The Martian Chronicles

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The Martian Chronicles

First edition
Author	Ray Bradbury
Illustrator	Michael Welan
Cover artist	Matthew Aijala
Country	United States
Language	English
Genre	Science fiction, post-apocalyptic fiction, horror, dystopian fiction
Publisher	Doubleday
Publication date	May 4, 1950
Pages	222

The Martian Chronicles is a 1950 science fiction short story fixup by Ray Bradbury that chronicles the colonization of Mars by humans fleeing from a troubled and eventually atomically devastated Earth, and the conflict between aboriginal Martians and the new colonists. The book lies somewhere in between a short story collection and an episodic novel, containing stories Bradbury originally published in the late 1940s in science fiction magazines. The stories were loosely woven together with a series of short, interstitial vignettes for publication.

Structure

The Martian Chronicles is a fixup of short stories with new text connecting them into a novel. Bradbury has credited Sherwood Anderson's Winesburg, Ohio and John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath as influences on the structure of the book. He has called it a "half-cousin to a novel" and "a book of stories pretending to be a novel". As such, it is similar in structure to Bradbury's short story collection, The Illustrated Man, which also uses a thin frame story to link various unrelated short stories. 

The Martian Chronicles follows a "future history" structure. The stories, complete in themselves, come together as episodes in a larger sequential narrative framework. The overall structure is in three parts, punctuated by two catastrophes: the near-extinction of the Martians and the parallel near-extinction of the human race. 

The first third (set in the period from January 1999—April 2000) details the attempts of the Earthmen to reach Mars, and the various ways in which the Martians keep them from returning. In the crucial story, "—And the Moon be Still as Bright", it is revealed by the fourth exploratory expedition that the Martians have all but perished in a plague caused by germs brought by one of the previous expeditions. This unexpected development sets the stage for the second act (December 2001—November 2005), in which humans from Earth colonize the deserted planet, occasionally having contact with the few surviving Martians, but for the most part preoccupied with making Mars a second Earth. However, as war on Earth threatens, most of the settlers pack up and return home. A global nuclear war ensues, cutting off contact between Mars and Earth. The third act (December 2005—October 2026) deals with the aftermath of the war, and concludes with the prospect of the few surviving humans becoming the new Martians, a prospect already foreshadowed in "—And the Moon be Still as Bright", and which allows the book to return to its beginning.

Publication history

The book was published in the United Kingdom under the title The Silver Locusts (1951), with slightly different contents. In some editions the story "The Fire Balloons" was added, and the story "Usher II" was removed to make room for it. In the Spanish-language version, the stories were preceded by a prologue by Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges.

The book was published in 1963 as part of the Time Reading Program with an introduction by Fred Hoyle. 

In 1979, Bantam Books published a trade paperback edition with illustrations by Ian Miller.

A 1997 edition of the book advances all the dates by 31 years (thus running from 2030 to 2057). (This change counteracts a problem common to near-future stories, where the passage of time overtakes the period in which the story is set; for a list of other works that have fallen prey to this phenomenon, see the List of stories set in a future now past.) This edition includes "The Fire Balloons", and replaces "Way in the Middle of the Air" (a story less topical in 1997 than in 1950) with the 1952 short story "The Wilderness", dated May 2034 (equivalent to May 2003 in the earlier chronology).

Influences

Edgar Rice Burroughs's works were key influences. In an article written shortly before his death, Bradbury said the John Carter of Mars books and Harold Foster's 1931 series of Tarzan Sunday comics had such an impact on his life that "The Martian Chronicles would never have happened" otherwise. In an introduction he wrote for The Martian Chronicles, Bradbury cited the Barsoom stories and Winesburg, Ohio by Sherwood Anderson as literary influences.

The background of Mars shared by most of the stories, as a desert planet crisscrossed by giant canals built by an ancient civilization to bring water from the polar ice caps, is a common scenario in science fiction of the early 20th century. It stems from early telescope observations of Mars by astronomers from the 19th-century who believed they saw straight lines on the planet, the first of them being the Italian Giovanni Schiaparelli in 1877. Schiaparelli called them canali (a generic Italian term used for both natural and artificial "grooves" or "channels"), which was popularly mistranslated into English as "canals", man-made water channels. Based on this and other evidence, the idea that Mars was inhabited by intelligent life was put forward by a number of prominent scientists around the turn of the century, notably American astronomer Percival Lowell. This ignited a popular fascination with the planet which has been called "Mars fever". Planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote:

Mars has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes and fears.

Contents

"Rocket Summer" (January 1999/2030)

First published in Planet Stories, spring 1947. 

The stories of the book are arranged in chronological order, starting in January 1999, with the blasting off of the first rocket. "Rocket Summer" is a short vignette which describes Ohio's winter turning briefly into "summer" due to the extreme heat of the rocket's take-off, as well as the reaction of the citizens nearby.

"Ylla" (February 1999/2030)

First published as "I'll Not Ask for Wine" in Maclean's, January 1, 1950. 

The following chapter, "Ylla", moves the story to Mars, describing the Martians as having brown skin, yellow eyes, and russet hair. Ylla, a Martian woman trapped in an unromantic marriage, dreams of the coming astronauts through telepathy. Her husband, though he pretends to deny the reality of the dreams, becomes bitterly jealous, sensing his wife's inchoate romantic feelings for one of the astronauts. After taking his gun under the pretense of hunting, he kills astronauts Nathaniel York and "Bert" as soon as they arrive.

"The Summer Night" (August 1999/2030)

First published as "The Spring Night" in The Arkham Sampler, Winter 1948.

This short vignette tells of Martians throughout Mars who, like Ylla, begin subconsciously picking up stray thoughts from the humans aboard the Second Expedition's ship. As the ship approaches their planet, the Martians begin to adopt aspects of human culture such as playing and singing American songs, without any idea where the inspirations are coming from.

"The Earth Men" (August 1999/2030)

First published in Thrilling Wonder Stories, August 1948. 

This story tells of the "Second Expedition" to Mars. The expedition is a group of four men. The astronauts arrive to find the Martians to be strangely unresponsive to their presence. The one exception to this is a group of Martians in a building who greet them with a parade. Several of the Martians in the building claim to be from Earth or from other planets of the solar system, and the captain slowly realizes that the Martian gift for telepathy allows others to view the hallucinations of the insane, and that they have been placed in an insane asylum. The Martians they have encountered all believed that their unusual appearance was a projected hallucination. Because the "hallucinations" are so detailed and the captain refuses to admit he is not from Earth, Mr. Xxx, a psychiatrist, declares him incurable and kills him. When the "imaginary" crew does not disappear as well, Mr. Xxx shoots and kills them too. Finally, as the "imaginary" rocket remains in existence, Mr. Xxx concludes that he too must be crazy and shoots himself. The ship of the Second Expedition is sold as scrap at a junkyard.

"The Taxpayer" (March 2000/2031)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. 

A man insists that he has a right to be on the next rocket to Mars, because he is a taxpayer. He strongly insists on boarding the ship due to the impending nuclear war on Earth. He is not allowed on the ship and eventually gets taken away by the police.

