail bookstore or another store"; 60
per cent used "an education publisher that was not affiliated with
homeschooling." "Approximately half" used curriculum from "a
homeschooling organization", 37 per cent from a "church, synagogue or
other religious institution" and 23 per cent from "their local public
school or district." In 2003, 41 per cent utilized some sort of distance learning,
approximately 20 per cent by "television, video or radio"; 19 per cent
via "The Internet, e-mail, or the World Wide Web"; and 15 per cent
taking a "correspondence course by mail designed specifically for
homeschoolers."
Individual governmental units, e.g. states and local districts, vary in official curriculum and attendance requirements.
Informal learning
As a subset of homeschooling, informal learning happens
outside of the classroom but has no traditional boundaries of education.
Informal learning is an everyday form of learning through participation
and creation, in contrast with the traditional view of teacher-centered
learning. The term is often combined with non-formal learning and
self-directed learning. Informal learning differs from traditional
learning since there are no expected objectives or outcomes. From the
learner's standpoint, the knowledge that they receive is not
intentional. Anything from planting a garden to baking a cake or even
talking to a technician at work about the installation of new software
can be considered informal learning. The individual is completing a task
with different intentions but ends up learning skills in the process.
Children watching their tomato plants grow will not generate questions
about photosynthesis but they will learn that their plants are growing
with water and sunlight. This leads them to have a base understanding of
complex scientific concepts without any background studying.
The recent trend of homeschooling becoming less stigmatized has been in
connection with the traditional waning of the idea that the state needs
to be in primary and ultimate control over the education and upbringing
of all children to create future adult citizens. This breeds an
ever-growing importance on the ideas and concepts that children learn
outside of the traditional classroom setting, including Informal
learning.
Depending on the part of the world, informal learning can take on
many different identities and has differing cultural importances. Many
ways of organizing homeschooling draw on apprenticeship qualities and on
non-western cultures. In some South American indigenous cultures,
such as the Chillihuani community in Peru, children learn irrigation
and farming technique through play, advancing them not only in their own
village and society but also in their knowledge of realistic techniques
that they will need to survive.
In Western culture, children use informal learning in two main ways.
The first as talked about is through hands-on experience with new
material. The second is asking questions to someone who has more
experience than they have (i.e. parents, elders). Children's inquisitive
nature is their way of cementing the ideas they have learned through
exposure to informal learning. It is a more casual way of learning than
traditional learning and serves the purpose of taking in information any
which way they can.
Structured versus unstructured
All other approaches to homeschooling are subsumed under two basic categories: structured and unstructured homeschooling.
Structured homeschooling includes any method or style of home education
that follows a basic curriculum with articulated goals and outcomes.
This style attempts to imitate the structure of the traditional school
setting while personalizing the curriculum. Unstructured homeschooling
is any form of home education where parents do not construct a
curriculum at all. Unschooling, as it is known, attempts to teach
through the child's daily experiences and focuses more on self-directed
learning by the child, free of textbooks, teachers, and any formal
assessment of success or failure.
Unit studies
In a unit study
approach, multiple subjects such as math, science, history, art, and
geography, are studied in relation to a single topic. Unit studies are
useful for teaching multiple grades simultaneously as the difficulty
level can be adjusted for each student. An extended form of unit
studies, Integrated Thematic Instruction utilizes one central theme
integrated throughout the curriculum so that students finish a school
year with a deep understanding of a certain broad subject or idea.
All-in-one curricula
All-in-one homeschooling curricula (variously known as school-at-home, the traditional approach, or school-in-a-box)
are instructional methods of teaching in which the curriculum and
homework of the student are similar or identical to those used in a
public or private school. Purchased as a grade-level package or
separately by subject, the package may contain all of the needed books,
materials, tests, answer keys, and extensive teacher guides.
These materials cover the same subject areas as public schools,
allowing for an easy transition into the school system. These are among
the most expensive options for homeschooling, but they require minimal
preparation and are easy to use. There is, however, complete curriculum
available for free, such as that available at allinonehomeschool.com.
