The Culture of Bangladesh refers to the way of life of the people of Bangladesh. It has evolved over the centuries and encompasses the cultural diversity of several social groups of Bangladesh. The Bengal Renaissance of the 19th and early 20th centuries, noted Bengali writers, saints, authors, scientists, researchers, thinkers, music composers, painters, and film-makers have played a significant role in the development of Bengali culture.
The Bengal Renaissance contained the seeds of a nascent political
Indian nationalism and was the precursor in many ways to modern Indian
artistic and cultural expression. The culture of Bangladesh is composite
and over the centuries has assimilated influences of Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity. It is manifested in various forms, including music, dance, and drama; art and craft; folklore and folktale; languages and literature; philosophy and religion; festivals and celebrations; as well as in a distinct cuisine and culinary tradition.People in Bangladesh are the best of all.
Music, dance, drama
Bangladeshi artists performing in a dance show.
The music and dance styles of Bangladesh may be divided into three categories: classical, folk, and modern.
Bangladesh was once part of Pakistan, and it was called East Pakistan.
The classical style has been influenced by other prevalent classical forms of music and dances of the Indian subcontinent and, accordingly, show some influenced dance forms like Bharatnatyam and Kathak.
Several dancing styles in vogue in the northeastern part of the
Indian subcontinent, like Manipuri and Santhali dances, are practised,
but Bangladesh has developed its own distinct dancing styles. Bangladesh
has a rich tradition of folk songs, with lyrics rooted in vibrant tradition and spirituality, mysticism, and devotion. Such folk songs revolve around other themes, including love. The most prevalent folk songs and music traditions include Bhatiali, Baul, Marfati, Murshidi, and Bhawaiya. Lyricists like Lalon Shah, Hason Raja, Kangal Harinath, Romesh Shill, Abbas Uddin, and many unknown anonymous lyricists have enriched the tradition of folk songs of Bangladesh.
In a relatively modern context, Robindro Shongit and Nazrul Giti
form precious cultural heritage of Bangladesh. Recently, western
influences have given rise to quality rock bands, particularly in urban
centres like Dhaka. Several musical instruments, some of them
indigenous, are used in Bangladesh, and major musical instruments used
are the bamboo flute (bashi), drums (tabla,dhol), a single stringed instrument named ektara, a four-stringed instrument called dotara, and a pair of metal bawls used for rhythm effect called mandira,
are important in the culture of Bangladesh. Currently,musical
instruments of western origin like guitars, drums, and the saxophone are
used, sometimes along with traditional instruments (Muajj).
Media and cinema
The Bangladeshi press is diverse, outspoken and privately owned. Over 200 newspapers are published in the country. Bangladesh Betar is the state-run radio service.[1] The British Broadcasting Corporation operates the popular BBC Bangla news and current affairs service. Bengali broadcasts from Voice of America are also very popular. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the state-owned television network. There more than 20 privately owned television networks, including several news channels. Freedom of the media remains a major concern, due to government attempts at censorship and harassment of journalists.
The cinema of Bangladesh
dates back to 1898, when films began screening at the Crown Theatre in
Dacca. The first bioscope in the subcontinent was established in Dacca
that year. The Dhaka Nawab Family patronised the production of several silent films
in the 1920s and 30s. In 1931, the East Bengal Cinematograph Society
released the first full-length feature film in Bangladesh, titled the Last Kiss. The first feature film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh,
was released in 1956. During the 1960s, 25–30 films were produced
annually in Dacca. By the 2000s, Bangladesh produced 80–100 films a
year. While the Bangladeshi film industry has achieved limited
commercial success; the country has produced notable independent film
makers. Zahir Raihan was a prominent documentary-maker who was assassinated in 1971. The late Tareque Masud
is regarded as one of Bangladesh's outstanding directors due to his
numerous productions on historical and social issues. Masud was honoured
by FIPRESCI at the Cannes Film Festival in 2002 for his film The Clay Bird. Tanvir Mokammel, Mostofa Sarwar Farooki, Humayun Ahmed, Alamgir Kabir, Subhash Dutta and Chashi Nazrul Islam are other prominent directors of Bangladesh cinema.
As the most important religious festival for the majority of Muslims,
the celebration of Eid ul-Fitr has become a part of the culture of
Bangladesh. The government of Bangladesh declares the holiday for three
days on Eid-ul Fitr. But practically, all schools, colleges and offices
remain closed for a week. This is the happiest time of the year for most
of the people in Bangladesh. All outgoing public transport from the
major cities have become highly crowded and in many cases the fares tend
to rise in spite of government restrictions.
On Eid day, the Eid prayers are held all over the country, in open areas
like fields, Eidgahs or inside mosques.[2] After the Eid prayers, people return home, visit each other's home and eat sweet dishes called Shirini, Sheer Khurma
and other delicacies like biryani, korma, haleem, kebab etc. Throughout
the day people embrace each other and exchange greetings. It is also
customary for junior members of the society to touch the feet of the
seniors, and seniors returning blessings (sometimes with a small sum of
money as a gift). Money and food is donated to the poor. In the rural
areas, the Eid festival is observed with great fanfare. Quiet remote
villages become crowded. In some areas Eid fairs are arranged. Different
types of games including boat racing, kabaddi, and other traditional
Bangladeshi games, as well as modern games like cricket and football are
played on this occasion. In urban areas, people play music, visit each
other's houses, arrange picnics and eat special food. The homes,
streets, markets and parks are illuminated with lighting decorations in
the evening. Watching movies and television programs has also become an
integral part of the Eid celebration in urban areas. All local TV
channels air special program for several days for this occasion.
Eid ul-Adhha
An urban congregation for Eid-ul-Adha prayers in Dhaka.
Eid ul-Adha or Bakri Id is the second most important religious
festival. The celebration of this festival similar to Eid ul-Fitr in
many ways. The only big difference is the Kurbani or sacrifice of domestic animals. Numerous temporary marketplaces of different sizes called hat
operate in the big cities for sale of Qurbani animals (usually cows,
goats and sheep). In the morning on the Eid day, immediately after the
prayer, affluent people thank God for the animal, and then sacrifice it.
Less affluent people also take part in the festivity by visiting houses
of the affluent who are taking part in kurbani. After the kurbani,
a large portion of the meat is given to the poor people and to the
relatives and neighbours. Although the religious doctrine allows the
sacrifice anytime over a period of three days starting from the Eid day,
most people prefer to perform the ritual on the first day of Eid. However, the public holiday spans over three to four days. Many people
from the big cities go to their ancestral houses and homes in the
villages to share the joy of the festival with friends and relatives.
Pohela Boishakh
Pohela Baishakh celebration in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Poila Boishakh is the first day of the Bengali calendar. It is
usually celebrated on 14 April. Poila Boishakh marks the start day of
the crop season. Usually on Poila Boishakh, the home is thoroughly
scrubbed and cleaned; people bathe early in the morning and dress in
fine clothes. They spend much of the day visiting relatives, friends,
and neighbours and going to the fair. Fairs are arranged in many parts
of the country where various agricultural products, traditional
handicrafts, toys, cosmetics, as well as various kinds of food and
sweets are sold. The fairs also provide entertainment, with singers,
dancers and traditional plays and songs. Horse races, bull races,
bull-fights, cock-fights, flying pigeons, and boat racing were once
popular. All gatherings and fairs consist a wide spread of Bengali food
and sweets. The most colourful New Year's Day festival takes place in
Dhaka. Large numbers of people gather early in the morning under the
banyan tree at Ramna Park where Chhayanat artists open the day with Rabindranath Tagore's famous song, Esho, he Boishakh, Esho esho
(Come, year, come, come). A similar ceremony welcoming the new year is
also held at the Institute of Fine Arts (Dhaka) and University of Dhaka.
Students and teachers of the institute take out a colourful procession
and parade to round the campus. Social and cultural organisations
celebrate the day with cultural programmes. Newspapers bring out special
supplements. There are also special programmes on radio and television.
Prior to this day, special discounts on clothes, furniture, electronics
and various deals and shopping discounts are available. Special line of
saree, usually cotton, white sarees with red print and
embroidery is sold before this day as everyone dresses up for this day.
Jasmine and marigold flowers are also a huge sale for this event which
adorns the women's hair.
Nabanna
The harvest festival is called the Nabanna. It is usually celebrated on
the first day of Agrahayan (Bengali Month) the first day of harvesting.
Main festival is organising by Jatiya Nabanna Utshab Udjapan Parshad at
Charukala (Fine Arts) in Dhaka University with song, dance, Cake, sweet,
colourful procession and many traditional presentation.
Language day
Shaheed
Minar(Martyr Monument) People commemorates those who were killed in the
21 February 1952 Bengali Language Movement demonstration
In 1952, the emerging middle classes of East Bengal underwent an
uprising known later as the Bangla Language Movement. Bangladeshis (then
East Pakistanis) were initially agitated by a decision by the Central
Pakistan Government to establish Urdu, a minority language spoken only
by the supposed elite class of West Pakistan, as the sole national
language for all of Pakistan. The situation was worsened by an open
declaration that "Urdu and only Urdu will be the national language of
Pakistan" by the governor, Khawaja Nazimuddin. Police declared Section
144 which banned any sort of meeting. Defying this, the students of
University of Dhaka and Dhaka Medical College and other political
activists started a procession on 21 February 1952. Near the current
Dhaka Medical College Hospital, police fired on the protesters and
numerous people, including Abdus Salam, Rafiq Uddin Ahmed, Sofiur
Rahman, Abul Barkat and Abdul Jabbar died. The movement spread to the
whole of East Pakistan and the whole province came to a standstill.
Afterwards, the Government of Pakistan relented and gave Bengali equal
status as a national language.This movement is thought to have sown the
seeds for the independence movement which resulted in the liberation of
Bangladesh in 1971. To commemorate this movement, Shaheed Minar, a
solemn and symbolic sculpture, was erected in the place of the massacre.
The day is revered in Bangladesh and, to a somewhat lesser extent, in
West Bengal as the Martyrs' Day. This day is the public holiday in
Bangladesh. UNESCO decided to observe 21 February as International
Mother Language Day. The UNESCO General Conference took a decision to
that took effect on 17 November 1999 when it unanimously adopted a draft
resolution submitted by Bangladesh and co-sponsored and supported by 28
other countries.
Durga Puja
Durga Puja in Bangladesh
Durga Puja, largest religious festival for Hindus, is celebrated
widely across Bangladesh. Thousands of pandals (mandaps) are set up in
various villages, towns and cities. Durga Puja is a grand cultural
celebration in the capital city of Dhaka. Major pujas of Dhaka are held
in numerous pandals, but the biggest celebration takes place at
Dhakeshwari Temple where several thousand devotees and onlookers stream
through the premises for four days. Special boat race on Buriganga river
is arranged and it attracts a large crowd. A five-day holiday is
observed by all educational institutions, while Bijoya Dashami is a
public holiday. On Bijoya Dashami, effigies are paraded through the
streets of Shankhari Bazaar in Old Dhaka in loud, colourful processions
before being immersed into the rivers. Thousands of Muslims take part in
the secular part of festivities in celebration of Bengali solidarity
and culture.
Weddings
Relatives decorating the bride with traditional wedding turmeric in a Bangladeshi Gaye Holud ceremony in Dhaka.
A traditional wedding is arranged by Ghotoks (matchmakers),
who are typically friends or relatives of the couple. The matchmakers
facilitate the introduction, and also help agree the amount of any
settlement. Bengali weddings are traditionally in five parts: first it
is the bride and groom's Mehendi Shondha, the bride's Gaye Holud, the groom's Gaye Holud, the Beeya, and the Bou Bhaat.