"The Third Expedition" (April 2000/2031)

First published as "Mars is Heaven!" in Planet Stories, fall 1948. 

The arrival and demise of the third group of Americans to land on Mars is described by this story. This time the Martians are prepared for the Earthlings. When the crew arrives, they see an idyllic small town of the 1920s occupied by the long-lost loved ones of the astronauts. The bewildered and happy crew members ignore their captain's orders and disperse to join their supposed family members. The Martians use the memories of the astronauts to lure them into their "old" homes where they are killed in the middle of the night. The next morning, sixteen coffins are carried from sixteen houses and are buried by mourners who sometimes resemble humans and sometimes "something else". 

The original short story was set in the 1960s and dealt with characters nostalgic for their childhoods in the Midwestern United States in the 1920s. In the Chronicles version, which takes place forty years later but which still relies on 1920s nostalgia, the story contains a brief paragraph about medical treatments that slow the aging process, so that the characters can be traveling to Mars in the 2000s but still remember the 1920s.

"—And the Moon Be Still as Bright" (June 2001/2032)

First published in Thrilling Wonder Stories, June 1948. 

The next chapter opens with the men of the Fourth Expedition gathering firewood against the cold Martian evening. The scientists have found that all of the Martians have died of chickenpox (brought by one of the first three expeditions)—analogous to the devastation of Native American populations by smallpox. The men, except for the archaeologist Spender and Captain Wilder, become more boisterous. Spender loses his temper when one of his crew-mates starts dropping empty wine bottles into a clear blue canal and knocks him into the canal. When questioned by his captain, Spender replies, "We'll rip it up, rip the skin off, and change it to fit ourselves," and that "we Earth Men have a talent for ruining big, beautiful things," referring to Earth. He leaves the rest of the landing party to explore Martian ruins after one crew member vomits on an ancient tile mosaic. 

Spender returns to the rest of the expedition. He carries a gun and, claiming to be the last Martian, shoots six of his crew-mates, including one with sympathy towards the Martians from his Cherokee ancestry. Captain Wilder approaches under a white flag and has a short discussion with Spender about how Martians were better than us. This is because the Martians knew how to combine religion and science, without criticizing and fighting as we humans do. During which, the archaeologist explains that if he manages to kill off the expedition it may delay human colonization of the planet for a few more years, possibly long enough that the expected nuclear war on Earth will protect Mars from human colonization completely. Although he opposes Spender's methods, Captain Wilder somewhat agrees with his attitude towards colonization and wishes for him a humane death. He returns to the others and joins them as they pursue Spender, and Wilder shoots Spender in the chest during the fight before he has the opportunity to be killed by anyone else. Another member of the crew named Parkhill, uses the ruined town as target practice, so Wilder knocks his teeth out. 

Many of the characters of the Fourth Expedition—Parkhill, Captain Wilder, and Hathaway—re-appear in later stories. This is the first story that focuses on a central motif of The Martian Chronicles: the colonization of the Western frontier in the United States. Like Spender, Bradbury's message is that some types of colonization are right and others are wrong. Trying to recreate Earth is viewed as wrong, but an approach that respects the fallen civilization that is being replaced is right.

In some editions the two stories relating to Spender were combined as one.

"The Settlers" (August 2001/2032)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. 

In the previously mentioned version, this short story describes the first settlers coming to Mars, the "Lonely Ones", the ones that came to start over on the planet.

"The Green Morning" (December 2001/2032)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. 

The next several chapters describe the transformation of Mars into another Earth. Small towns similar to those on Earth begin to grow. In "The Green Morning", Benjamin Driscoll makes it his mission to plant thousands of trees on the red plains to increase oxygen levels. Due to some property of the Martian soil, the trees grow into a mighty forest overnight.

"The Locusts" (February 2002/2033)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. 

This vignette concerns the swift colonization of Mars. The title refers to the rockets and settlers which quickly spread across all of Mars.

"Night Meeting" (August 2002/2033)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. 

This story begins with a conversation between an old man and a young traveler, Tomás Gomez. The older man explains that he came to Mars because he appreciates the new and novel. Even everyday things have become amazing to him once again. He has returned full circle to his childhood. Later, Tomás encounters a Martian named Muhe Ca. Each can see the Mars he is accustomed to, in his own time frame, but the other person is translucent and intangible to him and has the appearance of a phantom. The young man sees ruins where the Martian sees a thriving city, while the Martian sees an ocean where Tomás sees the new Earth settlement. Neither knows if he precedes the other in time, but Bradbury makes the point that any one civilization is ultimately fleeting. 

This is the only full-length story in The Martian Chronicles that had not previously appeared in another publication.

"The Shore" (October 2002/2033)

This story describes the rippling outward of colonization, the first wave being loner, pioneer types, and the second, also Americans, being from the "cabbage tenements and subways" of New York City.

"The Fire Balloons" (November 2002/2033)

First appeared as "…In This Sign" in Imagination, April 1951. 

A missionary expedition of Episcopal priests from the United States anticipates sins unknown to them on Mars. Instead, they meet ethereal creatures glowing as blue flames in crystal spheres, who have left behind the material world, and thus have escaped sin. 

This story appeared only in The Silver Locusts, the British edition of The Martian Chronicles, the 1974 edition from The Heritage Press, the September 1979 illustrated trade edition from Bantam Books, the "40th Anniversary Edition" from Doubleday Dell Publishing Group and in the 2001 Book-of-the-Month Club edition. It otherwise appeared in The Illustrated Man.

"Interim" (February 2003/2034)

First appeared in Weird Tales, July 1947. 

This story describes the building of a Martian town by colonists and how much it was made to resemble an average Midwestern American town. The town was said to have appeared to have been swept up by a tornado on Earth, and brought to Mars.

"The Musicians" (April 2003/2034)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. 

Several boys venture into the ruins of Martian cities. They enter houses and play with the debris, imagining that they are on Earth playing with the autumn leaves. They have fun playing "white xylophones"—Martian ribcages. They play with a sense of urgency because the Firemen are due to arrive soon, cleaning and disinfecting the ruins and destroying this source of fun.

"The Wilderness" (May 2003/2034)

First appeared in The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, November 1952.

Two women, Janice Smith and Leonora Holmes, prepare to depart on a rocket to Mars, to find husbands or lovers waiting for them there. Janice muses on the terrors of space, drinks in last memories of the Earth she will soon be leaving, and compares her situation to that of the pioneer women of the 19th-century American frontier. 

This story only appears in the 1974 edition of The Martian Chronicles by The Heritage Press, the 1979 Bantam Books illustrated trade edition, and the 1997 edition of The Martian Chronicles. In its original form, the story was dated 2003, and this date is consistent with the other stories. As it appears in the 1997 edition, the date (together with all the other dates) has been shifted ahead 31 years, to May 2034.

"Way in the Middle of the Air" (June 2003/2034)

First appeared in Other Worlds, July 1950.