Some localities provide the same materials used at local schools to
homeschoolers. The purchase of a complete curriculum and their
teaching/grading service from an accredited distance learning curriculum
provider may allow students to obtain an accredited high school
diploma.
Unschooling and natural learning
Natural learning refers to a type of learning-on-demand where
children pursue knowledge based on their interests and parents take an
active part in facilitating activities and experiences conducive to
learning but do not rely heavily on textbooks or spend much time
"teaching", looking instead for "learning moments" throughout their
daily activities. Parents see their role as that of affirming through
positive feedback and modeling the necessary skills, and the child's
role as being responsible for asking and learning.
The term unschooling as coined by John Holt
describes an approach in which parents do not authoritatively direct
the child's education, but interact with the child following the child's
own interests, leaving them free to explore and learn as their
interests lead.
"Unschooling" does not indicate that the child is not being educated,
but that the child is not being "schooled", or educated in a rigid
school-type manner. Holt asserted that children learn through the
experiences of life, and he encouraged parents to live their lives with
their child. Also known as interest-led or child-led learning,
unschooling attempts to follow opportunities as they arise in real life,
through which a child will learn without coercion. Children at school
learn from 1 teacher and 2 auxiliary teachers in a classroom of
approximately 30. Kids have the opportunity of dedicated education at
home with a ratio of 1 to 1. An unschooled child may utilize texts or
classroom instruction, but these are not considered central to
education. Holt asserted that there is no specific body of knowledge
that is, or should be, required of a child.
Both unschooling and natural learning advocates believe that
children learn best by doing; a child may learn reading to further an
interest about history or other cultures, or math skills by operating a
small business or sharing in family finances. They may learn animal
husbandry keeping dairy goats or meat rabbits, botany tending a kitchen
garden, chemistry to understand the operation of firearms or the
internal combustion engine, or politics and local history by following a
zoning or historical-status dispute. While any type of homeschoolers
may also use these methods, the unschooled child initiates these
learning activities. The natural learner participates with parents and
others in learning together.
Another prominent proponent of unschooling is John Taylor Gatto, author of Dumbing Us Down, The Exhausted School, A Different Kind of Teacher, and Weapons of Mass Instruction.
Gatto argues that public education is the primary tool of
"state-controlled consciousness" and serves as a prime illustration of
the total institution — a social system which impels obedience to the state and quells free-thinking or dissent.
Autonomous learning
Autonomous learning is a school of education which sees learners as individuals who can and should be autonomous i.e. be responsible for their own learning climate.
Autonomous education helps students develop their
self-consciousness, vision, practicality, and freedom of discussion.
These attributes serve to aid the student in his/her independent
learning. However, a student must not start their autonomous learning
completely on their own. It is said, that by first having interaction
with someone who has more knowledge in a subject, will speed up the
student's learning, and hence allow them to learn more independently.
Some degree of autonomous learning is popular with those who home
educate their children. In true autonomous learning, the child usually
gets to decide what projects they wish to tackle or what interests to
pursue. In-home education, this can be instead of or in addition to
regular subjects like doing math or English.
According to Home Education UK, the autonomous education philosophy emerged from the epistemology of Karl Popper in The Myth of the Framework: In Defence of Science and Rationality, which is developed in the debates, which seek to rebut the neo-Marxist social philosophy of convergence proposed by the Frankfurt School (e.g. Theodor W. Adorno, Jürgen Habermas, Max Horkheimer).
Hybrid homeschooling
Hybrid homeschooling or flex-school
is a form of homeschooling in which children split their time between
homeschool and a more traditional schooling environment like a school. It is a comparatively unpopular education model that can mainly be found in the United States. During the COVID-19 pandemic, this was sometimes enforced by schools.
A commonly cited reason for choosing this model is that parents
are not sure whether they can provide their children a comprehensive and
neutral education at home or cannot devote themselves to homeschooling
full-time due to time constraints or excessive stress.