These often take place on separate days. The first event in a wedding
is an informal one: the groom presents the bride with a ring marking the
"engagement" which is gaining popularity. For the mehendi shondha the bride's side apply henna to each other as well as the bride for the bride's Gaye Holud, the groom's family – except the groom himself – go in procession to the bride's home. Bride's friends and family apply turmeric paste to her body as a part of Gaye Hoof bride, and they are traditionally all in matching clothes, mostly orange. The bride is seated on a dais, and the henna
is used to decorate the bride's hands and feet with elaborate abstract
designs. The sweets are then fed to the bride by all involved, piece by
piece. The actual wedding ceremony
"Biye" follows the Gaye Holud ceremonies. The wedding ceremony is
arranged by the bride's family. On the day, the younger members of the
bride's family barricade the entrance to the venue, and demand a sort of
admission charge from the groom in return for allowing him to enter.
The bride and groom are seated separately, and a Kazi (authorised person by the govt. to perform the wedding), accompanied by the parents and a Wakil
(witness) from each side formally asks the bride for her consent to the
union, and then the groom for his. The bride's side of the family tries
to play some kind of practical joke on the groom such as stealing the
groom's shoe. The reception, also known as Bou-Bhaat
(reception), is a party given by the groom's family in return for the
wedding party. It is typically a much more relaxed affair, with only the
second-best wedding outfit being worn.
This is more or less the Musim wedding procession. The Hindu
weddings also follow the same parts of the wedding but the wedding part
is somewhat different. The wedding is done along with a feast and
according to the Hindu religion's wedding steps, e.g. Shat-pake-badha; Shidur Daan
etc. the wedding most likely lasts the whole night starting at the
evening.
The Christian and Buddhist Wedding follow a totally different Process.
They more or less follow Western Culture and Methods. Sometimes they too
follow the Bengali wedding procession.
Architecture and heritage
Bangladesh has appealing architecture from historic treasures to
contemporary landmarks. It has evolved over centuries and assimilated
influences from social, religious and exotic communities. Bangladesh has
many architectural relics and monuments dating back thousands of years.
1752 Kantajew Temple, prominent Hindu architecture of Bangladesh.
A cricket match between Bangladesh & India at the Sher-e-Bangla Cricket Stadium in Dhaka, Bangladesh
Cricket is the most popular sport in Bangladesh, followed by football. Kabaddi
is the national sport in Bangladesh. Cricket is a game which has a
massive and passionate following in Bangladesh. Bangladesh has joined
the elite group of countries eligible to play Test cricket since 2000. The Bangladesh national cricket team goes by the nickname of the Tigers – after the royal Bengal tiger. The people of Bangladesh enjoy watching live sports. Whenever there is a
cricket or football match between popular local teams or international
teams in any local stadium significant number of spectators gather to
watch the match live. The people also celebrate major victories of the
national teams with great enthusiasm for the live game. Victory
processions are the most common element in such celebrations. A former
prime minister even made an appearance after an International one day cricket match in which Bangladesh beat Australia, she came to congratulate the victory. Also in late 2006 and 2007, football legend Zinedine Zidane paid a visit to local teams and various events thanks to the invite of Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Muhammad Yunus. Some traditional sports of Bangladesh include Nouka Baich, Kho Kho, Boli Khela, Lathi Khela etc.
Bangladesh is ethnically homogeneous, with Bengalis comprising 98% of the population. Bangladesh is a Muslim-majority country. Muslims constitute around 87% of the population in Bangladesh while Hindus and Buddhists
are the most significant minorities of the country. Christians, Sikhs
and atheists form a very minuscule part of the population. But due to
immense cultural diversity, multiple dialects, hybridisation of social
traits and norms as well as cultural upbringing, Bangladeshis cannot be stereotyped
very easily, except for the only fact that they are very resilient in
nature. People of different religions perform their religious rituals
with festivity in Bangladesh. The Government has declared National
Holidays on all important religious festivals of the four major
religions. Eid al-Fitr, Durga Puja, Christmas, and Buddha Purnima
are celebrated with enthusiasm in Bangladesh. All of these form an
integral part of the cultural heritage of Bangladesh. People from
several tribal communities
like Chakma, Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Marma, Santhal, Manipuri, Tripuri,
Tanchangya, Mru, Mandi, Kuki, Bawm, Oraon, Khiang, Chak, Dhanuk, Munda,
Rohingya also have their own respective festivals. Apart from these
religious and tribal celebrations there are also several secular
festivals. Pohela Boishakh is the biggest cultural event among all the festivals in Bangladesh. Bangladesh also observes 21 February as Shaheed Dibas, 26 March as Independence Day, and 16 December as Victory Day.
Lifestyle
Cuisine
Sandesh, created with milk and sugar
Bangladesh is famous for its distinctive culinary tradition,
delicious food, snacks, and savouries. Steamed rice constitutes the
staple food, and is served with a variety of vegetables, fried as well
with curry, thick lentil soups, egg, fish and meat preparations of chicken, mutton, beef, duck. Sweetmeats of Bangladesh are mostly milk based, and consist of several delights including rasgulla, shondesh, rasmalai, gulab jam, kala jam, and chom-chom. Several other sweet preparations are also available. Bengali cuisine is rich and varied with the use of many specialised spices
and flavours. Fish is the dominant source of protein, cultivated in
ponds and fished with nets in the fresh-water rivers of the Ganges delta. More than 40 types of mostly freshwater fish are common, including carp, varieties like rui (rohu), katla, magur (catfish), chingŗi (prawn or shrimp), as well as shuţki machh
(dried sea fish) are popular. Salt water fish ilish is very popular
among Bengalis, can be called an icon of Bengali cuisine.Unlike
neighbouring West Bengal, serving dishes with beef is not a taboo in
Bangladesh. Beef curry is a very common and essential part of Bengal
cuisine.
Clothes
Portion of a sari woven at Sonargaon, Bangladesh
Bangladeshi people have unique dress preferences. Bangladeshi men traditionally wear Panjabi on religious and cultural occasions. Bangladeshi men wear lungi as casual wear (in rural areas) and shirt-pant or suits on formal occasions. Shari is the main and traditional dress of Bangladeshi women[10] also and some young female also wear salwar kameez. In urban areas, women can also be seen wearing Western clothes.[11]
The women also have a different preference to which types of Sharee or
any other popular dess like Salwar kameez they would like to wear.
Whether it may be silk sharis, georgette sharis, or designer sharis,
each particular fabric contributes to representing the culture overall.
Weaving the fabric for these dresses is a traditional art in Bangladesh.
Dr. Josh Mitteldorf is an evolutionary
biologist and a long-time contributor to the growing field of aging
science. His work in this field has focused on theories of aging. He
asks the basic question: why do we age and die? This can seem like a
silly question to people encountering it for the first time because most
of us would quickly respond, “Because that’s just how it is; all
creatures age and die eventually as their bodies wear out.”
Essentially, Josh is saying, “Not so
fast. In fact, a lot of creatures don’t age and die. Humans, as well as
most other animals that do age and die, are programmed to do so. So,
humans are programmed to die in much the same way that salmon are
programmed to die after spawning.”
Wait, what? Yes, Josh argues, we are not
that much different than salmon in this regard – we just have longer to
enjoy our inevitable fate than salmon do. However, our ultimate fate is
the same. This is important because an accurate understanding of how
and why we age will lead to more effective therapies and interventions
to mitigate or even eliminate aging.
I discussed my thoughts and reactions
upon learning about Josh’s ideas in his excellent 2016 book co-authored
with Dorian Sagan, Cracking the Aging Code, in this piece here.
What follows is an interview with Josh
about his ideas and his thoughts on the field of aging science more
generally. This interview was conducted by email in early 2018.
It seems like the field of aging
science has grown remarkably in the last decade or so, with many new
books and more research money and scientists devoted to the many
problems of aging. Given this growing interest are you optimistic that
we’re on the verge of real breakthroughs in longevity improvements?
I’m not as optimistic as I was a few
years ago. The Next Big Thing in the field is likely to be senolytic
drugs. These are able to selectively remove the body’s worn-out cells
that have become toxic, without poisoning our healthy cells. I think
they’ll add a decade or more to the human lifespan. The “exercise pills”
popularized by the New Yorker last fall will be another boost if they can be made safe.
After that, I think the big challenge will require taking control of our epigenetics
(heritable changes that don’t require changes to the genome itself).
Epigenetics, I believe, is in control of aging at a deep level.
Epigenetics is so complicated that 20 years into the age of epigenetics,
we’re still just beginning to understand how it works.
You have a Ph.D. in
astrophysics, and you work in mathematical modeling and evolutionary
biology – not exactly a set of credentials we’d expect for someone
focused on aging science. What was your personal path for becoming a
biologist who studies aging? And what is your preferred designation:
biogerontologist, “aging scientist,” or something else?
I was and still am fascinated by
cosmology, the study of the large-scale structure and the history of the
universe as a whole. However, I was frankly intimidated by how many
really, really smart people there are in the field. I came to doubt that
I would be able to see something that they missed and to make a really
fundamental contribution.
Then, in 1996, I figured out that the
whole biological community had missed the point about what aging is and
where it comes from. Here was a fundamental error that I might be able
to help correct, and it is about a question of interest to scientists
and non-scientists alike. Truly low-hanging fruit in the world of
research, waiting to be plucked. I found my calling.
What I didn’t realize is that science is
so well-defended against challenging ideas. Within five years, I had
worked out an understanding and a resolution of the basic paradox that
aging evolves despite the fact that it is the opposite of traditional
notions of evolutionary fitness. Here we are, 17 years later, and I’m
still working with the public relations aspects of this new science and
entrenched conservatism.
Is it indulgent for scientists
to focus on extending lifespans and healthspans when there are so many
diseases that still afflict kids and adults?
I don’t think so. Diseases of old age take the biggest toll on human health, by far.
Why are you less optimistic about the potential for major breakthroughs in aging science now in 2018 than you were previously?
Originally, my thinking went like this:
The conventional view has been that aging exists despite evolution’s
best efforts over hundreds of millions of years to eradicate it.
Evolution is already trying to make us live as long as possible, and for
humans to extend our lifespan, we’ll have to do some pretty fancy
thinking to come up with something that evolution hasn’t already tried.
However, this conventional view is
wrong. In fact, evolution has preferred defined lifespans to indefinite
lifespans. So, we might hope that we can eliminate aging entirely by
understanding the mechanisms of self-destruction that evolution has
built into our life history and biochemically disabling them. I had
thought that this could probably be done by blocking the signals,
jamming the works. Pharmaceutical companies are generally quite good at
turning off a hormone or a whole biochemical pathway once it’s been
identified.
The reason I’m less optimistic now is
that I believe that the evolved mechanism of self-destruction involves
gene expression, which is to say epigenetics. Different genes are turned
on at different stages of life (this is a big part of what epigenetics
is), and the genes turned on late in life turn the body against itself.
Mechanisms like apoptosis (cell death), autoimmunity, and inflammation
are all dialed up.
The reason my expectations are scaled
back now is that epigenetics has turned out to be enormously
complicated. We once thought that a few transcription factors controlled
a large number of genes, turning them on and off en masse. We now know
that there are thousands of different transcription factors, almost as
many as there are genes. And there is wide overlap between genes that
have transcriptional functions and genes that have metabolic functions.
Sigh.
There are more than 100 known mechanisms
of epigenetics, and the only one that we have a handle on is
methylation; that is, we can measure it and, clumsily with gene editing
tools like CRISPR, re-program methylation one site at a time.
In short, I think that turning aging
processes off completely will require a mastery of epigenetics, and we
have a long way to go before we even understand, let alone take control
of, epigenetics.
Could you flesh out a little
your contributions to aging science, in terms of the evolutionary theory
of programmed death in humans and most other species? I found your book
Cracking the Aging Code very interesting and enlightening on these
issues, but these ideas are hard for most people to get their heads
around.