In an unnamed Southern town, a group of white men learn that all African Americans are planning to emigrate to Mars. Samuel Teece, a racist white man, decries their departure as a flood of African Americans passes his hardware store. He tries to stop one man, Belter, from leaving due to an old debt, but others quickly take up a collection on his behalf to pay it off. Next he tries to detain Silly, a younger man who works for him, saying that he signed a contract and must honor it. As Silly protests, claiming that he never signed it, one of Teece's friends volunteers to take his place. Several of Teece's friends stand up to him and intimidate him into letting Silly depart. 

As Silly drives off, he yells to Teece, "What you goin' to do nights?" - referring to Teece's nightly activities with a gang that had terrorized and lynched blacks in the area. The enraged Teece and a friend give chase in his car, but soon find the road cluttered with the discarded belongings of the rocket passengers. After they return to the hardware store, Teece refuses to watch as the rockets lift off. Wondering how he and his friends will spend their nights from now on, he takes a small triumph in the fact that Silly always addressed him as "Mister" even as he was leaving. 

This episode is a depiction of racial prejudice in America. However, it was eliminated from the 2006 William Morrow/Harper Collins, and the 2001 DoubleDay Science Fiction reprinting of the book.

"The Naming of Names" (2004-05/2035-36)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. Not to be confused with the short story "The Naming of Names", first published in Thrilling Wonder Stories, August 1949, later published as "Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed". 

This story is about later waves of immigrants to Mars, and how the geography of Mars is now largely named after the people from the first four expeditions (e.g., Spender Hill, Driscoll Forest) rather than after physical descriptions of the terrain.

"Usher II" (April 2005/2036)

First published as Carnival of Madness in Thrilling Wonder Stories, April 1950.

"Usher II" is about censorship. William Stendahl is a book lover who has retreated to Mars after the government confiscated and destroyed his vast collection. On Mars, he constructs his image of the perfect haunted mansion, complete with mechanical creatures, creepy soundtracks, and thousands of tons of poison to kill every living thing in the surrounding area. He is assisted by Pikes, a film aficionado and former actor whose collection was confiscated and destroyed by the government and who was subsequently banned from performing. When the "Moral Climate Monitors" come to visit, Stendahl and Pikes arrange to kill each of them in ways that allude to different horror masterpieces, culminating in the murder of Inspector Garrett in a sequence reminiscent of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado". Once Stendahl's persecutors are dead, he and Pikes watch from a helicopter as the house crumbles and sinks into the lake as in Poe’s short story "The Fall of the House of Usher". At the end of this story, Poe (or Stendahl) hints that the "Moral Climate Monitors" could have avoided these deaths if they had only read the books they banned, since then they would have recognized what was happening to them. 

Bradbury hints at past events on Earth, set in 1975–30 years prior to the events in "Usher II". The government sponsored a "Great Burning" of books and made them illegal, which leads to the formation of an underground society of book owners. Those found to possess books had them seized and burned by fire crews. Mars apparently emerged as a refuge from the fascist censorship laws of Earth, until the arrival of a government organization referred to only as "Moral Climates" and their enforcement divisions, the "Dismantlers" and "Burning Crew". Bradbury would reuse the concept of massive government censorship (to the point of abolishing all literature) in his book Fahrenheit 451.

In 2010, Los Angeles artist Allois, in collaboration with Bradbury, released illustrated copies of "Usher" and "Usher II".

"The Old Ones" (August 2005/2036)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. 

A very brief prelude to the following story, describing the immigration of elderly people to Mars.

"The Martian" (September 2005/2036)

First published in Super Science Stories, November 1949. 

LaFarge and his wife Anna have forged a new life for themselves, but they still miss their dead son Tom. A night thunderstorm startles the elderly pair, who see a figure standing outside their home in the rain. 

When morning comes, "Tom" is busy helping Anna with chores. LaFarge sees that Anna is somehow unaware of Tom's death, and after speaking privately with him, LaFarge learns that "Tom" is a Martian with an empathic shapeshifting ability: the Martian appears as their dead son to them. 

Later that day, Anna insists on a visit to the town. "Tom" is deathly afraid of being so close to so many people. LaFarge promises to keep him close, but at the town they become separated. While searching for "Tom", LaFarge hears that the Spaulding family in town has miraculously found their lost daughter Lavinia. Desperate to avoid a second devastating heartbreak to his wife, LaFarge stands outside Spaulding's home and finds "Tom" now masquerading as Lavinia. He is able to coax "Tom" to come back, and they run desperately back for their boat to leave town. However, everyone "Tom" passes sees someone significant to them—a lost husband, a son, a wanted criminal. The Martian, exhausted from his constant shape-changing, spasms and dies.

"The Luggage Store" (November 2005/2036)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. 

The story of Mars and its inhabitants is continued in a discussion between a priest and a luggage storeowner. Nuclear war is imminent on Earth, and the priest predicts that most of the colonists will return to help.

"The Off Season" (November 2005/2036)

First published in Thrilling Wonder Stories, December 1948. 

On Mars, former Fourth Expedition member Sam Parkhill has opened a hot-dog stand and is expecting a huge rush of business as soon as the next wave of settlers and workers arrives from Earth. When a lone Martian walks in one night, Parkhill panics and kills him. Other Martians arrive in sand ships, prompting Parkhill and his wife to flee across the desert in their own ship. Once the Martians catch up, they surprise Parkhill by giving him ownership of half the planet. He returns to his hot-dog stand just in time to witness the start of the nuclear war on Earth, which puts an end to the settler flights and his business.

"The Watchers" (November 2005/2036)

First appeared in The Martian Chronicles. 

The colonists witness a nuclear war on Earth from Mars. They immediately return out of concern for their friends and families, buying up the luggage store owner's entire inventory before they leave.

"The Silent Towns" (December 2005/2036)

First published in Charm, March 1949. 

Everybody has left Mars to go to Earth, except Walter Gripp—a single miner who lives in the mountains and does not hear of the departure. At first excited by his find of an empty town, he enjoys himself with money, food, clothes, and movies. He soon realizes he misses human companionship. One night he hears a telephone ringing in someone's home, and suddenly realizes that someone else is alive on Mars. Missing the call, and several others, he sits down with a phone book of Mars and starts dialing at A. 

After days of calling without answers, he starts calling hotels. After guessing where he thinks a woman would most likely spend her time, he calls the biggest beauty salon on Mars and is delighted when a woman answers. They talk, but are cut off. Overcome with romantic dreams, he drives hundreds of miles to New Texas City, only to realize that she drove to find him on a back road. He drives back to his town, and meets Genevieve Selsor as he pulls in. 

Their meeting is the opposite of what he had hoped for in his dreams; she is unattractive (due to her weight and pallor), foolish, and insipid. After a sullen day, she slyly proposes marriage to him at dinner, as they believe they are the last man and the last woman on Mars. Gripp flees, driving across Mars to another tiny town to spend his life happily alone, avoiding all contact with Genevieve and ignoring any phone he hears ringing.

"The Long Years" (April 2026/2057)

First published as "Dwellers in Silence" in Maclean's, September 15, 1948. 

Hathaway (the physician/archaeologist from the Fourth Expedition), now retired, is living on Mars with his wife and children in the hills above an old, abandoned settlement, vacated many years ago when everyone returned to Earth at the beginning of the war there. A gifted inventor and tinkerer, he has wired the old ghost town in the valley below so that he can make it come alive at night with lights and sounds as if it were still inhabited. One night, he sees a rocket approaching Mars and sets fire to the old town to attract the attention of those on board. 