Some families also want their children to socialize with other children
and find that schools are better suited for this purpose because social
exchange does not only take place occasionally, but is an everyday
experience there.
Homeschool cooperatives
A homeschool cooperative is a cooperative
of families who homeschool their children. It provides an opportunity
for children to learn from other parents who are more specialized in
certain areas or subjects. Co-ops also provide social interaction. They
may take lessons together or go on field trips. Some co-ops also offer
events such as prom and graduation for homeschoolers.
Homeschoolers are beginning to utilize Web 2.0 as a way to simulate homeschool cooperatives online. With social networks,
homeschoolers can chat, discuss threads in forums, share information
and tips, and even participate in online classes via blackboard systems
similar to those used by colleges.
Research
Test results
According to the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) in 2004, "Many studies over the last few years have established the academic excellence of homeschooled children." Home Schooling Achievement, a compilation of studies published by the HSLDA, supported the academic integrity of homeschooling. This booklet summarized a 1997 study by Ray and the 1999 Rudner study.
The Rudner study noted two limitations of its own research: it is not
necessarily representative of all homeschoolers and it is not a
comparison with other schooling methods.
Among the homeschooled students who took the tests, the average
homeschooled student outperformed his public school peers by 30 to 37
percentile points across all subjects. The study also indicates that
public school performance gaps between minorities and genders were
virtually non-existent among the homeschooled students who took the
tests.
A survey of 11,739 homeschooled students conducted in 2008 found
that, on average, the homeschooled students scored 37 percentile points
above public school students on standardized achievement tests.
This is consistent with the 1999 Rudner study. However, Rudner said
that these same students in public school may have scored just as well
because of the dedicated parents they had.
The Ray study also found that homeschooled students who had a certified
teacher as a parent scored one percentile lower than homeschooled
students who did not have a certified teacher as a parent.
Another nationwide descriptive study conducted by Ray contained
students ranging from ages 5–18 and he found that homeschoolers scored
in at least the 80th percentile on their tests.
In 2011, a quasi-experimental study was conducted that included
homeschooled and traditional public students between the ages of 5 and
10. It was discovered that the majority of the homeschooled children
achieved higher standardized scores compared to their counterparts.
However, Martin-Chang also found that unschooling children ages 5–10
scored significantly below traditionally educated children, while
academically-oriented homeschooled children scored from one half grade
level above to 4.5 grade levels above traditionally schooled children on
standardized tests (n=37 homeschooled children matched with children
from the same socioeconomic and educational background).
There are also studys according to which homeschooled children are less likely to be sexually abused than children in public schools.
Studies have also examined the impact of homeschooling on students' GPAs.
Cogan (2010) found that homeschooled students had higher high school
GPAs (3.74) and transfer GPAs (3.65) than conventional students.
Snyder (2013) provided corroborating evidence that homeschoolers were
outperforming their peers in the areas of standardized tests and overall
GPAs.
Looking beyond high school, a study by the 1990 National Home Education
Research Institute (as cited by Wichers, 2001) found that at least 33%
of homeschooled students attended a four-year college, and 17% attended a
two-year college. This same study examined the students after one
year, finding that 17% pursued higher education.
On average, studies suggest homeschoolers score at or above the
national average on standardized tests. Homeschool students have been
accepted into many Ivy League universities.
However, The Coalition for Responsible Homeschooling notes that "Our
knowledge of homeschooling’s effect on academic achievement is limited
by the fact that many of the studies that have been conducted on
homeschoolers suffer from methodological problems which make their
findings inconclusive."
Outcomes
Homeschooled
children may receive more individualized attention than students
enrolled in traditional public schools. A 2011 study suggests that a
structured environment could play a key role in homeschooler academic
achievement.
This means that parents were highly involved in their child's education
and they were creating clear educational goals. In addition, these
students were being offered organized lesson plans which are either
self-made or purchased.