Thank you, Tam. I do hope that this book
will turn around the way people think about the evolutionary origin of
aging, causing ripples that affect our understanding of the metabolism
of aging and leading to improved medical research. It’s gratifying that
my theory is receiving the recognition that was completely absent 20
years ago, but it’s also frustrating that the entrenched theory refuses
to die.
Briefly, the entrenched theory
is based on the “selfish gene” notion that Richard Dawkins and others
have made popular. Darwin had a broad and multifaceted view of what
constitutes fitness. He was appropriately vague. But in the 20th
century, “fitness” came to mean just one thing: fertility. How many
offspring can you produce, and how fast can you produce them?
In this picture of fitness, evolution is
highly motivated to make you live as long as possible, so long as you
are still churning out babies. So, where does aging come from? The
standard answer is that there are genes that tie fertility directly to
deterioration late in life, and evolution has not found a way around
this; it has not found a way to have lots of fertility early in life
without incurring damage later on, despite hundreds of millions of years
of trying to overcome this limitation.
In my book, I describe a great mass of
evidence against this picture. Much of it is common sense, but there is a
lot of technical, genomic evidence as well. The evidence strongly
points to the inference that natural selection has preferred shorter
lifespans to indefinite (or very long) lifespans.
Why might this be? My theory is that it
is about ecosystem stability. It’s not possible to construct a stable
ecosystem out of selfish individuals that are each trying to live as
long as possible and produce as many offspring as possible. In order to
have stable ecosystems, nature has had to accept limits to fertility and
to lifespan.
The reason that the evolutionary
community is so resistant to this idea is that it requires natural
selection to occur within entire ecosystems. In other words, this
ecosystem persisted because it was stable, while that one collapsed
because it was way out of balance.
So, stable ecosystems spread to take
over the territory of collapsed ecosystems, and all the species in the
stable ecosystem benefit. This is a much broader notion of how natural
selection works than the selfish gene model.
For largely historical reasons,
evolutionary theory grew up in a way that was committed to the selfish
gene. Most evolutionary biologists today believe that the selfish gene
is the only mode by which evolution operates, though they could not
articulate a reason why, if challenged.
If we are indeed programmed to
die, what does this insight suggest about the most promising pathways
for anti-aging breakthroughs?
The death program seems to operate
primarily through inflammation, apoptosis (programmed cell death),
autoimmunity, and cellular senescence through telomere shortening. My
understanding of aging suggests the following:
Anti-inflammatories are already well-studied and represent the state of the art in anti-aging medicine.
Apoptosis is trickier because the body needs apoptosis to get rid of
cancer and infected cells. We can’t just dial down apoptosis; we need
to make it smarter and more discriminating.
Autoimmunity occurs when the thymus gland shrinks throughout a
person’s lifetime. The most promising therapies to restore the thymus
involve FOXN1.
Telomere maintenance will have to be part of any full-spectrum anti-aging program.
How many additional years of
healthspan and/or lifespan do you think good nutrition, exercise,
attitude, supportive social bonds, etc. can contribute?
Look around you. The people who are
doing everything right live about 10 extra years. However, after age 90
or maybe 95, the genes take over. If you don’t have centenarian genes in
your family, all the healthy habits in the world won’t get you to age
100.
Let’s dive into what you
identify above as perhaps the most promising area of research: senolytic
drugs and apoptosis. What are these drugs, and how do they work? Are
there over-the-counter or prescription options available yet?
Senolytic drugs kill senescent (old)
cells without harming normal cells. The best evidence we have about the
potential for this therapy is that when senescent cells are efficiently
eliminated in mice, the mice live 25% longer. However, the catch is that
the way this is accomplished in mice is to genetically engineer the
mice before they are born, giving them a self-destruct mechanism built
only into their senescent cells. Then, the lab scientists can administer
a drug that doesn’t directly kill the cells but only signals them to
kill themselves.
Without genetic engineering, human cells
don’t have these self-destruct mechanisms built-in. Genetic engineering
has to start with the fertilized egg; it’s way too late for you and me
under this approach. So, for senolytics to be implemented in humans, we
need a really smart poison that only affects senescent cells without
harming normal cells. There are several pharmaceutical companies working
on this idea. The record-holder so far is FOXO4-DRI, and it is about 10
times more toxic to senescent cells than to normal cells. That factor
of 10 isn’t enough margin of error for a practical drug. To get rid of
all your senescent cells, you’d have to take too many healthy cells as
collateral damage.
A combination of dasatinib and quercetin
has been suggested for senolytics. Quercetin is found in fruits and
berries, but by itself it doesn’t extend lifespan (in mice). Dasatinib
is a chemotherapy drug that is far too toxic to be a practical life
extension medicine.
The best senolytic treatment we have now
is fasting. When we go without food for three days at a time or more,
senescent cells start to die off, but normal cells dial up their
resistance and become healthier during a fast. Valter Longo has
experimented with fasting and has designed a low-cal, low-protein
“fasting-mimicking diet” that allows you to get a lot of the benefits of
fasting with much less hunger.
David Sinclair, a geneticist at Harvard, has made waves
recently with his research on nicotinamide (a type of vitamin B3) and
its potential to rejuvenate circulation and increase energy, among many
other benefits. He’s talked about his 78-year-old father taking
nicotinamide and feeling like a 30-year-old again–with the adventurous
lifestyle to prove it. Sinclair’s recent paper
found a strong association between nicotinamide and reversing vascular
aging. Do you agree that nicotinamide and other methods of increasing
NAD+ are promising for significant rejuvenation?
I’ve been behind the curve with the
science of NAD all along. There may be evidence I haven’t seen. From
what I know now, I’m not impressed with the idea that NAD or its
precursors are a significant anti-aging tonic, though I don’t doubt that
there are some people who have benefited from these supplements. Our
metabolisms are so different, one person from the other, and I believe
that individualized anti-aging programs will ride a wave of
individualized medicine over the coming decades.
What researchers do you see as being mostly on the right track for major breakthroughs?
But isn’t the “Horvath clock” a measurement tool rather than an anti-aging treatment?
Exactly so. What I believe is that our
development of anti-aging technologies has far outpaced our program of
testing, so, at present, we don’t know what works. For example, we now
have something in the neighborhood of over 20 treatments that have been
found to extend lifespan in mice by 5% to 15%, with a few up in the 20%
area.
The biggest unknown of all is how all
these technologies interact. I take about 20 different pills, plus
intermittent fasting, a low-carb vegetarian diet, yoga, endurance
exercise and interval training. All these things have been shown to have
some benefit, but we know almost nothing about how they interact with
one another. The great majority are likely to be redundant. That is, the
benefit of taking two supplements is barely better than taking one, if
at all; and with 20 different supplements, we can guess that most of
them are doing the same thing, but not all. There are some combinations
that actually synergize: 1 + 1 = 3.
How can we test all these
hundreds of different combinations, when a single life extension trial
in humans takes 10-20 years and costs hundreds of millions of dollars?
This is where the Horvath clock is a
real breakthrough. The standard test at present would be to try a
combination on 3,000 subjects and 3,000 controls, then wait and wait for
50 of them to die in the control group and only 40 in the test group,
and we have a positive result that’s barely significant, statistically.
However, the new Horvath clock, just out this spring, is so accurate
that you can see the results in a single human in the course of a year
or two. I predict that testing with the Horvath clock is going to be 10
times faster and 100 times cheaper than the present protocol.
Another great benefit is that early
adopters and self-hackers are going to start testing themselves, trying
an intervention and testing again the next year. If they do this with
some discipline, they can learn not just what works in general but what
works for their particular metabolisms. The Horvath clock will be a huge
boon for individualized medicine.
That’s an inspiring development. Who else has captured your imagination with their research?
I’m a fan of Irina and Mike Conboy.
Starting with parabiosis experiments (hooking the blood circulation of
two mice together), they have progressed toward blood draws and blood
infusions to study what factors in the blood are responsible for
rejuvenation. I think that this is a very promising line of research. On
the other hand, they haven’t published a major new finding in several
years, and privately, they’ve told me that rejuvenation may be
complicated, requiring a rebalancing of many different blood factors.
Dario Valenzano at the Max Planck
Institute published a stunning finding last year, linking intestinal
flora to rejuvenation in fish. Translated to humans, a 60-year-old might
be able to add a dozen years to his life with rectal transplants of
feces from his 30-year-old son or daughter. I don’t know of anyone who
is trying this yet, but that’s a simple, cheap procedure. You don’t need
a lot of money or even a doctor. Combine it with the Horvath clock, and
see if it is working.
Of course, I’m a fan of what Nir
Barzilai is doing with human trials of metformin. I’d like to see
someone do the same with rapamycin. The Russian labs of Anisimov and
Skulachev are doing remarkable work, but without proper controls or
replication. I’d like to see some Western labs pick up on their
technologies. Elissa Epel, Barry Sears, and P.D. Mangan are among many
people getting the word out about pro-longevity lifestyles that people
can adopt right now.
In the debate over telomerase
and telomeres, you’ve previously seemed to side with the more optimistic
thinkers like Michael Fossel and Bill Andrews. Aubrey de Grey, another
prominent researcher, has downplayed the potential for telomerase due to
fears about increasing cancer, and more generally because de Grey’s
approach is about simply cleaning up the detritus of the various aging
processes rather than stopping the aging processes. Are you shifting
over more to the de Grey camp now that your optimism about telomerase
therapy is fading?
I’m less enthusiastic than I was about
the potential of telomerase activators (which boost telomerase and thus
telomere length). I’m not afraid of cancer, but the very recent results
associating telomerase with an acceleration of the Horvath aging clock
are a big warning sign for me.
Fossel has stated in his book The Telomerase Revolution
that we should have affordable (about $100) IV drip treatments for
telomerase therapy that rejuvenate the whole body by 2025 or so. Is this
wildly optimistic, or is Fossel onto something that most others just
aren’t recognizing yet? He’s an M.D./Ph.D. with over thirty years of
aging research behind him, so he’s hard to dismiss, but this kind of
statement may seem over the top to many.
I like Michael and have enormous respect
for him. He saw the potential for telomerase technology more than 20
years ago, when it wasn’t on anyone else’s radar, except Michael West’s
and maybe Bill Andrews’. Now, we have so much more data, and I believe
the data is telling us that the potential life extension from telomerase
therapy is limited to a few years–maybe five at most. I’m glad that
Fossel and Andrews are doing what they’re doing, and we should know
before long if there are dramatic benefits from telomerase therapies.
What do you think of using de
Grey’s approach to clean up the detritus of aging while using things
like telomerase therapy, stem cell therapy, and gene therapy to prevent
future aging, combining them into a promising “big picture” approach to
rejuvenation?
I’ve always said that Aubrey’s
repair-based program is going to turn out to be unnecessary. The body
knows how to repair itself if we can just adjust the signaling
environment appropriately. We shouldn’t have to engineer all these
workarounds. However, this is just my theory versus Aubrey’s theory, and
time will tell how much can be done with signaling and how much needs
engineered repair. (Actually, Aubrey’s view and mine have been
converging from both ends in recent years. He is much more aware of the
potential for signaling approaches, and I’m coming around to believing
that some things will have to be repaired.)
What is your personal balance
between “aging gracefully” (accepting the aging process and all that it
entails) and staying abreast of all the aging science over the years as
well as making original contributions in this area, as you have?
I’m no believer in “aging gracefully.”
I’m much more in the camp of “Do not go gentle into that good
night–rage, rage against the dying of the light!” (Dylan Thomas). Or
Edna St. Vincent Millay: “Down, down into the darkness of the grave they
go… I know. But I do not approve. And I am not resigned.”
At age 68, I’m starting a new career,
learning new things not just in the sense of adding to my knowledge; I’m
revising old theories as new evidence comes in and overturning the way I
see the world.