On board the rocket is his old commander, Captain Wilder (also from the earlier stories about the Fourth Expedition), returning to Mars after twenty years exploring the outer solar system. He and his crew land and are met by Hathaway, now old and suffering from heart disease. Hathaway brings the crew to his house for breakfast and introduces them to his family. Wilder, who remembers meeting Hathaway's wife many years earlier, remarks that she looks remarkably young, while Hathaway has aged considerably. Wilder pales when he and one of his crew realize that Hathaway's son, who gives his age as 23, must be at least in his forties. Wilder sends the crewmember off to the local cemetery to check the headstones. He returns to report that he has found the graves of every member of the family but Hathaway. 

Wilder offers to take Hathaway back to Earth, but he declines. In the next moment, Hathaway has a heart attack and dies, begging Wilder not to call his family to his side because they "would not understand". Wilder then confirms that Hathaway's wife and children are actually androids, created by Hathaway after the originals died years ago. 

As Wilder prepares to depart, one of the crew returns to the house with a pistol, thinking to put an end to the androids, whose existence seems pointless now that Hathaway is gone, but he returns shortly, having been unable to bring himself to kill the robotic family even knowing that they are not truly human. The rocket departs, and the android family continues on with its meaningless routine.

"There Will Come Soft Rains" (August 4, 2026/2057)

First published in Collier's, May 6, 1950. 

The story concerns a household in Allendale, California, after the nuclear war has wiped out the population. Though the family is dead, the automated house that had taken care of the family still functions. 

The reader learns a great deal about what the family was like from how the robots continue on in their functions. Breakfast is automatically made, clothes are laid out, voice reminders of daily activities are called out, but no one is there. Robotic mice vacuum the home and tidy up. As the day progresses, the rain quits, and the house prepares lunch and opens like a flower to the warm weather. A starving dog, apparently the family pet, whines at the door, is admitted and dies. Outside, a vivid image is given: the family's silhouettes were permanently burned onto the side of the house (as occurred at Hiroshima) when they were vaporized by the nuclear explosion. That night, a storm crashes a tree into the home, starting a fire that the house cannot combat, as the municipal water supply has dried up and failed. By the next morning, the entire house has collapsed except for one wall that announces the date over and over. 

The title of the story comes from a randomly selected bedtime poem called "There Will Come Soft Rains", which is an actual poem by Sara Teasdale published in 1920. The theme of the poem is that nature will survive after humanity destroys itself in a war, but the story takes pains to show that this is not the case; if we were to destroy ourselves in a nuclear war we would take nature with us. In the original story in Collier's, the story takes place 35 years in the future.

"The Million-Year Picnic" (October 2026/2057)

First published in Planet Stories, summer 1946. 

A family saves a rocket that the government would have used in the nuclear war and leaves Earth on a "fishing trip" to Mars. The family picks a city to live in and call home, destroying the rocket so that they cannot return to Earth. They enter and the father burns tax documents and other government papers in a campfire, explaining that he is burning a misguided way of life. A map of Earth is the last thing to be burned. Later, he offers his sons a gift in the form of their new world. He introduces them to the Martians—their own reflections in a canal.

The Other Martian Tales

The Martian Chronicles: The Complete Edition published by Subterranean Press (2010) contains The Other Martian Tales section:

• "The Lonely Ones" (Startling Stories, July 1949, reprinted in Bradbury Stories: 100 of His Most Celebrated Tales)
• "The Exiles" (The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Winter/Spring 1950, reprinted in The Illustrated Man)
• "The One Who Waits" (The Arkham Sampler, summer 1949, reprinted in The Machineries of Joy)
• "The Disease" (previously unpublished)
• "Dead of Summer" (previously unpublished)
• "The Martian Ghosts" (previously unpublished)
• "Jemima True" (previously unpublished)
• "They All Had Grandfathers" (previously unpublished)
• "The Strawberry Window" (Star Science Fiction Stories #3, ed. Frederik Pohl, Ballantine, 1954, reprinted in A Medicine for Melancholy)
• "Way in the Middle of the Air" (see above)
• "The Other Foot" (New Story, March 1951, reprinted in The Illustrated Man)
• "The Wheel" (previously unpublished)
• "The Love Affair" (The Love Affair, Lord John Press 1982, reprinted in The Toynbee Convector)
• "The Marriage" (previously unpublished)
• "The Visitor" (Startling Stories, November 1948, reprinted in The Illustrated Man)
• "The Lost City of Mars" (Playboy, January 1967, reprinted in I Sing the Body Electric)
• "Holiday" (The Arkham Sampler, Autumn 1949)
• "Payment in Full" (Thrilling Wonder Stories, February 1950)
• "The Messiah" (Welcome Aboard, spring 1971, reprinted in Long After Midnight)
• "Night Call, Collect" (Super Science Stories, April 1949 as "I, Mars", reprinted in I Sing the Body Electric)
• "The Blue Bottle" (Planet Stories, Fall 1950, reprinted in Long After Midnight)
• "Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed" (Thrilling Wonder Stories, August 1949, reprinted in A Medicine for Melancholy)

Reception

Boucher and McComas praised Chronicles as "a poet's interpretation of future history beyond the limits of any fictional form". In his "Books" column for F&SF, Damon Knight listed The Martian Chronicles on his top-ten science fiction books of the 1950s. Algis Budrys called it "a beautiful Bradbury collection which owes part of its charm to the loose connecting passages", and an exception to the many poor-quality fixups of the 1950s. L. Sprague de Camp, however, declared that Bradbury would improve "when he escapes from the influence of Hemingway and Saroyan", placing him in "the tradition of anti-science-fiction writers [who] see no good in the machine age". Still, de Camp acknowledged that "[Bradbury's] stories have considerable emotional impact, and many will love them".

Robert Crossley (University of Massachusetts Boston) has suggested that the story "Way in the Middle of the Air" might be considered "the single most incisive episode of black and white relations in science fiction by a white author."

Adaptations

Theater

The theater debut of The Martian Chronicles was at the Cricket Theater (The Ritz) in Northeast Minneapolis in 1976. A musical version is being developed in New York City in 2017.

Film

MGM bought the film rights in 1960 but no film was made.

In 1988, the Soviet Armenian studio Armenfilm produced the feature film The 13th Apostle, starring Juozas Budraitis, Donatas Banionis, Armen Dzhigarkhanyan, based on The Martian Chronicles. The film was directed by Armenian actor and screenwriter, Suren Babayan.

The Uzbek filmmaker Nozim To'laho'jayev made two films based on sections from the book: 1984's animated short There Will Come Soft Rains (Russian: Будет ласковый дождь) and 1987's full-length live action film Veld (Russian: Вельд), with one of the subplots based on The Martian.