A study conducted by Ray in 2010, indicates that the higher the
level of parents' income, the more likely the homeschooled child is able
to achieve academic success.
In the 1970s, Raymond and Dorothy Moore conducted four federally
funded analyses of more than 8,000 early childhood studies, from which
they published their original findings in Better Late Than Early, 1975. This was followed by School Can Wait, a repackaging of these same findings designed specifically for educational professionals.
They concluded that "where possible, children should be withheld from
formal schooling until at least ages eight to ten." Their reason was
that children "are not mature enough for formal school programs until
their senses, coordination, neurological development and cognition are
ready". They concluded that the outcome of forcing children into formal
schooling is a sequence of "1) uncertainty as the child leaves the
family nest early for a less secure environment, 2) puzzlement at the
new pressures and restrictions of the classroom, 3) frustration because
unready learning tools – senses, cognition, brain hemispheres,
coordination – cannot handle the regimentation of formal lessons and the
pressures they bring, 4) hyperactivity growing out of nerves and
jitter, from frustration, 5) failure which quite naturally flows from
the four experiences above, and 6) delinquency which is failure's twin
and apparently for the same reason."
According to the Moores, "early formal schooling is burning out our
children. Teachers who attempt to cope with these youngsters also are
burning out." Aside from academic performance, they think early formal
schooling also destroys "positive sociability", encourages peer
dependence, and discourages self-worth, optimism, respect for parents,
and trust in peers. They believe this situation is particularly acute
for boys because of their delay in maturity. The Moores cited a
Smithsonian Report on the development of genius, indicating a
requirement for "1) much time spent with warm, responsive parents and
other adults, 2) very little time spent with peers, and 3) a great deal
of free exploration under parental guidance." Their analysis suggested
that children need "more of home and less of formal school", "more free
exploration with... parents, and fewer limits of classroom and books",
and "more old fashioned chores – children working with parents – and
less attention to rivalry sports and amusements."
Homeschooled youth are less likely to use and abuse illicit
substances and are more likely to disapprove of using alcohol and
marijuana.
Debate about outcomes
There are claims that studies showing that homeschooled students do better on standardized tests do not compare with public-school testing.
By contrast, SAT and ACT tests are self-selected by homeschooled
and formally schooled students alike. Some homeschoolers averaged higher
scores on these college entrance tests in South Carolina.
Other scores (1999 data) showed mixed results, for example showing
higher levels for homeschoolers in English (homeschooled 23.4 vs
national average 20.5) and reading (homeschooled 24.4 vs national
average 21.4) on the ACT, but mixed scores in math (homeschooled 20.4 vs
national average 20.7 on the ACT as opposed homeschooled 535 vs
national average 511 on the 1999 SAT math).
Some advocates of homeschooling and educational choice counter
with an input-output theory, pointing out that home educators expend
only an average of $500–$600 a year on each student (not counting the
cost of the parents' time), in comparison to $9,000–$10,000 (including
the cost of staff time) for each public school student in the United
States, which suggests home-educated students would be especially
dominant on tests if afforded access to an equal commitment of
tax-funded educational resources.
Many teachers and school districts oppose the idea of
homeschooling. However, research has shown that homeschooled children
often excel in many areas of academic endeavour. According to a study
done on the homeschool movement,
homeschoolers often achieve academic success and admission into elite
universities. According to the National Home Education Research
Institute president, Brian Ray, socialization is not a problem for
homeschooling children, many of whom are involved in community sports,
volunteer activities, book groups, or homeschool co-ops.
Socialization
Using
the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, John Taylor later found
that, "while half of the conventionally schooled children scored at or
below the 50th percentile (in self-concept), only 10.3% of the home-schooling children did so."
He further stated that "the self-concept of home-schooling children is
significantly higher statistically than that of children attending
conventional school. This has implications in the areas of academic
achievement and socialization which have been found to parallel
self-concept. Regarding socialization, Taylor's results would mean that
very few home-schooling children are socially deprived. He states that
critics who speak out against homeschooling on the basis of social
deprivation are actually addressing an area which favours homeschoolers.