Most of Bangladesh is covered by the Bengal Delta, the largest delta on Earth. The country has 700 rivers and 8,046 km (5,000 mi) of inland waterways. Highlands
with evergreen forests are found in the northeastern and southeastern
regions of the country. Bangladesh has many islands and a coral reef.
The longest unbroken sea beach of the world, Cox's Bazar Beach, is located in the southeast. It is home to the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world. The country's biodiversity includes a vast array of plant and wildlife, including endangered Bengal tigers, the national animal.
The etymology of Bangladesh (Country of Bengal) can be traced to the early 20th century, when Bengali patriotic songs, such as Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo by Kazi Nazrul Islam and Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy by Rabindranath Tagore, used the term.[19] The term Bangladesh was often written as two words, Bangla Desh, in the past. Starting in the 1950s, Bengali nationalists used the term in political rallies in East Pakistan. The term Bangla is a major name for both the Bengal region and the Bengali language. The earliest known usage of the term is the Nesari plate in 805 AD. The term Vangaladesa is found in 11th-century South Indian records.[20][21][22]
The term gained official status during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century.[23][24]Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the first "Shah of Bangala" in 1342.[23] The word Bangla became the most common name for the region during the Islamic period. The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the 16th century.[25]
The origins of the term Bangla are unclear, with theories pointing to a Bronze Ageproto-Dravidian tribe,[26] the Austric word "Bonga" (Sun god),[27] and the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom.[27] The Indo-Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, which means "land" or "country". Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal".[20][21][22]
Early Muslim explorers and missionaries arrived in Bengal late in the
first millennium CE. The Islamic conquest of Bengal began with the 1204
invasion by Bakhtiar Khilji; after annexing Bengal to the Delhi Sultanate, Khilji waged a military campaign in Tibet. Bengal was ruled by the Delhi Sultanate for a century by governors from the Mamluk, Balban and Tughluq dynasties. During the 14th century, an independent Bengal Sultanate was established by rebel governors. The sultanate's ruling houses included the Ilyas Shahi, Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah, Hussain Shahi, Suri and Karrani dynasties, and the era saw the introduction of a distinct mosque architecture[38] and the tangka currency. The Arakan region was brought under Bengali hegemony. The Bengal Sultanate was visited by explorers Ibn Battuta, Admiral Zheng He and Niccolo De Conti. During the late 16th century, the Baro-Bhuyan (a confederation of Muslim and Hindu aristocrats) ruled eastern Bengal; its leader was the Mansad-e-Ala,[17] a title held by Isa Khan and his son Musa Khan. The Khan dynasty are considered local heroes for resisting North Indian invasions with their river navies.
The Mughal Empire controlled Bengal by the 17th century. During the reign of Emperor Akbar,
the Bengali agrarian calendar was reformed to facilitate tax
collection. The Mughals established Dhaka as a fort city and commercial
metropolis, and it was the capital of Mughal Bengal for 75 years.[39] In 1666, the Mughals expelled the Arakanese from Chittagong. Mughal Bengal attracted foreign traders for its muslin and silk goods, and the Armenians were a notable merchant community. A Portuguese settlement in Chittagong flourished in the southeast, and a Dutch settlement in Rajshahi existed in the north. During the 18th century, the Nawabs of Bengal became the region's de facto
rulers. The Nawabs forged alliances with European colonial companies,
which made the region relatively prosperous early in the century.
The Bengali Muslim population was a product of conversion and religious evolution,[40]
and their pre-Islamic beliefs included elements of Buddhism and
Hinduism. The construction of mosques, Islamic academies (madrasas) and
Sufi monasteries (khanqahs) facilitated conversion, and Islamic cosmology
played a significant role in developing Bengali Muslim society.
Scholars have theorized that Bengalis were attracted to Islam by its
egalitarian social order, which contrasted with the Hindu caste system.[41] By the 15th century, Muslim poets were writing in the Bengali language. Notable medieval Bengali Muslim poets included Daulat Qazi, Abdul Hakim and Alaol. Syncretic cults, such as the Baul movement, emerged on the fringes of Bengali Muslim society. The Persianate culture was significant in Bengal, where cities like Sonargaon became the easternmost centers of Persian influence.[42][43]
After the 1757 Battle of Plassey, Bengal was the first region of the Indian subcontinent conquered by the British East India Company. The company formed the Presidency of Fort William, which administered the region until 1858. A notable aspect of company rule was the Permanent Settlement, which established the feudal zamindari system. A number of famines, including the great Bengal famine of 1770, occurred under company rule. Several rebellions broke out during the early 19th century (including one led by Titumir), but British rule displaced the Muslim ruling class. A conservative Islamic cleric, Haji Shariatullah, sought to overthrow the British by propagating Islamic revivalism. Several towns in Bangladesh participated in the Indian Mutiny and pledged allegiance to the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, who was later exiled to neighboring Burma.
Social tensions also increased under British rule, particularly
between wealthy Hindus and the Muslim-majority population. The Permanent
Settlement made millions of Muslim peasants tenants of Hindu estates,
and resentment of the Hindu landed gentry grew.[45] Supported by the Muslim aristocracy, the British government created the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905; the new province received increased investment in education, transport and industry. However, the first partition of Bengal created an uproar in Calcutta and the Indian National Congress. In response to growing Hindu nationalism, the All India Muslim League
was formed in Dhaka during the 1906 All India Muhammadan Educational
Conference. The British government reorganized the provinces in 1912,
reuniting East and West Bengal and making Assam a second province.
The All India Muslim League's Lahore Resolution Working Committee, in which Bengal was represented by A. K. Fazlul Huq and Khawaja Nazimuddin
Although it won a majority of seats in 1937, the Bengal Congress boycotted the legislature. A. K. Fazlul Huq of the Krishak Praja Party was elected as the first Prime Minister of Bengal. In 1940 Huq supported the Lahore Resolution,
which envisaged independent states in the northwestern and eastern
Muslim-majority regions of the subcontinent. The first Huq ministry, a
coalition with the Bengal Provincial Muslim League, lasted until 1941;
it was followed by a Huq coalition with the Hindu Mahasabha which lasted until 1943. Huq was succeeded by Khawaja Nazimuddin, who grappled with the effects of the Burma Campaign, the Bengal famine of 1943 and the Quit India
movement. In 1946, the Bengal Provincial Muslim League won the
provincial election, taking 113 of the 250-seat assembly (the largest
Muslim League mandate in British India). H. S. Suhrawardy, who made a final futile effort for a United Bengal in 1946, was the last premier of Bengal.
Union with Pakistan
On 3 June 1947 Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition of British India.
On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the
partition of Bengal. At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided
(120 votes to 90) that if the province remained united it should join
the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of India. At another meeting of legislators from East Bengal,
it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be
partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the
Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned.[47] On 6 July, the Sylhet region of Assam voted in a referendum to join East Bengal.
Cyril Radcliffe was tasked with drawing the borders of Pakistan and India, and the Radcliffe Line established the borders of present-day Bangladesh. The Dominion of Pakistan was created on 14 August 1947.
East Bengal, with Dhaka its capital, was the most populous province of the 1947 Pakistani federation (led by Governor GeneralMuhammad Ali Jinnah, who promised freedom of religion and secular democracy in the new state).[48][49]
East Bengal was also Pakistan's most cosmopolitan province, home to
peoples of different faiths, cultures and ethnic groups. Partition gave
increased economic opportunity to East Bengalis, producing an urban
population during the 1950s.[50][51]
Female students march in defiance of the Section 144 prohibition on assembly during the Bengali Language Movement in early 1953.
Pakistan adopted its first constitution in 1956. Three Bengalis were its Prime Minister until 1957: Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali of Bogra and Suhrawardy. None of the three completed their terms, and resigned from office. The Pakistan Army imposed military rule in 1958, and Ayub Khan
was the country's strongman for 11 years. Political repression
increased after the coup. Khan introduced a new constitution in 1962,
replacing Pakistan's parliamentary system with a presidential and
gubernatorial system (based on electoral college selection) known as Basic Democracy. In 1962 Dhaka became the seat of the National Assembly of Pakistan, a move seen as appeasing increased Bengali nationalism.[54] The Pakistani government built the controversial Kaptai Dam, displacing the Chakma people from their indigenous homeland in the Chittagong Hill Tracts.[55] During the 1965 presidential election, Fatima Jinnah lost to Ayub Khan despite support from the Combined Opposition alliance (which included the Awami League).[56] The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 blocked cross-border transport links with neighboring India in what is described as a second partition.[57] In 1966, Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman announced a six point movement for a federal parliamentary democracy.
According to senior World Bank officials, Pakistan practiced extensive economic discrimination
against East Pakistan: greater government spending on West Pakistan,
financial transfers from East to West Pakistan, the use of East
Pakistan's foreign-exchange surpluses to finance West Pakistani imports,
and refusal by the central government to release funds allocated to
East Pakistan because previous spending had been under budget;[58] East Pakistan generated 70 percent of Pakistan's export revenue with its jute and tea.[59] Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested for treason in the Agartala Conspiracy Case, and was released during the 1969 uprising in East Pakistan which resulted in Ayub Khan's resignation. General Yahya Khan assumed power, reintroducing martial law.
Ethnic and linguistic discrimination was common in Pakistan's
civil and military services, in which Bengalis were under-represented.
Fifteen percent of Pakistani central-government offices were occupied by
East Pakistanis, who formed 10 percent of the military.[60][61] Cultural discrimination also prevailed, making East Pakistan forge a distinct political identity.[62] Pakistan banned Bengali literature and music in state media, including the works of Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore.[63] A cyclone devastated the coast of East Pakistan in 1970, killing an estimated 500,000 people,[64] and the central government was criticized for its poor response.[65] After the December 1970 elections, calls for the independence of East Bengal became louder;[66]
the Bengali-nationalist Awami League won 167 of 169 East Pakistani
seats in the National Assembly. The League claimed the right to form a
government and develop a new constitution, but was strongly opposed by
the Pakistani military and the Pakistan Peoples Party (led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto).