Opera

The Martian Chronicles was adapted as a full-length contemporary opera by composer Daniel Levy and librettist Elizabeth Margid. This is the only musical adaptation authorized by Bradbury himself, who turned down Lerner and Loewe in the 1960s when they asked his permission to make a musical based on the novel. The work received its initial readings from the Harriet Lake Festival of New Plays at the Orlando Shakespeare Theater in 2006, and was presented in workshop form in the inaugural season of the Fordham University Lincoln Center Alumni Company in 2008. The NIGHT MEETING episode was presented at Cornelia Street Cafe's ENTERTAINING SCIENCE series on June 9, 2013. The entire work was presented as a staged reading with a cast of Broadway actors at Ars Nova NYC on February 11, 2015. Three scenes were presented as a workshop production with immersive staging, directed by Carlos Armesto of Theatre C and conducted by Benjamin Smoulder at Miami University, Oxford OH on September 17–19, 2015.

Radio

The Martian Chronicles was adapted for radio in the science fiction radio series Dimension X. This truncated version contained elements of the stories "Rocket Summer", "Ylla", "–and the Moon be Still as Bright", "The Settlers", "The Locusts", "The Shore", "The Off Season", "There Will Come Soft Rains", and "The Million-Year Picnic". 

"—and the Moon be Still as Bright" and "There Will Come Soft Rains" were also adapted for separate episodes in the same series. The short stories "Mars Is Heaven" and "Dwellers in Silence" also appeared as episodes of Dimension X. The latter is in a very different form from the one found in The Martian Chronicles. 

A very abridged spoken word reading of "There Will Come Soft Rains" and "Usher II" was made in 1975 with Leonard Nimoy as narrator. 

A BBC Radio 4 adaption, produced by Andrew Mark Sewell as an hour-long programme and starring Derek Jacobi as Captain Wilder, was broadcast on 21 June 2014 as part of the Dangerous Visions series.

Television miniseries

In 1979 NBC partnered with the BBC to commission The Martian Chronicles, a three-episode miniseries adaptation running just over four hours. It was written by Richard Matheson and was directed by Michael Anderson. Rock Hudson starred as Wilder, Darren McGavin as Parkhill, Bernadette Peters as Genevieve Selsor, Bernie Casey as Jeff Spender, Roddy McDowall as Father Stone, and Barry Morse as Hathaway, as well as Fritz Weaver. Bradbury found the miniseries "just boring".

Television adaptations of individual stories

The cable television series The Ray Bradbury Theater adapted some individual short stories from The Martian Chronicles including "Mars is Heaven", "Usher II", "And the Moon Be Still as Bright", "The Long Years" and "The Martian". Video releases of the series included a VHS tape entitled Ray Bradbury's Chronicles: The Martian Episodes with some editions with three episodes and others with five.

Comic books

Several of the short stories in The Martian Chronicles were adapted into graphic novel-style stories in the EC Comics magazines, including "There Will Come Soft Rains" in Weird Fantasy #17, "The Million-Year Picnic" in Weird Fantasy #21 and "The Silent Towns" in Weird Fantasy #22.

In 2011, Hill & Wang published Ray Bradbury's The Martian Chronicles: The Authorized Adaptation as a graphic novel, with art by Dennis Calero.

Vulcan (Star Trek)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Vulcans

Leonard Nimoy as Spock, a male human/Vulcan hybrid
Home world	Vulcan, New Vulcan (alternate reality)
Official language(s)	Vulcan, Vuhlkansu, High Vulcan
Affiliation	United Federation of Planets

Vulcans (with four early episodes using Vulcanians) are a fictional extraterrestrial humanoid species in the Star Trek franchise who originate from the planet Vulcan. In the various Star Trek television series and movies, they are noted for their attempt to live by logic and reason with as little interference from emotion as possible. They were the first extraterrestrial species in the Star Trek universe to observe first contact protocol with humans. 

The imaginary planet Vulcan is said to exist in the real the triple star system 40 Eridani, 17 light years from earth, orbiting the largest star A, a main sequence K1 star.

Biology

Physical characteristics

A female Star Trek Vulcan cosplayer demonstrating the Vulcan salute

Vulcans are depicted as similar in appearance to humans. The main physical differences are their eyebrows and ears: the former are arched and upswept, while the latter feature pinnae that taper to a point at the top. The ears have been the subject of jokes on many occasions. Vulcans have been portrayed as various races. Most caucasoid-like Vulcans (most of those shown throughout the series' runs) typically appear with a subtle greenish hue to their skin, due to Vulcans' copper-based blood, which is green (Earth's horseshoe crabs have blue blood, due to copper-based hemocyanin). Other features described include an inner eyelid, or nictitating membrane, which protects their vision from bright lights, an adaptation for their bright, hot home world. In addition, their hearts are located on the right side of the torso, between the ribs and pelvis; as Dr. McCoy once says about Spock: "He is lucky that his heart is where his liver should be, or he'd be dead!" (ST:TOS, "A Private Little War")

Diet

Vulcans are vegetarians by choice and were omnivores in ages past. In the Star Trek original series (TOS) episode "All Our Yesterdays", Spock willingly consumes meat; partly as a result of the effects of time travel 5,000 years into the past, and partly because he reasons there is no other suitable food available given the harsh, ice-age climate in which they are trapped; he later expresses regret at his consumption of the meat. Vulcans are repeatedly stated to be herbivorous in the TAS episode "The Slaver Weapon", by the carnivorous Kzinti. Vulcans do not like to touch their food with their hands, preferring to use utensils whenever possible (though there are numerous cases where Vulcans have broken this rule). It is a Vulcan custom for guests in the home to prepare meals for their hosts (Star Trek: Enterprise episode: "Home"). 

Vulcans are said to not drink alcohol, though they are depicted indulging on special occasions or as a storyline warrants. In the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Repression", humans and Vulcans are shown drinking a Vulcan alcoholic drink called "Vulcan Brandy". In the TOS episode "The Enterprise Incident", as part of his diversionary role during an espionage mission against the Romulans, Spock shares a drink known as Romulan ale with the female Romulan commander. In a later TOS episode "Requiem for Methuselah", Spock specifically requests a Saurian brandy after Dr. McCoy, while serving himself and Captain Kirk, observes that he had no expectation that Spock would be joining them in a drink for fear that the alcohol would affect his logic faculties. Spock claims that he wants a brandy because he is experiencing an unaccustomed envy for his host's artwork. In Star Trek: First Contact, when the Vulcans first meet Zefram Cochrane, Cochrane serves them alcoholic beverages, which they take in lieu of dancing. In "non-canon" Trek-related literature, such as the novelization of Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, Vulcans are depicted as immune to the effects of alcohol (though in the TOS episode "The Naked Time" a strange affliction infects the crew, that has much the same effect as alcohol, and Spock is also affected and becomes emotional, and even starts to cry). 

There are references to Vulcans becoming inebriated by ingesting chocolate. (This is alluded to in DS9 when Quark offers a Vulcan client some Vulcan Port or chocolate, in speaking of which he implies something sexual.) The novelization of Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home also shows Spock reacting almost as if drunk to the ingestion of sucrose, or common table sugar, contained in a peppermint candy. He tells Kirk that it has the same effect on Vulcans as alcohol does on humans.