In 2003, the National Home Education Research Institute conducted
a survey of 7,300 U.S. adults who had been homeschooled (5,000 for more
than seven years). Their findings included:
Homeschool graduates are active and involved in their
communities. 71% participate in an ongoing community service activity,
like coaching a sports team, volunteering at a school, or working with a
church or neighbourhood association, compared with 37% of U.S. adults
of similar ages from a traditional education background.
Homeschool graduates are more involved in civic affairs and vote in
much higher percentages than their peers. 76% of those surveyed between
the ages of 18 and 24 voted within the last five years, compared with
only 29% of the corresponding U.S. populace. The numbers are even
greater in older age groups, with voting levels not falling below 95%,
compared with a high of 53% for the corresponding U.S. populace.
58.9% report that they are "very happy" with life, compared with
27.6% for the general U.S. population. 73.2% find life "exciting",
compared with 47.3%.
Richard G. Medlin, Ph.D.'s research found that homeschooled children
have better social skills than children attending traditional schools.
UC Berkeleypolitical scientist Professor Robert Reich wrote in The Civic Perils of Homeschooling (2002) that homeschooling can result in biased students. A 2014 study showed that greater exposure to homeschooling was associated with more political tolerance.
Gallup polls of American voters have shown a significant change
in attitude in the last 20 years, from 73% opposed to homeschooling in
1985 to 54% opposed in 2001.
In 1988, when asked whether parents should have a right to choose
homeschooling, 53 percent thought that they should, as revealed by
another poll.
Critics argue that homeschooled children can be indoctrinated and manipulated.
Holistic education is a relatively new movement in education that seeks to engage all aspects of the learner, including mind, body, and spirit. Its philosophy, which is also identified as holistic learning theory, is based on the premise that each person finds identity, meaning, and purpose in life through connections to their local community, to the natural world, and to humanitarian values such as compassion and peace.
Title Page of the 1926 book ":Holism and Evolution" by Jan Christiaan Smuts
Holistic education's origins has been associated with the emergence of the concept of instruction in ancient Greece and other indigenous cultures. This involved the method that focused on the whole person instead of one or some segments of an individual's experience.
It formed part of the view that the world is a single whole and that
learning cannot be separated from all of man's experiences.
The term holistic education has been attributed to the South African military leader, statesman, scholar and philosopher, Field Marshal General Jan Christiaan Smuts (1870-1950), who is noted for his role in the foundation of the League of Nations, and the formation of the international peace organization, the United Nations. He drew from the ancient Greek conceptualization of holistic education to propose a modern philosophy of learning.
Smuts is considered the founder of "Holism", which he derived from the Greek word ολος, which means "whole". In his 1926 book "Holism and Evolution",
Smuts describes "holism" as the tendency in nature to form wholes that
are greater than the sum of the parts through creative evolution.
Today, this work is recognized as the foundation theory for systems
thinking, complexity theory, neural networks, semantic holism, holistic
education, and the general systems theory in ecology. Smuts' "holism" was also the inspiration for Emile Durkheim's concept of the "holistic society", as well as Alfred Adler's psychological approach, which views the individual as an "integrated whole".
There are also sources that credit Rudolph Steiner, John Dewey, and Maria Montessori as the originator of the modern model of holistic education. Steiner, particularly, developed a holistic education framework based on the works of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and H.P. Blavatsky. It introduced the concept of "imaginative teaching" and its role in the learner's self-actualization.
Development
It
is difficult to map the history of holistic education, as in some
respects its core ideas are not new but "timeless and found in the sense
of wholeness in humanity's religious impetus".
Many scholars feel the modern 'look and feel' of holistic
education coalesced through two factors: the rise of humanist
philosophies after World War II and the cultural paradigm shift
beginning in the mid-1960s.