War of Independence
Surrender of Pakistan on 16 December 1971, bringing the Bangladesh Liberation War to a close
The Bengali population was angered when Prime Minister-elect Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was prevented from taking the office.[67]Civil disobedience erupted across East Pakistan, with calls for independence.[68] Mujib addressed a pro-independence rally
of nearly 2 million people in Dacca on 7 March 1971, where he said,
"This time the struggle is for our freedom. This time the struggle is
for our independence." The flag of Bangladesh was raised for the first
time on 23 March, Pakistan's Republic Day.[69] During the night of 25 March, the Pakistani military junta led by Yahya Khan launched Operation Searchlight (a sustained military assault on East Pakistan).[70][71] Pakistan army arrested Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and flew him away to Karachi.[72][73][74] Mujib however, before his arrest proclaimed the Independence of Bangladesh on 26 March midnight which led the Bangladesh Liberation War to officially break out within hours. The Pakistan Army continued to massacre Bengali students, intellectuals, politicians, civil servants and military defectors in the 1971 Bangladesh genocide, while the Mukti Bahini and other Bengali guerilla forces created strong resistance throughout the country.[75]
During the war, an estimated 300,000 to three million people were
killed and several million people took shelter in neighboring India.[76] Global public opinion turned against Pakistan as news of the atrocities spread;[77] the Bangladesh movement was supported by prominent political and cultural figures in the West, including Ted Kennedy, George Harrison, Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Victoria Ocampo and André Malraux.[78][79][80]The Concert for Bangladesh was held at Madison Square Garden
in New York City to raise funds for Bangladeshi refugees. The first
major benefit concert in history, it was organized by Harrison and
Indian Bengali sitarist Ravi Shankar.[81]
During the Bangladesh Liberation War, Bengali nationalists declared independence and formed the Mukti Bahini (the Bangladeshi National Liberation Army). The Provisional Government of Bangladesh
was established on 17 April 1971, converting the 469 elected members of
the Pakistani national assembly and East Pakistani provincial assembly
into the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh. The provisional government issued the Proclamation of the Independence of Bangladeshi,
which was the country's interim constitution and declared "equality,
human dignity and social justice" as its fundamental principles. Due to
Mujib's detention, the acting president was Syed Nazrul Islam, while Tajuddin Ahmad was Bangladesh's first prime minister. The military wing of the provisional government was the Bangladesh Forces that included Mukti Bahini and other Bengali guerilla forces. Led by General M. A. G. Osmani and eleven sector commanders,
the forces strongly held the countryside during the war and conducted
wide-ranging guerrilla operations against Pakistani forces. As a result,
almost entire country except capital Dacca was liberated by Bangladesh Forces
by late November. This led Pakistan Army to attack neighboring India's
western front on 2 December. India retaliated both in western and
eastern fronts. By joint Bangladeshi ground advance and Indian air
strike, the rest capital Dacca was liberated from Pakistani occupation
in mid December. During the last phase of the war, the Soviet Union and
the United States dispatched naval forces to the Bay of Bengal in a Cold
War standoff. The nine-months long war ended with the surrender of Pakistani armed forces to the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces on 16 December 1971.[82][83]
Under international pressure, Pakistan released Rahman from
imprisonment on 8 January 1972 and he was flown by the British Royal Air
Force of to a million-strong homecoming in Dacca.[84][85] Remaining Indian troops were withdrawn by 12 March 1972, three months after the war ended.[86]
The cause of Bangladeshi self-determination was recognized around
the world. By August 1972, the new state was recognized by 86
countries.[77] Pakistan recognized Bangladesh in 1974 after pressure from most of the Muslim countries.[87]
The constituent assembly adopted Bangladesh's constitution on 4
November 1972, establishing a secular, multiparty parliamentary
democracy. The new constitution included references to socialism, and Prime Minister Sheikh Mujibur Rahman nationalized major industries in 1972.[88]
A major reconstruction and rehabilitation program was launched. The
Awami League won the country's first general election in 1973, securing a
large majority in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Bangladesh joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the UN, the OIC and the Non-Aligned Movement, and Rahman strengthened ties with India. Amid growing agitation by the opposition National Awami Party and National Socialist Party,
he became increasingly authoritarian. Rahman amended the constitution,
giving himself more emergency powers (including the suspension of
fundamental rights). The Bangladesh famine of 1974 also worsened the political situation.[89]
In January 1975, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman introduced one-party socialist rule under BAKSAL. Rahman banned all newspapers except four state-owned publications, and amended the constitution to increase his power. He was assassinated during a coup on 15 August 1975. Martial law was declared, and the presidency passed to the usurperKhondaker Mostaq Ahmad for four months. Ahmad is widely regarded as a quisling by Bangladeshis.[90]
Tajuddin Ahmad, the nation's first prime minister, and four other
independence leaders were assassinated on 4 November 1975. Chief Justice
Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem was installed as president by the military on 6 November 1975. Bangladesh was governed by a military junta led by the Chief Martial Law Administrator for three years. In 1977, Army chief Ziaur Rahman became president. Rahman reinstated multiparty politics, privatized industries and newspapers, established BEPZA and held the country's second general election in 1979. A semi-presidential system evolved, with the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) governing until 1982. Rahman was assassinated in 1981, and was succeeded by Vice PresidentAbdus Sattar. Sattar received 65.5 percent of the vote in the 1981 presidential election.[91]
After a year in office, Sattar was overthrown in the 1982 Bangladesh coup d'état. Chief Justice A. F. M. Ahsanuddin Chowdhury was installed as president, but army chief Hussain Muhammad Ershad became the country's de facto
leader and assumed the presidency in 1983. Ershad lifted martial law in
1986. He governed with four successive prime ministers (Ataur Rahman Khan, Mizanur Rahman Chowdhury, Moudud Ahmed and Kazi Zafar Ahmed) and a parliament dominated by his Jatiyo Party.
General elections were held in 1986 and 1988, although the latter was
boycotted by the opposition BNP and Awami League. Ershad pursued
administrative decentralization, dividing the country into 64 districts,
and pushed Parliament to make Islam the state religion in 1988.[92] A 1990 mass uprising forced him to resign, and Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed led the country's first caretaker government as part of the transition to parliamentary rule.[91]
Popularly known as the "Battling Begums";[93] the two women have ruled Bangladesh as prime ministers since 1991.[94][95]
After the 1991 general election, the twelfth amendment to the constitution restored the parliamentary republic and Begum Khaleda Zia
became Bangladesh's first female prime minister. Zia, a former first
lady, led a BNP government from 1990 to 1996. In 1991 her finance
minister, Saifur Rahman, began a major program to liberalize the Bangladeshi economy.[89]
After an Awami League initiative, the BNP introduced a system of caretaker governments to oversee the transfer of power. Justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman was the first Chief Adviser of Bangladesh, and oversaw the 1996 election. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina, won the seventh general election. Hasina's first term was highlighted by the Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord and a Ganges water-sharing treaty with India. The second caretaker government, led by Chief Adviser Justice Latifur Rahman,
oversaw the eighth general election in 2001 which returned Begum Zia
and the BNP to power. The second Zia ministry saw improved economic
growth, but political turmoil gripped the country between 2004 and 2006.
A radical Islamist militant group, the JMB, carried out a series of bombings. Amid widespread political unrest the Bangladeshi military urged President Iajuddin Ahmed to impose a state of emergency and a caretaker government, led by technocrat Fakhruddin Ahmed, was installed.[89]
Emergency rule lasted for two years, until the ninth general
election in 2008 which returned Sheikh Hasina and the Awami League to
power. In 2010, the Supreme Court ruled martial law illegal and affirmed secular
principles in the constitution. The following year, the Awami League
abolished the caretaker-government system. The 2014 general election was
boycotted by the BNP, giving the Awami League a decisive victory.
Geography
A satellite image showing the topography of Bangladesh
The geography of Bangladesh is divided between three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges-Brahmaputra delta; the northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges. The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna), and Meghna
rivers and their respective tributaries. The Ganges unites with the
Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna,
finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh has 57 trans-boundary rivers, making the resolution of water issues politically complicated, in most cases, as the country is a lower riparian state to India.
Bangladesh is predominantly rich fertile flat land. Most parts of it
is less than 12 m (39.4 ft) above sea level, and it is estimated that
about 10% of its land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by
1 m (3.28 ft).[97] 17% of the country is covered by forests and 12% is covered by hill systems. The country's haor wetlands are of significance to global environmental science.
In southeastern Bangladesh, experiments have been done since the
1960s to 'build with nature'. Construction of cross dams has induced a
natural accretion of silt, creating new land. With Dutch funding, the
Bangladeshi government began promoting the development of this new land
in the late 1970s. The effort has become a multi-agency endeavor,
building roads, culverts, embankments, cyclone shelters, toilets and
ponds, as well as distributing land to settlers. It was expected that by
fall 2010, the program would have allotted some 27,000 acres
(10,927 ha) to 21,000 families.[98]
With an elevation of 1,064 m (3,491 ft), the highest peak of Bangladesh is Keokradong, near the border with Myanmar.
Administrative geography
Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions,[99][100][101] each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet.
Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions,
with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan
areas, police stations are divided into wards, which are further divided
into mahallas.
There are no elected officials at the divisional or district
levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials.
Direct elections are held in each union (or ward) for a chairperson and
a number of members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve
three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates.[102]
Climate change is causing increasing river erosion in Bangladesh, threatening an estimated 20 million people
Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon climate
Straddling the Tropic of Cancer,
Bangladesh's climate is tropical with a mild winter from October to
March, and a hot, humid summer from March to June. The country has never
recorded an air temperature below 0 °C (32 °F), with a record low of
1.1 °C (34.0 °F) in the north west city of Dinajpur on 3 February 1905.[104] A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall.
In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern world history. As the Brahmaputra, the Ganges and Meghna
spilt over and swallowed 300,000 houses, 9,700 km (6,000 mi) of road
and 2,700 km (1,700 mi) of embankment, 1,000 people were killed and
30 million more were made homeless; 135,000 cattle were killed; 50 km2
(19 sq mi) of land were destroyed; and 11,000 km (6,800 mi) of roads
were damaged or destroyed. Effectively, two-thirds of the country was
underwater.
The severity of the flooding was attributed to unusually high monsoon rains, the shedding off of equally unusually large amounts of melt water from the Himalayas, and the widespread cutting down of trees (that would have intercepted rain water) for firewood or animal husbandry.[107]
Bangladesh is now widely recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change.
Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels,
and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as climate changes, each
seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health
and shelter.[108]
It is estimated that by 2050, a 3 feet rise in sea levels will
inundate some 20 percent of the land and displace more than 30 million
people.[109]
There is evidence that earthquakes pose a threat to the country and that plate tectonics
have caused rivers to shift course suddenly and dramatically. It has
been shown that rainy-season flooding in Bangladesh, on the world's
largest river delta, can push the underlying crust down by as much as
6 centimetres, and possibly perturb faults.[110]
Bangladeshi water is frequently contaminated with arsenic because of the high arsenic content of the soil—up to 77 million people are exposed to toxic arsenic from drinking water.[111][112]
Biodiversity
A Bengal tiger, the national animal, in the Sundarbans
Bangladesh is located in the Indomalaya ecozone. Its ecology includes a long sea coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries, lakes, wetlands, evergreen forests, semi evergreen forests, hill forests, moist deciduous forests, freshwater swamp forests and flat land with tall grass. The Bangladesh Plain is famous for its fertile alluvial
soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by
lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut and date palm.[114] The country has up to 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants.[115] Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon season. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries.
Bangladesh is home to much of the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest, covering an area of 6,000 km2 in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries–the South, East and West
zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern
Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, which is a unique ecosystem. It
also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, a freshwater swamp forest and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region
covers evergreen and semi evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh
includes the plainland Sal forest running along the districts of
Gazipur, Tangail and Mymensingh. St. Martin's Island is the only coral reef in the country.
Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one horned and two horned rhinoceros and common peafowl.
The human population is concentrated in urban areas, hence limiting
deforestation to a certain extent. Rapid urban growth has threatened
natural habitats. Though many areas are protected under law, a large
portion of Bangladeshi wildlife is threatened by this growth. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas, including wetlands, forests and rivers. The Sundarbans Tiger Project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation.[119]
Politics
Bangabhaban, the residence of the president of Bangladesh
The Supreme Court of Bangladesh, including its High Court and Appellate Divisions, is the high court of the land. The head of the judiciary is the Chief Justice of Bangladesh, who sits on the Supreme Court. The courts have wide latitude in judicial review, and judicial precedent is supported by the Article 111 of the constitution. The judiciary
includes district and metropolitan courts, which are divided into civil
and criminal courts. Due to a shortage of judges, the judiciary has a
large backlog. The Bangladesh Judicial Service Commission is an independent body responsible for judicial appointments, salaries and discipline.
The Bangladesh Armed Forces have inherited the institutional framework of the British military and the British Indian Army.[125] It was formed in 1971 from the military regiments of East Pakistan. In 2012 the army strength was around 300,000, including reservists,[126] the Air Force (22,000) and the Navy (24,000).[127]
In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has supported
civil authorities in disaster relief and provided internal security
during periods of political unrest. For many years, Bangladesh has been
the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces. In February 2015, the country made major deployments to Côte d'Ivoire, Cyprus, Darfur, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Golan Heights, Haiti, Lebanon, Liberia and South Sudan.[128]
First South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) meeting in 1985 in Dhaka (l-r, top row: the presidents of Pakistan and the Maldives, the king of Bhutan, the president of Bangladesh, the prime minister of India, the king of Nepal and the president of Sri Lanka). Bangladesh was the initiator to found SAARC.