Mating drive

Approximately every seven years, Vulcan males and females experience an overpowering hormone imbalance known as pon farr, often focused on their mates or an object of desire, if there is no mate or they are out of reach. Once triggered, a Vulcan must have sexual intercourse with someone, preferably their mate. If this is not possible, meditation may be used to stabilize their chemical imbalances and help them cope, though this is not always sufficient. In the event that neither of these solutions can be achieved, the Vulcan will face insanity, loss of self-control, and death. 

If a mate is not available, there are other ways to relieve the effects of the pon farr. The first is meditation, by means of which the Vulcan must overcome the urge to mate through mental discipline. The second is violence. This is seen in the Voyager episode "Blood Fever", when B'Elanna Torres and Ensign Vorik fight in the traditional Vulcan manner. The violence ends the pon farr. The other option is extreme shock; in the TOS episode "Amok Time", Spock believed he had killed James T. Kirk, his "best friend", thus providing sufficient shock to nullify the effects of pon farr. When he experienced pon farr, Tuvok of the USS Voyager made use of a holodeck simulation of a temporary mate that resembled his wife. This holodeck simulation was created because The Doctor was unavailable to administer, as the dialog of the episode suggests, a medicine that he had prepared to help Tuvok overcome the effects of pon farr. Infection is another mechanism writers have used to induce pon farr in Vulcan characters (such as T'Pol in the Star Trek: Enterprise episode "Bounty"). 

In the TOS episode "This Side of Paradise", Leila Kalomi hints at having had a special relationship with Spock some six years earlier, though Spock's remark that he hoped his half-human blood would see him "spared" the agony of pon farr in the episode "Amok Time" suggests that their relationship was more casual. Likewise in the film Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, the regenerated adolescent Spock went through at least two pon farr episodes at accelerated speed. As his mate was not available on the Genesis planet (where Spock underwent the two pon farr periods), it was implied that he mated with Lt. Saavik, a female half-Vulcan, half-Romulan scientist on the crew of the Enterprise who showed compassion in guiding him through the accelerated pon farr. In Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, a deleted scene was intended to confirm the implication (i.e., that Saavik bore Spock's child). 

Despite popular opinion, TOS writer and story editor, Dorothy C. Fontana, insists that pon farr is not the only time that Vulcans feel sexual desire or engage in sexual activity:

Vulcans mate normally any time they want to. However, every seven years you do the ritual, the ceremony, the whole thing. The biological urge. You must, but any other time is any other emotion—humanoid emotion—when you're in love. When you want to, you know when the urge is there, you do it. This every-seven-years business was taken too literally by too many people who don't stop and understand. We didn't mean it only every seven years. I mean, every seven years would be a little bad, and it would not explain the Vulcans of many different ages that are not seven years apart.

Other characteristics

Vulcans are typically depicted as stronger, faster, and longer-lived than humans (although discrepancies have occurred—and although not as long as Vulcans, humans have been shown to live longer in the Star Trek universe than today—presumably as the result of advances in medical science). Vulcans are about three times as strong as an average human because of their home planet's higher gravity, although their durability is equal to humans. There are instances of them living over two hundred and twenty years. Having evolved on a desert world, Vulcans can survive without water for longer periods than humans. Vulcans can also go without sleep for as long as two weeks. Romulans are similar in appearance to Vulcans, with whom they share a common ancestry; they even appear almost identical on Starfleet sensors, with just a minute difference between them ("The Enterprise Incident").

Psychology

Emotion

Vulcans are capable of experiencing extremely powerful emotions (including becoming enraged enough to kill their closest friend); thus, they have developed techniques to suppress them. T'Pol once stated that paranoia and homicidal rage were common on Vulcan before the adoption of Surak's code of emotional control. In the original series episode "The Savage Curtain", Spock meets Surak and displays emotion, asking forgiveness. 

While most Vulcans do maintain control over their emotions, the advanced ritual of Kolinahr is intended to purge all remaining vestigial emotion; the word also refers to the discipline by which this state is maintained. Only the most devoted and trained Vulcan students attain Kolinahr. In Star Trek: The Motion Picture, Spock was unable to complete this ritual after receiving powerful telepathic signals from space and experiencing strong emotions as a result. The Vulcan masters conducting the trials concluded that since Spock's human blood was touched by these messages from space, he could not have achieved Kolinahr, and the ritual was halted. 

The term for the purge of emotion is Arie'mnu. It is stated that it does not translate properly into any Earth language. In Diane Duane's novel Spock's World, it was suggested that Arie'mnu closely translates into "passion's mastery", but that linguist Amanda Grayson, Sarek's wife and Spock's mother, in her work on the universal translator, had mistranslated the Vulcan word to mean "lack of emotions". 

Some Vulcans, such as T'Pol, Sarek (in his later years, due to a rare disease that can affect Vulcans over the age of 200 years), and Soval, carry their emotions close to the surface, and are prone to emotional outbursts, even without outside influences or illness; T'Pau certainly displayed restrained but definite emotions in the TOS episode "Amok Time", including suspicion of the human visitors followed by admiration and approval of their friendship for Spock, and contempt for Spock's humanity. There is some evidence to support the hypothesis that Vulcans who remain in close contact with humans for an extended period of time may become adept at displaying restrained emotion in order to cooperate with humans, according to Duane. In her novel, the young Sarek is quite emotional in her company, even laughing aloud. 

Not all Vulcan characters follow the path of pure logic; some instead choose to embrace emotions. A group of renegade Vulcans who believed in this was encountered in the Star Trek: Enterprise episode "Fusion", while Spock's half-brother Sybok, seen in the film Star Trek V: The Final Frontier, was also fully emotional. An episode of Enterprise titled "E²" featured an elderly T'Pol in an alternative timeline who had embraced emotion and allowed her half-human son, Lorian, to do likewise. 

In the pilot episode "The Cage", Spock showed much more emotion. This was due to the uncertainty about the character, which Nimoy subsequently and quickly developed.

Telepathy

Many Vulcans are contact telepaths. They have been observed taking part in several telepathy-related actions and rituals, including an instance in the Season 2 episode "The Immunity Syndrome" (written by Robert Sabaroff), where Commander Spock was telepathically aware of the simultaneous deaths of 400 other Vulcans on a faraway ship whose crew was entirely Vulcan, the USS Intrepid. In addition, in the Season 1 episode "A Taste of Armageddon", without physical contact, though with considerable time and effort, Spock was able to telepathically foster enough doubt in the mind of his cell guard to cause him to want to enter the cell to verify that his prisoners had not escaped. Sarek, with his control eroded by Bendii Syndrome, caused much of the Enterprise-D crew to become violent when his emotions influenced them without him touching them.

Mind melds

"Mind meld" redirects here. For the documentary film, see Mind Meld. For other uses, see Mindmeld.