In the 1970s, after the holism movement in psychology became much more
mainstream, "an emerging body of literature in science, philosophy and
cultural history provided an overarching concept to describe this way of
understanding education – a perspective known as holism."
In July 1979, the first National Holistic Education Conference
took place at the University of California at San Diego. The conference
was presented by The Mandala Society and The National Center for the
Exploration of Human Potential and was titled, Mind: Evolution or Revolution? The Emergence of Holistic Education.
For six years after, the Holistic Education Conference was combined
with the Mandala Holistic Health Conferences at the University of
California, San Diego. About three thousand professionals participated
each year. Out of these conferences came the annual Journals of Holistic Health. Holistic education began taking form as an identifiable area of study and practice in the mid-1980s in North America.
Philosophical Framework for Holistic Education
Any
approach to education must ask itself, what is the goal of education?
Holistic education aims at helping students be the most that they can
be. Abraham Maslow
referred to this as "self-actualization". Education with a holistic
perspective is concerned with the development of every person's
intellectual, emotional, social, physical, artistic, creative and
spiritual potentials. It seeks to engage students in the teaching/learning process and encourages personal and collective responsibility.
In describing the general philosophy of holistic education, Robin
Ann Martin and Scott Forbes (2004) divided their discussion into two
categories: the idea of ultimacy and Basil Bernstein's notion of sagacious competence.
Ultimacy
Religious;
as in becoming "enlightened". You see the light out of difficulties and
challenges. This can be done through increased spirituality.
Spirituality is an important component in holistic education as it
emphasizes the connectedness of all living things and stresses the
"harmony between the inner life and outer life".
Psychological; as in Maslow's "self-actualization". Holistic
education believes that each person should strive to be all that they
can be in life. There are no deficits in learners, just differences.
Undefined; as in a person developing to the ultimate extent a human
could reach and, thus, moving towards the highest aspirations of the
human spirit.
Sagacious competence
Freedom (in a psychological sense).
Good-judgment (self-governance).
Meta learning (each student learns in their "own way").
Social ability (more than just learning social skills).
Refining Values (development of character).
Self Knowledge (emotional development).
Curriculum
An
application of holistic education to a curriculum has been described as
transformational learning where the instruction recognizes the
wholeness of the learner and that he and the curriculum are not seen as
separate but connected. According to John Miller, the position is similar to the Quaker belief that there is "that of God in every one".
Various attempts to articulate the central themes of a holistic education, seeking to educate the whole person, have been made:
In holistic education the basic three R's have been said to be
education for: Relationships, Responsibility and Reverence for all life.
First, children need to learn about themselves. This involves learning self-respect and self-esteem. Second, children need to learn about relationships.
In learning about their relationships with others, there is a focus on
social "literacy" (learning to see social influence) and emotional
"literacy" (one's own self in relation to others). Third, children need
to learn about resilience. This entails overcoming difficulties,
facing challenges and learning how to ensure long-term success. Fourth,
children need to learn about aesthetics – This encourages the student to see the beauty of what is around them and learn to have awe in life.
Curriculum is derived from the teacher listening to each child and helping the child bring out what lies within oneself.
Tools/teaching strategies of holistic education
With
the goal of educating the whole child, holistic education promotes
several strategies to address the question of how to teach and how
people learn. First, the idea of holism advocates a transformative approach to learning. Rather than seeing education as a process of transmission and transaction, transformative learning
involves a change in the frames of reference that a person might have.
This change may include points of view, habits of mind, and worldviews.
Holism understands knowledge as something that is constructed by the
context in which a person lives. Therefore, teaching students to reflect
critically on how we come to know or understand information is
essential. As a result, if "we ask students to develop critical and
reflective thinking skills and encourage them to care about the world
around them they may decide that some degree of personal or social
transformation is required."
Second, the idea of connections is emphasized as opposed
to the fragmentation that is often seen in mainstream education. This
fragmentation may include the dividing of individual subjects, dividing
students into grades, etc. Holism sees the various aspects of life and
living as integrated and connected, therefore, education should not
isolate learning into several different components. Martin (2002)
illustrates this point further by stating that, "Many alternative
educators argue instead that who the learners are, what they know, how
they know it, and how they act in the world are not separate elements,
but reflect the interdependencies between our world and ourselves".