In addition to membership in the Commonwealth and the United Nations, Bangladesh pioneered regional cooperation in South Asia. Bangladesh is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
(SAARC), an organization designed to strengthen relations and promote
economic and cultural growth among its members. It has hosted several
summits, and two Bangladeshi diplomats were the organization's
secretary-general.
Relations with other countries are generally positive. Shared
democratic values ease relations with Western countries, and similar
economic concerns forge ties to other developing countries. Despite poor working conditions and war affecting overseas Bangladeshi workers, relations with Middle Eastern
countries are friendly and bounded by religion and culture; more than a
million Bangladeshis are employed in the region. In 2016, the king of Saudi Arabia called Bangladesh "one of the most important Muslim countries".[137]
Bangladesh's most politically-important bilateral relationship is with neighboring India. In 2015, major Indian newspapers called Bangladesh a "trusted friend".[138]
Bangladesh and India are South Asia's largest trading partners. The
countries are forging regional economic and infrastructure projects,
such as a regional motor-vehicle agreement in eastern South Asia and a coastal shipping agreement in the Bay of Bengal. Indo-Bangladesh relations have a shared cultural heritage and democratic values and a history of support for Bangladeshi independence. Despite political goodwill, border killings of Bangladeshi civilians
and the lack of a comprehensive water-sharing agreement for 54
trans-boundary rivers are major issues. In 2017, India joined Russia and
China in refusing to condemn Myanmar's atrocities against the Rohingya, which contradicted with Bangladesh's demand for recognizing Rohingya human rights.[139] However, the Indian air force delivered aid shipments for Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh.[140] The rise of Hindu extremism and Islamophobia in India has also affected Bangladesh. The Bangladeshi beef and leather industries have seen increased prices due to the Indian BJP government's Hindu nationalist campaign against the export of beef and cattle skin.[141]
Sino-Bangladesh relations
date to the 1950s and are relatively warm, despite the Chinese
leadership siding with Pakistan during Bangladesh's war of independence.
China and Bangladesh established bilateral relations in 1976 which have
significantly strengthened, and the country is considered a
cost-effective source of arms for the Bangladeshi military.[142]
Since the 1980s 80 percent of Bangladesh's military equipment has been
supplied by China (often with generous credit terms), and China is
Bangladesh's largest trading partner. Both countries are part of the BCIM Forum.
The neighbouring country of Myanmar was one of first countries to recognize Bangladesh.[143] Despite common regional interests, Bangladesh-Myanmar relations have been strained by the Rohingya refugee issue and the isolationist policies of the Myanmar military. In 2012, the countries came to terms at the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea over maritime disputes in the Bay of Bengal.[144] In 2016 and 2017, relations with Myanmar again strained as over 400,000 Rohingya refugees entered Bangladesh after atrocities. The parliament, government and civil society of Bangladesh have been at the forefront of international criticism against Myanmar for military operations against the Rohingya, which the United Nations has described as ethnic cleansing.[145][146]
Pakistan and Bangladesh have a US$550 million trade relationship,[147] particularly in Pakistani cotton
imports for the Bangladeshi textile industry. Although Bangladeshi and
Pakistani businesses have invested in each other, diplomatic relations
are strained because of Pakistani denial of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide.
Bangladeshi law-enforcement agencies, including the Rapid Action Battalion (pictured), have been accused of human-rights abuses.
According to National Human Rights Commission chairman Mizanur
Rahman, 70% of alleged human-rights violations are committed by
law-enforcement agencies.[156] Targets have included Nobel Peace Prize winner Muhammad Yunus and the Grameen Bank, secularist bloggers
and independent and pro-opposition newspapers and television networks.
The United Nations is concerned about government "measures that restrict
freedom of expression and democratic space".[155]
Secularism is protected by the constitution of Bangladesh,
and religious parties are barred from contesting elections; however,
the government is accused of courting religious extremist groups.
Islam's ambiguous position as the de factostate religion has been criticized by the United Nations.[163] Despite relative harmony, religious minorities have faced occasional persecution. The Hindu and Buddhist communities have experienced religious violence from Islamic groups, notably the Bangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami and its student wing (Shibir). Islamic far-right candidates peaked at 12 percent of the vote in 2001, falling to four percent in 2008.[164]Homosexuality is outlawed by section 377 of the criminal code, and is punishable by a maximum of life imprisonment.[165]
According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated
1,531,300 people are enslaved in modern-day Bangladesh, or 0.95% of the
population.[166] A number of slaves in Bangladesh are forced to work in the fish and shrimp industries.[167][168][169]
Shirt production line in a Bangladeshi factory. Bangladesh is the world's second-largest textile exporter, after China.
During its first five years of independence Bangladesh adopted socialist policies, an Awami League blunder.[citation needed]
The subsequent military regime and BNP and Jatiya Party governments
restored free markets and promoted the country's private sector. In
1991, finance minister Saifur Rahman introduced a programme of economic liberalization. The Bangladeshi private sector has rapidly expanded, with a number of conglomerates driving the economy. Major industries include textiles, pharmaceuticals, shipbuilding, steel, electronics, energy, construction materials, chemicals, ceramics, food processing and leather goods. Export-oriented industrialization has increased, with fiscal year
2014–15 exports increasing by 3.3% over the previous year to $30
billion, although Bangladesh's trade deficit ballooned by over 45% in
this same time period.[179] Most export earnings are from the garment-manufacturing industry. Bangladesh also has social enterprises, including the Nobel Peace Prize-winning Grameen Bank and BRAC (the world's largest non-governmental organisation).[180][181]
However, an insufficient power supply is a significant obstacle to Bangladesh's economic development. According to the World Bank, poor governance, corruption and weak public institutions are also major challenges.[182] In April 2010, Standard & Poor's gave Bangladesh a BB- long-term credit rating, below India's but above those of Pakistan and Sri Lanka.
The country is notable for its soil fertility land, including the Ganges Delta, Sylhet Division and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
Agriculture is the largest sector of the economy, making up 18.6
percent of Bangladesh's GDP in November 2010 and employing about 45
percent of the workforce.[184] The agricultural sector impacts employment generation, poverty alleviation, human resources development and food security. More Bangladeshis earn their living from agriculture than from any other sector. The country is among the top producers of rice (fourth), potatoes (seventh), tropical fruits (sixth), jute (second), and farmed fish (fifth).
Bangladesh is the seventh-largest natural gas producer
in Asia, ahead of neighboring Myanmar, and 56 percent of the country's
electricity is generated by natural gas. Major gas fields are located in
the northeastern (particularly Sylhet) and southern (including Barisal
and Chittagong) regions. PetroBangla is the national energy company. The American multinational corporation Chevron produces 50 percent of Bangladesh's natural gas.[187] According to geologists, the Bay of Bengal contains large, untapped gas reserves in Bangladesh's exclusive economic zone.[188] Bangladesh has substantial coal reserves, with several coal mines operating in the northwest.
Jute exports remain significant, although the global jute trade
has shrunk considerably since its World War II peak. Bangladesh has one
of the world's oldest tea industries, and is a major exporter of fish
and seafood.
Bangladesh's textile and ready-made garment industries are the country's largest manufacturing sector, with 2014 exports of $25 billion.[189] Leather-goods manufacturing, particularly footwear, is the second-largest export sector. The pharmaceutical industry meets 97 percent of domestic demand, and exports to many countries.[190][191]Shipbuilding has grown rapidly, with exports to Europe.[192] Steel is concentrated in the port city of Chittagong, and the ceramics industry is prominent in international trade. In 2005 Bangladesh was the world's 20th-largest cement producer, an industry dependent on limestone imports from northeast India. Food processing is a major sector, with local brands such as PRAN increasing their international market share. The electronics industry is growing rapidly, particularly the Walton Group.[193] Bangladesh's defense industry includes the Bangladesh Ordnance Factories and the Khulna Shipyard.
It has one of the largest inland waterway networks in the world,[198]
with 8,046 kilometres (5,000 miles) of navigable waters. The
southeastern port of Chittagong is its busiest seaport, handling over
$60 billion in annual trade (more than 80 percent of the country's
export-import commerce).[199] The second-busiest seaport is Mongla. Bangladesh has three seaports and 22 river ports.
Bangladesh had an installed electrical capacity of 10,289 MW in January 2014.[201] About 56 percent of the country's commercial energy is generated by natural gas, followed by oil, hydropower and coal. Bangladesh has planned to import hydropower from Bhutan and Nepal.[202] Nuclear energy is being developed with Russian support in the Ruppur Nuclear Power Plant project.[203] The country ranks fifth worldwide in the number of renewable energygreen jobs, and solar panels are increasingly used to power urban and off-grid rural areas.[204]
An estimated 98 percent of the country's population had access to improved water sources in 2004[205] (a high percentage for a low-income country), achieved largely through the construction of hand pumps
with support from external donors. However, in 1993 it was discovered
that much of Bangladesh's groundwater (the source of drinking water for
97 percent of the rural population and a significant share of the urban
population) is naturally contaminated with arsenic.
Another challenge is low cost recovery due to low tariffs and poor economic efficiency,
especially in urban areas (where water revenue does not cover operating
costs). An estimated 56 percent of the population had access to
adequate sanitation facilities in 2010.[206]Community-led total sanitation, addressing the problem of open defecation in rural areas, is credited with improving public health since its introduction in 2000.[207]
The beach in Cox's Bazar, with an unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi), it is the longest natural sea beach in the world
Bangladesh's tourist attractions include historical and
monuments, resorts, beaches, picnic spots, forests and tribal people,
wildlife of various species. Activities for tourists include angling, water skiing, river cruising, hiking, rowing, yachting, and sea bathing.[212][213]
The World Travel and Tourism Council
(WTTC) reported in 2013 that the travel and tourism industry in
Bangladesh directly generated 1,281,500 jobs in 2012 or 1.8 percent of
the country's total employment, which ranked Bangladesh 157 out of 178
countries worldwide.[214] Direct and indirect employment in the industry totalled 2,714,500 jobs, or 3.7 percent of the country's total employment.[214]
The WTTC predicted that by 2023, travel and tourism will directly
generate 1,785,000 jobs and support an overall total of 3,891,000 jobs,
or 4.2 percent of the country's total employment.[214] This would represent an annual growth rate in direct jobs of 2.9 percent.[214] Domestic spending generated 97.7 percent of direct travel and tourism gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.[214]
Bangladesh's world ranking in 2012 for travel and tourism's direct
contribution to GDP, as a percentage of GDP, was 142 out of 176.[214]
Estimates of the Bangladeshi population vary, but 2016 UN data suggests 163 million.[6] The 2011 census estimated 142.3 million,[216] much less than 2007–2010 estimates of Bangladesh's population (150– 170 million). Bangladesh is the world's eighth-most-populous nation. In 1951, its population was 44 million.[217]
Bangladesh is the most densely-populated large country in the world,
ranking 11th in population density when small countries and city-states
are included.[218]
The country's population-growth rate was among the highest in the
world in the 1960s and 1970s, when its population grew from 65 to
110 million. With the promotion of birth control in the 1980s, Bangladesh's growth rate began to slow. Its total fertility rate
is now 2.55, lower than India's (2.58) and Pakistan's (3.07). The
population is relatively young, with 34 percent aged 15 or younger and
five percent 65 or older. Life expectancy at birth was estimated at 70
years in 2012.[100] Despite the rapid economic growth, 43% of the country still lives below the international poverty line on less than $1.25 per day.[219] Bengalis are 98 percent of the population.[220] Of Bengalis, Muslims are the majority, followed by Hindus, Christians and Buddhists.