 

A mind meld, first depicted in the TOS episode "Dagger of the Mind", is a technique for sharing thoughts, experiences, memories, and knowledge with another individual, essentially a limited form of telepathy. It usually requires physical contact with a subject, though instances of mind melds without contact have been seen (for example, in the episode "The Devil in the Dark"). Vulcans can perform mind melds with members of most other species, most notably humans, with Jonathan Archer being the first known human participant in such a ritual in 2154. Even the Earth humpback whale can be successfully melded with. The Ferengi are one of the few races known to be impervious to the mind meld; mentally disciplined Cardassians may also be resistant to mind melds if properly trained. It is not established if this potential ability is inherent to Cardassians, or if members of any race could be trained to resist a mind meld. Machines, such as the Nomad probe, have been melded with even if only through complete contact. In the animated Star Trek episode "One of Our Planets Is Missing", a touch-less melding with a gaseous nebular entity was depicted. 

Mind melds have been used to erase memories, as Spock performed on James T. Kirk in the TOS episode "Requiem for Methuselah". Mind melds can also allow more than one mind to experience memories and sensations, and sometimes even interact with the memories, as seen in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Flashback". 

The mind meld can be considered a terrible intimacy because of the strength of Vulcan emotions and the strict psycho-suppression disciplines in which they are trained, and thus not to be taken lightly. In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode "Sarek", the title character (Spock's father) is diagnosed with Bendii Syndrome, a disease that causes sufferers to lose control of their emotions. Executing a mind meld with Captain Jean-Luc Picard, Sarek gains enough emotional stability to complete his final diplomatic mission; however, Picard nearly goes insane from the overwhelming onslaught of Sarek's unchecked emotions.

Though mind melds are frequently portrayed as a consensual act, that is not always the case. In the TOS episode "Mirror, Mirror", Spock of the Mirror Universe performed a forced mind meld on Dr. Leonard McCoy to learn what McCoy was keeping secret. Mind melds can also be violating and potentially harmful under certain circumstances. In Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, Spock forcefully used the technique on Valeris to discover information she had that could be used to prevent a war; Valeris began screaming just before Spock broke the connection.

In some cases, some species are able to resist mind melds. The quad-lobed brain structure of Ferengi make them unable to be telepathically read by other species, and with sufficient training and mental discipline, high-level Cardiassian military personnel and/or agents of the Obsidian Order are able to resist mind melds used to extract information. For example, when Gul Dukat was captured by the Maquis, he successfully resisted a prolonged mind meld attempt from a female Vulcan Maquis member, much to the latter's frustration.

The use of the mind meld was taboo for a period of time. In the Vulcan timeline, this changed when experienced melders were shown to be able to cure Pa'nar Syndrome, a condition passed on by melders who are improperly trained. Within a week of the Kir'Shara incident in 2154, the stigma against mind-melders was evaporating, and sufferers of Pa'nar were being cured in large numbers. By the mid-23rd century, the mind meld is a fully accepted part of Vulcan society, and was even used once to rejoin Spock's katra with his healed physical body.

As originally depicted in TOS, mind melds were considered dangerous and potentially lethal. Over the course of the original series, however, the element of risk was no longer mentioned, although it was revived on Star Trek: Enterprise with the revelation that Pa'nar Syndrome can be transmitted this way. 

For a number of years, it was held that not all Vulcans are genetically capable of initiating a mind meld, such as T'Pol. However, the overthrow of the Vulcan High Command in 2154 revealed that this is not the case, and T'Pol conducted her first mind meld soon after.

Some Vulcans appear with advanced mental abilities. For example, in the TOS episode "A Taste of Armageddon", Spock was once able to induce uncertainty in the mind of a prison guard on Eminiar VII, and in the episode "The Devil in the Dark", he was able to perform a limited mind meld with a horta without actually making physical contact with the being. A character in the non-canon New Frontier book series mentions "meld masters", implying that some Vulcans are either especially adept at or are able to perform deeper, more intense melds through practice. It is made apparent that a touchless meld is limited in effectiveness compared to physical melds. During more intense melds, the melder is sometimes shown using both hands.

Katra

Some Vulcans appear able to "cheat death" by implanting their "katra", essentially their living essence or spirit, into an object or another person via a form of mind-meld just before death. Dr Julian Bashir in the episode "The Passenger" of Deep Space Nine referred to this phenomenon as "synaptic pattern displacement". The history and mechanics of the katra have never been discussed in great detail in canon. The Star Trek: Enterprise Season 4 trilogy of episodes ("The Forge", "Awakening", and "Kir'Shara") do however reveal some of the history of mind-melding and the journey of the katra of Surak to modern times. 

Katras can, on rare occasions, be returned to the body, effectively bringing an individual back from the dead. Such was the case with Spock, who, near the end of Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, implanted his katra into the mind of Dr. McCoy before sacrificing his life to save the USS Enterprise from Khan's attack. Following Spock's death, McCoy began exhibiting Vulcan-like behavior and was briefly institutionalized. It was later discovered that Spock's body came to rest on the Genesis Planet after his burial in space, and was regenerated. He was recovered and was taken with McCoy to Mount Seleya on Vulcan where a Vulcan high priestess named T'Lar performed a rare, seldom-attempted ritual called the "fal tor pan", literally, "re-fusion", which removed the katra from McCoy and implanted it into Spock's regenerated body. Subsequently, Spock recovered, although it took some time to fully retrain his mind. Eventually, Spock's original memories apparently reasserted themselves, and he resumed his duties in Starfleet, albeit with trial and error before the 'old' Spock was completely back.

Culture

Language

The Vulcan language was the first alien language introduced in the Star Trek franchise, in the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Amok Time", including the concept of “pon farr” (time of mating). Afterwards, one word was said in the episode "Journey to Babel" and some others in Star Trek: The Next Generation and Star Trek: Voyager. The language features mostly in several chapters of Star Trek: Enterprise. 

Dialogue or phrases in Vulcan appeared in Star Trek: The Motion Picture, Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, Star Trek III: The Search for Spock and Star Trek V: The Final Frontier.

It has also appeared in novels derived from the franchise, like the word "t'hy'la" (friend, brother, lover) from Gene Roddenberry's novelization of Star Trek: The Motion Picture. 

The scene in Star Trek: The Motion Picture was filmed with actors speaking English and latter dubbed in Vulcan. It ends with the phrase "Dif-tor heh smusma" (Live long and prosper). According to Robert Wise's commentary in the Director's edition DVD, it was Gene Roddenberry's idea to have the Vulcans speak their own language. The translation into Vulcan was made by actor James Doohan. Doohan observed the actors' lip movements and created new vocal "sounds" for them to dub over their original English. 

According to the DVD commentary of the film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, actors Leonard Nimoy and Kirstie Alley, portraying Spock and Saavik respectively, also spoke their lines in English, and later dubbed in Vulcan (at least partially designed by linguist Marc Okrand) that corresponded with the movements of their mouths in the scene.

Names

The treatment of Vulcan names has been erratic throughout Star Trek's production history. Early on, female Vulcans were typically given names beginning with "T" followed by an apostrophe then a "p". The earliest reference to Vulcan names following a set pattern dates back to a May 3, 1966 memo from TOS producer Robert H. Justman to Gene Roddenberry (later reprinted in the book The Making of Star Trek) in which Justman recommended that all Vulcan names begin with "SP" and end with "K", and have exactly five letters. (It is clear from the context of the book, however, that the memo was intended as a joke, as the series of memos ends up discussing the pronunciation of such names as "Spook", "Spilk" and "Spork".)