Included in this idea of connections is the way that the classroom is
structured. Holistic school classrooms are often small and consist of
mixed-ability and mixed-age students. They are flexible in terms of how
they are structured so that if it becomes appropriate for a student to
change classes, (s)he is moved regardless of what time of year it is on
the school calendar. Flexible pacing is key in allowing students
to feel that they are not rushed in learning concepts studied, nor are
they held back if they learn concepts quickly.
Third, along the same thread as the idea of connections in holistic education, is the concept of transdisciplinary inquiry.
Transdisciplinary inquiry is based on the premise that division between
disciplines is eliminated. One must understand the world in wholes as
much as possible and not in fragmented parts. "Transdisciplinary
approaches involve multiple disciplines and the space between the
disciplines with the possibility of new perspectives 'beyond' those
disciplines. Where multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary inquiry may
focus on the contribution of disciplines to an inquiry transdisciplinary
inquiry tends to focus on the inquiry issue itself."
Fourth, holistic education proposes that meaningfulness is
also an important factor in the learning process. People learn better
when what is being learned is important to them. Holistic schools seek
to respect and work with the meaning structures of each person.
Therefore, the start of a topic would begin with what a student may know
or understand from their worldview, what has meaning to them rather
than what others feel should be meaningful to them. Meta-learning
is another concept that connects to meaningfulness. In finding inherent
meaning in the process of learning and coming to understand how they
learn, students are expected to self-regulate their own learning.
However, they are not completely expected to do this on their own.
Because of the nature of community in holistic education, students learn
to monitor their own learning through interdependence on others inside
and outside of the classroom.
Finally, as mentioned above, community is an integral
aspect in holistic education. As relationships and learning about
relationships are keys to understanding ourselves, so the aspect of
community is vital in this learning process. Scott Forbes stated, "In
holistic education the classroom is often seen as a community, which is
within the larger community of the school, which is within the larger
community of the village, town, or city, and which is, by extension,
within the larger community of humanity."
Teacher's role
In
holistic education, the teacher is seen less as person of authority who
leads and controls but rather is seen as "a friend, a mentor, a
facilitator, or an experienced traveling companion".
Schools should be seen as places where students and adults work toward a
mutual goal. Open and honest communication is expected and differences
between people are respected and appreciated. Cooperation is the norm,
rather than competition. Thus, many schools incorporating holistic
beliefs do not give grades or rewards. The reward of helping one another
and growing together is emphasized rather than being placed above one
another.
Holism (from Greekὅλοςholos "all, whole, entire") is the idea that various systems (e.g. physical, biological, social) should be viewed as wholes, not merely as a collection of parts. The term "holism" was coined by Jan Smuts in his 1926 book Holism and Evolution.
Meaning
The
exact meaning of "holism" depends on context. Smuts originally used
"holism" to refer to the tendency in nature to produce wholes from the
ordered grouping of unit structures. However, in common usage, "holism" usually refers to the idea that a whole is greater than the sum of its parts. In this sense, "holism" may also be spelled "wholism" (although the two are not etymologically related), and it may be contrasted with reductionism or atomism.
Diet and health
The term holistic when applied to diet or medical health refers to an intuitive approach to food, eating, or lifestyle. One example is in the context of holistic medicine,
where "holism" refers to treating all aspects of a person's health,
including psychological and societal factors, rather than only their
physical conditions or symptoms. In this sense, holism may also be called "holiatry." Several approaches are used by medical doctors, dietitians, and religious institutions, and are usually recommended based on an individual basis. Adherents of religious institutions that practice a holistic dietary and health approach, such as Hinduism, Shinto, and the Seventh-day Adventist Church, have been shown to have longer lifespans than those of surrounding populations.