Bangladesh is home to a significant Ismaili community. It hosts many Urdu-speaking immigrants, who migrated there after the partition of India. Stranded Pakistanis were given citizenship by the Supreme Court in 2008.[223]
Charyapada was written during the 10th century in early form of Bengali, held by the Rajshahi College Library
More than 98 percent of people in Bangladesh speak Bengali, sometimes called Bangla, as their native language.[231][232]Dialects of Bengali are spoken in some parts of the country, which include non-standard dialects (sometimes viewed as separate languages) such as Chatgaiya, Sylheti and Rangpuri. Pakistani Biharis, stranded since 1971 and living in Bangladeshi camps, speak Urdu.[233] Rohingya refugees from Myanmar, living in Bangladeshi camps since 1978, speak Rohingya.[234] Several indigenous minority languages are also spoken.
Bengali is the official language.[235]
However, English is sometimes used secondarily for official purposes
(especially in the legal system). Although laws were historically
written in English, they were not translated into Bengali until 1987.
Bangladesh's constitution and laws now exist in English and Bengali.[236] English is used as a second language by the middle and upper classes, and is widely used in higher education.[237]
Islam is the largest and the official state religion of Bangladesh,[13][14] followed by 90.4 percent of the population. The country is home to most Bengali Muslims, the second-largest ethnic group in the Muslim world. Most Bangladeshi Muslims are Sunni, followed by Shia and Ahmadiya. About four percent are non-denominational Muslims.[238]
Bangladesh has the fourth-largest Muslim population in the world, and
is the third-largest Muslim-majority country (after Indonesia and
Pakistan).[239]Sufism has a lengthy heritage in the region.[240] The largest gathering of Muslims in Bangladesh is the Bishwa Ijtema, held annually by the Tablighi Jamaat. The Ijtema is the second-largest Muslim congregation in the world, after the Hajj.
Hinduism is followed by 8.5 percent of the population; most are Bengali Hindus, and some are members of ethnic minority groups.
Bangladeshi Hindus are the country's second-largest religious group and
the third-largest Hindu community in the world, after those in India
and Nepal. Hindus in Bangladesh are fairly evenly distributed, with
concentrations in Gopalganj, Dinajpur, Sylhet, Sunamganj,
Mymensingh, Khulna, Jessore, Chittagong and parts of the Chittagong
Hill Tracts. Despite their dwindling numbers, Hindus are the
second-largest religious community (after the Muslims) in Dhaka.
Buddhism
is the third-largest religion, at 0.6 percent. Bangladeshi Buddhists
are concentrated among ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts
(particularly the Chakma, Marma and Tanchangya peoples), and coastal
Chittagong is home to a large number of Bengali Buddhists. Christianity is the fourth-largest religion, at 0.4 percent.[241]
The Constitution of Bangladesh declares Islam the state religion,
but bans religion-based politics. It proclaims equal recognition of
Hindus, Buddhists, Christians and people of all faiths.[242] In 1972, Bangladesh was South Asia's first constitutionally-secular country.[243]
Education
Bangladesh has a low literacy rate, which was estimated at 66.5 percent for males and 63.1 percent for females in 2014.[100]
The country's educational system is three-tiered and heavily
subsidized, with the government operating many schools at the primary,
secondary and higher-secondary levels and subsidizing many private
schools. In the tertiary-education sector, the Bangladeshi government
funds over 15 state universities through the University Grants Commission.
Literacy rates in Bangladesh districts
The education system is divided into five levels: primary (first to
fifth grade), junior secondary (sixth to eighth grade), secondary (ninth
and tenth grade), higher secondary (11th and 12th grade) and tertiary.[244] Five years of secondary education end with a Secondary School Certificate
(SSC) examination; since 2009, the Primary Education Closing (PEC)
examination has also been given. Students who pass the PEC examination
proceed to four years of secondary or matriculation training,
culminating in the SSC examination.[244]
Bangladeshi schoolchildren performing onstage
Students who pass the PEC examination proceed to three years of junior-secondary education, culminating in the Junior School Certificate
(JSC) examination. Students who pass this examination proceed to two
years of secondary education, culminating in the SSC examination.
Students who pass this examination proceed to two years of
higher-secondary education, culminating in the Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSC) examination.[244]
Education is primarily in Bengali, but English is commonly taught
and used. Many Muslim families send their children to part-time courses
or full-time religious education in Bengali and Arabic in madrasas.[244]
Bangladesh conforms with the Education For All (EFA) objectives, the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) and international declarations. Article 17 of the Bangladesh Constitution provides that all children between the ages of six and ten years receive a basic education free of charge.
Universities in Bangladesh
are of three general types: public (government-owned and -subsidized),
private (privately owned universities) and international (operated and
funded by international organizations). Bangladesh has 34 public, 64
private and two international universities; Bangladesh National University has the largest enrollment, and the University of Dhaka (established in 1921) is the oldest. Islamic University of Technology,
commonly known as IUT, is a subsidiary of the Organisation of the
Islamic Cooperation (OIC, representing 57 countries in Asia, Africa,
Europe and South America). Asian University for Women
in Chittagong is the preeminent South Asian liberal-arts university for
women, representing 14 Asian countries; its faculty hails from notable
academic institutions in North America, Europe, Asia, Australia and the
Middle East.[245]BUET, CUET, KUET and RUET are Bangladesh's four public engineering universities. BUTex and DUET
are two specialized engineering universities; BUTex specializes in
textile engineering, and DUET offers higher education to diploma
engineers. The NITER is a specialized public-private partnership institute which provides higher education in textile engineering. Science and technology universities include SUST, PUST, JUST and NSTU. Bangladeshi universities are accredited by and affiliated with the University Grants Commission (UGC), created by Presidential Order 10 in 1973.[246]
Bangladesh's 2015 literacy rate rose to 71 percent due to
education modernization and improved funding, with 16,087 schools and
2,363 colleges receiving Monthly Pay Order (MPO) facilities. According
to education minister Nurul Islam Nahid,
27,558 madrasas and technical and vocational institutions were enlisted
for the facility. 6,036 educational institutions were outside MPO
coverage, and the government enlisted 1,624 private schools for MPO in
2010.[247][248]
Health and education levels remain relatively low, although they have
improved as poverty levels have decreased. In rural areas, village
doctors with little or no formal training constitute 62 percent of
healthcare providers practising "modern medicine"; formally-trained
providers make up four percent of the total health workforce. A Future
Health Systems survey indicated significant deficiencies in the
treatment practices of village doctors, with widespread harmful and
inappropriate drug prescribing.[249] Receiving health care from informal providers is encouraged.[250]
A 2007 study of 1,000 households in rural Bangladesh found that
direct payments to formal and informal healthcare providers and indirect
costs (loss of earnings because of illness) associated with illness
were deterrents to accessing healthcare from qualified providers.[249]
A community survey of 6,183 individuals in rural Bangladesh found a
gender difference in treatment-seeking behaviour, with women less likely
to seek treatment than to men.[251] The use of skilled birth attendant (SBA) services, however, rose from 2005 to 2007 among women from all socioeconomic quintiles except the highest.[252]
A health watch, a pilot community-empowerment tool, was successfully
developed and implemented in south-eastern Bangladesh to improve the
uptake and monitoring of public-health services.[253]
Bangladesh's poor health conditions are attributed to the lack of
healthcare provision by the government. According to a 2010 World Bank
report, 2009 healthcare spending was 3.35 percent of the country's GDP.[254] The number of hospital beds is 3 per 10,000 population.[255]
Government spending on healthcare that year was 7.9 percent of the
total budget; out-of-pocket expenditures totaled 96.5 percent.[254]
Malnutrition
has been a persistent problem in Bangladesh, with the World Bank
ranking the country first in the number of malnourished children
worldwide.[256][257] Twenty-six percent of the population (two-thirds of children under the age of five) are undernourished,[258] and 46 percent of children are moderately or severely underweight.[259]
Forty-three to 60 percent of children under five are smaller than
normal; one in five preschool children are vitamin-A deficient, and one
in two are anemic.[260][261] More than 45 percent of rural families and 76 percent of urban families were below the acceptable caloric-intake level.[262]
Culture
Visual arts
A sculpture at the Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Dhaka
The recorded history of art in Bangladesh can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when terracotta
sculptures were made in the region. In classical antiquity, a notable
school of sculptural Hindu, Jain and Buddhist art developed in the Pala
Empire and the Sena dynasty. Islamic art evolved since the 14th century.
The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate saw a distinct style of domed
mosques with complex niche pillars that had no minarets. Mughal Bengal's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving of Jamdanimotifs on fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage.[263][264]Ivory and brass were also widely used in Mughal art. Pottery is widely used in Bengali culture.
The modern art movement in Bangladesh took shape during the 1950s, particularly with the pioneering works of Zainul Abedin.
East Bengal developed its own modernist painting and sculpture
traditions, which were distinct from the art movements in West Bengal.
The Art Institute Dhaka has been an important center for visual art in the region. Its annual Bengali New Year parade was enlisted as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2016.
The oldest evidence of writing in Bangladesh is the Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription, which dates back to the 3rd century BCE.[265] In the Gupta Empire, Sanskrit literature thrived in the region. Bengali developed from Sanskrit and Magadhi Prakrit in the 11th century. Bengali literature is a millennium-old tradition; the Charyapada are the earliest examples of Bengali poetry. Sufi spiritualism inspired many Bengali Muslim writers. During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian works. Syed Alaol was a noted secular poet and translator. The Chandidas are an example of the Bangladeshi folk literature
that developed during the Middle Ages. The Bengal Renaissance shaped
the emergence of modern Bengali literature, including novels, short
stories and science fiction. Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature and is described as the Bengali Shakespeare.[266]
Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused spiritual
rebellion against colonialism and fascism. Begum Rokeya was a pioneer of
Bengali writing in English, with her early of work of feminist science fiction. Other renaissance icons included Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay.
Although, as of 2015, several women occupied major political office
in Bangladesh, its women continue to live under a patriarchal social
regime where violence is common.[268]
Whereas in India and Pakistan women participate less in the workforce
as their education increases, the reverse is the case in Bangladesh.[268]
Bengal has a long history of feminist activism dating back to the 19th century. Begum Rokeya and Faizunnessa Chowdhurani played an important role in emancipating Bengali Muslim women from purdah,
prior to the country's division, as well as promoting girls' education.
Several women were elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly in the
British Raj. The first women's magazine, Begum, was published in 1948.
In 2008, Bangladeshi female workforce participation stood at 26%.[269] Women dominate blue collar
jobs in the Bangladeshi garment industry. Agriculture, social services,
healthcare and education are also major occupations for Bangladeshi
women, while their employment in white collar positions has steadily increased.
Architecture
The architectural traditions of Bangladesh have a 2,500-year-old heritage.[270]
Terracotta architecture is a distinct feature of Bengal. Pre-Islamic
Bengali architecture reached its pinnacle in the Pala Empire, when the
Pala School of Sculptural Art established grand structures such as the
Somapura Mahavihara. Islamic architecture
began developing under the Bengal Sultanate, when local terracotta
styles influenced medieval mosque construction. The Adina Mosque of
united Bengal was the largest mosque built on the Indian subcontinent.
Bengali vernacular architecture is noted for pioneering the bungalow. Bangladeshi villages consist of thatched roofed houses made of natural materials like mud, straw, wood and bamboo. In modern times, village bungalows are increasingly made of tin.
Muzharul Islam
was the pioneer of Bangladeshi modern architecture. His varied works
set the course of modern architectural practice in the country. Islam
brought leading global architects, including Louis Kahn, Richard Neutra, Stanley Tigerman, Paul Rudolph, Robert Boughey and Konstantinos Doxiadis, to work in erstwhile East Pakistan. Louis Kahn was chosen to design the National Parliament Complex in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar. Kahn's monumental designs, combining regional red brick aesthetics, his own concrete and marble brutalism
and the use of lakes to represent Bengali geography, are regarded as
one of the masterpieces of the 20th century. In more recent times,
award-winning architects like Rafiq Azam have set the course of contemporary architecture by adopting influences from the works of Islam and Kahn.
Performing arts
Runa Laila, a leading playback singer of South Asia since the 1960s, is based in Bangladesh
Theatre in Bangladesh includes various forms with a history dating back to the 4th century CE.[271]
It includes narrative forms, song and dance forms, supra-personae
forms, performances with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and
processional forms.[271] The Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre.
The dance traditions of Bangladesh include indigenous tribal and Bengali dance forms, as well as classical Indian dances, including the Kathak, Odissi and Manipuri dances.
A woman wearing jamdani in 1787. Bengal has manufactured textiles for many centuries, as recorded in ancient hand-written and printed documents.
Embroidery on Nakshi Kantha (embroidered quilt), centuries-old Bengali art tradition
The Nakshi Kantha is a centuries-old embroidery tradition for quilts,
said to be indigenous to eastern Bengal (i.e. Bangladesh). The sari is
the national dress for Bangladeshi women. Mughal Dhaka was renowned for
producing the finest Muslin saris, including the famed Dhakai and Jamdani, the weaving of which is listed by UNESCO as one of the masterpieces of humanity's intangible cultural heritage.[274] Bangladesh also produces the Rajshahi silk. The shalwar kameez is also widely worn by Bangladeshi women. In urban areas some women can be seen in western clothing. The kurta and sherwani are the national dress of Bangladeshi men; the lungi and dhoti are worn by them in informal settings. Aside from ethnic wear, domestically tailoredsuits and neckties are customarily worn by the country's men in offices, in schools and at social events.
The handloom industry supplies 60–65% of the country's clothing demand.[275] The Bengali ethnic fashion industry has flourished in the changing environment of the fashion world. The retailer Aarong
is one of the most successful ethnic wear brands in South Asia. The
development of the Bangladesh textile industry, which supplies leading
international brands, has promoted the production and retail of modern
Western attire locally, with the country now having a number of
expanding local brands like Westecs and Yellow. Bangladesh is the
world's second largest garments exporter.
Among Bangladesh's fashion designers, Bibi Russell has received international acclaim for her "Fashion for Development" shows.[276]
Cuisine
The majority of restaurants offering South Asian cuisine in Britain are owned by British Bangladeshis. Pictured here is a restaurant in London named after the Surma River of northeastern Bangladesh
White rice is the staple of Bangladeshi cuisine, along with many vegetables and lentils. Rice preparations also include Bengali biryanis, pulaos, and khichuris. Mustard sauce, ghee, sunflower oil and fruit chutneys are widely used in Bangladeshi cooking. Fish is the main source of protein in Bengali cuisine. The Hilsa is the national fish and immensely popular across Bangladesh. Other kinds of fish eaten include rohu, butterfish, catfish, tilapia and barramundi. Fish eggs are a gourmet delicacy. Seafood holds an important place in Bengali cuisine, especially lobsters, shrimps and dried fish. Meat consumption includes chicken, beef, mutton, venison, duck and squab. In Chittagong, Mezban feasts are a popular tradition featuring the serving of hot beef curry. In Sylhet, the shatkora
lemons are used to marinate dishes. In the tribal Hill Tracts, bamboo
shoot cooking is prevalent. Bangladesh has a vast spread of desserts,
including distinctive sweets like Rôshogolla, Rôshomalai, Chomchom, Mishti Doi and Kalojaam. Pithas are traditional boiled desserts made with rice or fruits. Halwa is served during religious festivities. Naan, paratha, luchi and bakarkhani are the main local breads. Black tea is offered to guests as a gesture of welcome. Kebabs are widely popular across Bangladesh, particularly seekh kebabs, chicken tikka and shashliks.
Bangladesh shares its culinary heritage with the neighboring Indian state of West Bengal.
The two regions have several differences, however. In Muslim-majority
Bangladesh, meat consumption is greater; whereas in Hindu-majority West
Bengal, vegetarianism is more prevalent. The Bangladeshi diaspora
dominates the South Asian restaurant industry in many Western countries,
particularly in the United Kingdom.
Pohela Boishakh, the Bengali new year, is the major festival of Bengali culture
and sees widespread festivities. Of the major holidays celebrated in
Bangladesh, only Pohela Boishakh comes without any preexisting
expectations (specific religious identity, culture of gift-giving,
etc.). Unlike holidays like Eid al-Fitr, where dressing up in lavish clothes has become a norm, or Christmas
where exchanging gifts has become an integral part of the holiday,
Pohela Boishakh is really about celebrating the simpler, rural roots of
the Bengal. As a result, more people can participate in the festivities
together without the burden of having to reveal one's class, religion,
or financial capacity. Other cultural festivals include Nabonno, and Poush Parbon both of which are Bengali harvest festivals.
Alongside are national days like the remembrance of 21 February 1952 Language Movement Day (International Mother Language Day), Independence Day and
Victory Day. On Language Movement Day, people congregate at the Shaheed Minar in Dhaka to remember the national heroes of the Bengali Language Movement, and at the Jatiyo Smriti Soudho
on Independence Day and Victory Day to remember the national heroes of
the Bangladesh Liberation War. These occasions are observed with public
ceremonies, parades, rallies by citizens, political speeches, fairs,
concerts, and various other public and private events, celebrating the
history and traditions of Bangladesh. TV and radio stations broadcast
special programs and patriotic songs, and many schools and colleges
organise fairs, festivals, and concerts that draw the participation of
citizens from all levels of Bangladeshi society.
Cricket is one of the most popular sports in Bangladesh, followed by football. The national cricket team participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999, and the following year was granted elite Test cricket status. They have however struggled, recording only ten test match victories: one against Australia, one against England, one against Sri Lanka in Sri Lanka, five against Zimbabwe (one in 2005, one in 2013 in Zimbabwe, and three in 2014), two in a 2–0 series victory over the West Indies in the West Indies in 2009.[277] Six of Bangladesh's ten test match victories came in between the years 2014 to 2017.
The team has been more successful in One Day International cricket (ODI). They reached the quarter-final of the 2015 Cricket World Cup. They also reached the semi-final of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy. They whitewashed Pakistan in a home ODI series in 2015 followed by home ODI series wins against India and South Africa. They also won home ODI series by 4–0 in 2010 against New Zealand
and whitewashed them in the home ODI series in 2013. In July 2010, they
celebrated their first-ever win over England in England. In late 2012,
they won a five-match home ODI series 3-2 against a full-strength West
Indies National team. In 2011, Bangladesh successfully co-hosted the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011 with India and Sri Lanka. They also hosted the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 championship. Bangladesh hosted the Asia Cup on four occasions in 2000, 2012, 2014, and 2016. In 2012 Asia Cup,
Bangladesh beat India and Sri Lanka but lost the final game against
Pakistan. However, it was the first time Bangladesh had advanced to the
final of any top-class international cricket tournament. They reached
the final again at the 2016 Asia Cup. They participated at the 2010 Asian Games
in Guangzhou, defeating Afghanistan to claim their Gold Medal in the
first-ever cricket tournament held in the Asian Games. Bangladeshi
cricketer Sakib Al Hasan is No.1 on the ICC'sall-rounder rankings in all three formats of the cricket.[278]
Kabaddi – very popular in Bangladesh – is the national game.[280] Other popular sports include field hockey, tennis, badminton, handball, basketball, volleyball, chess, shooting, angling. The National Sports Council regulates 42 different sporting federations.[281]
Bangladesh has five grandmasters in chess. Among them, Niaz Murshed was the first grandmaster in South Asia.
In another achievement, Margarita Mamun, a Russian rhythmic gymnast of Bangladeshi origin, won gold medal in 2016 Summer Olympics and became world champion in the years 2013 and 2014.
Media and cinema
The Bangladeshi press is diverse, outspoken and privately owned. Over 200 newspapers are published in the country. Bangladesh Betar is the state-run radio service.[282] The British Broadcasting Corporation operates the popular BBC Bangla news and current affairs service. Bengali broadcasts from Voice of America are also very popular. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the state-owned television network. There more than 20 privately owned television networks, including several news channels. Freedom of the media remains a major concern, due to government attempts at censorship and the harassment of journalists.
The cinema of Bangladesh
dates back to 1898, when films began screening at the Crown Theatre in
Dhaka. The first bioscope on the subcontinent was established in Dhaka
that year. The Dhaka Nawab Family patronized the production of several silent films
in the 1920s and 30s. In 1931, the East Bengal Cinematograph Society
released the first full-length feature film in Bangladesh, titled the Last Kiss. The first feature film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh,
was released in 1956. During the 1960s, 25–30 films were produced
annually in Dhaka. By the 2000s, Bangladesh produced 80–100 films a
year. While the Bangladeshi film industry has achieved limited
commercial success, the country has produced notable independent
filmmakers. Zahir Raihan was a prominent documentary-maker who was assassinated in 1971. The late Tareque Masud
is regarded as one of Bangladesh's outstanding directors due to his
numerous productions on historical and social issues. Masud was honored
by FIPRESCI at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival for his film The Clay Bird. Tanvir Mokammel, Mostofa Sarwar Farooki, Humayun Ahmed, Alamgir Kabir, and Chashi Nazrul Islam are some of the prominent directors of Bangladeshi cinema.
The Varendra Research Museum
is the oldest museum in Bangladesh. It houses important collections
from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, including the sculptures
of the Pala-Sena School of Art and the Indus Valley Civilization; as
well as Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian manuscripts and inscriptions. The
Ahsan Manzil, the former residence of the Nawab of Dhaka, is a national
museum housing collections from the British Raj. It was the site of the
founding conference of the All India Muslim League and hosted many
British Viceroys in Dhaka.
The Tajhat
Palace Museum preserves artifacts of the rich cultural heritage of
North Bengal, including Hindu-Buddhist sculptures and Islamic
manuscripts. The Mymensingh Museum houses the personal antique collections of Bengali aristocrats in central Bengal. The Ethnological Museum of Chittagong showcases the lifestyle of various tribes in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh National Museum is located in Ramna, Dhaka and has a rich collection of antiquities. The Liberation War Museum documents the Bangladeshi struggle for independence and the 1971 genocide.
In ancient times, manuscripts were written on palm leaves, tree
barks, parchment vellum and terracotta plates and preserved at
monasteries known as viharas.
The Hussain Shahi dynasty established royal libraries during the Bengal
Sultanate. Libraries were established in each district of Bengal by the
zamindar gentry during the Bengal Renaissance in the 19th century. The
trend of establishing libraries continued until the beginning of World
War II. In 1854, four major public libraries were opened, including the
Bogra Woodburn Library, the Rangpur Public Library, the Jessore
Institute Public Library and the Barisal Public Library.
The Northbrook Hall Public Library was established in Dhaka in 1882 in honour of Lord Northbrook,
the Governor-General. Other libraries established in the British period
included the Victoria Public Library, Natore (1901), the Sirajganj
Public Library (1882), the Rajshahi Public Library (1884), the Comilla
Birchandra Library (1885), the Shah Makhdum Institute Public Library,
Rajshahi (1891), the Noakhali Town Hall Public Library (1896), the Prize
Memorial Library, Sylhet (1897), the Chittagong Municipality Public
Library (1904) and the Varendra Research Library (1910). The Great
Bengal Library Association was formed in 1925.[284] The Central Public Library of Dhaka was established in 1959. The National Library of Bangladesh was established in 1972. The World Literature Center, founded by Ramon Magsaysay Award winner Abdullah Abu Sayeed, is noted for operating numerous mobile libraries across Bangladesh and was awarded the UNESCO Jon Amos Comenius Medal.
1752 Kantajew Temple, prominent Hindu architecture of Bangladesh.
Lalbagh Fort, a Mughal architecture of Bangladesh
Jatiyo Sangsad Bhaban, the house of the Parliament of Bangladesh.
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