Only non-canonical sources have provided any Vulcans with family names, which are usually spoken of as defying attempts at both human pronunciation, especially with English-language phonemes, and human typesetting, especially with the characters of the modern Latin alphabet used for the English language. Hence, no canonical source has given any family names to any Vulcan characters, and indeed, every one of the personal names previously mentioned are all officially described as being only Latin-alphabetical and English-phonetic approximations of the real ones. In the TOS episode "This Side of Paradise" Spock is asked if he has another name, to which he replies, "You couldn't pronounce it."

Marriage

Vulcans practice arranged marriage, in which a male and a female are bonded as children, with consummation at a later date. Spock explains that this childhood pairing has no one-for-one human analogue, as it is considered less than a full "marriage", but more than simply a "betrothal". This is why Spock first described T'Pring as his "wife", before later explaining that this was an incorrect approximation. Following adult union, it is customary for the couple to remain on Vulcan for at least one Vulcan year before conducting off-world travel, though it is possible to defer this requirement until a later date, upon negotiation with the male's family. The state of pon farr is not required for marriage to occur. The mating session of a Vulcan (pon farr) includes the private act of sex undifferentiated from the human version of mating.

A Vulcan female can challenge the proposed bonding by calling for "koon-ut-kal-if-fee", meaning "marriage or challenge", in which a challenger for marriage engages the bonded male in a fight to the death. Alternatively, the bonded male has the option of rejecting his intended bride and choosing another. It is acceptable for a male to "release" his mate from marriage (effectively the same as a divorce). It is not established whether females have the same option, and T'Pring stated in "Amok Time" that a koon-ut-kal-if-fee challenge was the only way she could legally divorce Spock.

Family

It is customary for Vulcan children to undertake an initiation ordeal known as the "Kahs-wan" (sometimes spelled Kaswahn), in which they are left to fend for themselves in the desert for a specific period of time. Not all children survive this rite of passage. T'Pol underwent the ritual, while Tuvok experienced a variation known as the "tal'oth". The Kahs-wan was first introduced in the Star Trek: The Animated Series episode "Yesteryear", in which Spock's experience as a child was detailed. 

Contrary to the Vulcan image of expressing no emotion, family bonds can be strong and affectionate just as they are for humans. Tuvok expressed his love for his wife on a few occasions (without actually using the term), Sarek openly expressed affection for both his human wives, and a clear bond of love existed between T'Pol and her mother, T'Les.

Fighting and self-defense

Although generally adhering to a philosophy of nonviolence, Vulcans have developed martial arts and techniques of hand-to-hand combat. Vulcan martial arts are highly ritualistic and based on philosophy, similar to human counterparts such as karate and Silat. The most extreme example is the koon-ut-kal-if-fee, or fight to the death, described earlier, though one particular discipline is known as "Suss Mahn" (named for Star Trek: Enterprise producer Mike Sussman).

"Nerve-pinching"

Many Vulcans are skilled in a self-defense technique known as the "Vulcan nerve pinch" or "neck pinch", which targets a precise location on the neck, rendering the victim unconscious (sometimes instantly, sometimes after a short delay depending on the subject). The pinch was first depicted in production in the TOS episode "The Enemy Within", but first aired one episode-broadcast earlier, in "The Naked Time". The mechanics of the pinch have never been explained in on-screen canon. While practiced mainly by Vulcans, it is apparently not exclusive to their race; for example, Jonathan Archer and Jean-Luc Picard are depicted as having mastered the technique after each became involved in a Vulcan telepathic ritual (Archer holding the katra of Surak; Picard having undergone a mind-meld with Sarek, as well as later apparently undergoing a mind-meld with Spock, who was also skilled in combat beyond simply using the nerve pinch, after Sarek's death in the second part of the two part episode Unification). 

Seven of Nine is depicted as capable of using this ability in the episode of Voyager, "The Raven". She is able to defend herself against the Vulcan Tuvok, who is attempting to subdue her with the pinch, and then successfully use the pinch against him. It is assumed her knowledge of the pinch was part of her wealth of Borg knowledge, which they would have gained by assimilating Vulcans capable of using the pinch. The android Data also displayed this ability in "Unification, Part II". None of these four characters, however, were depicted using the skill regularly. 

Leonard McCoy attempted to use the "neck pinch" while carrying Spock's katra in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, but was unsuccessful due to his arthritis. In "Whom Gods Destroy", Garth of Izar performs the neck pinch on Orion female Marta while masquerading as Spock, using his shape-shifting ability. Tongo Rad, a Catuallan, employed a similar technique to render a Starfleet officer unconscious by driving his thumbs suddenly and firmly into the sides of the officer's neck in the original-series episode "The Way to Eden". In Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home, Spock, while he and Kirk were riding on a San Francisco city bus, used the nerve pinch to subdue a rude punk who had ignored Kirk's asking to turn off his boom box as his music was too loud, to the other passengers' relief. The technique was also used by Spock to subdue James Kirk in the 2009 film, when Kirk opposes Spock's decision as captain of the USS Enterprise to reunite with the remainder of Starfleet in the Lorentian system, instead of pursuing Nero immediately. 

Depictions of the effects of a nerve pinch vary. In "The Enterprise Incident", Spock pretended to apply a "Vulcan death grip" to Kirk, in order to convince Romulan onlookers that Kirk had been killed. The death grip was later described as fake; Spock had used a particularly powerful nerve pinch to place Kirk in a deep unconsciousness that convincingly resembled death, to the extent that Kirk's lifesigns did not register on the sensors in the Enterprise sick bay. Kirk spontaneously awoke a short time later, complaining of neck pain but suffering no lasting injury. 

The neck pinch itself (referred to in scripts as 'FSNP', or 'Famous Spock Neck Pinch') was created by Leonard Nimoy, who objected to a scene in "The Enemy Within", in which a transporter malfunction had divided Kirk between his good and evil selves, that required Spock to render the "evil" Kirk unconscious and subduing him by hitting him over the head with the butt of a phaser. Nimoy was convinced that such overt violence, in addition to being too similar to that found in many crime dramas of the time, was uncharacteristic of the strictly-logical Spock, and suggested the neck pinch as a less-emotional alternative.

"Infinite Diversity in Infinite Combinations"

The theme of "Infinite Diversity in Infinite Combinations" is symbolized by the Vulcans in a "Kol-Ut-Shan", represented as a pendant of yellow and white gold with a circle and triangle resting upon each other, and adorned with a white jewel in the center. 

In an issue of The Humanist, Majel Barrett claimed that the philosophy of "Infinite Diversity in Infinite Combinations" was based on the teachings of Rabbi Maimonides.

Spock wore the symbol during important gatherings and ceremonies as part of his dress uniform. It appeared for the first time in the Star Trek: The Original Series (TOS) episode "Is There in Truth No Beauty?" It also appeared in Spock's quarters in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, and Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country. In the series Star Trek: Enterprise, T'Pol is given, through her in-name-only husband Koss, an IDIC pendant from her mother T'Les that projects a holographic relief, enabling T'Pol and Captain Archer to find the location where T'Les and the Syrrannites are hiding. Also in Star Trek: Enterprise, T'Pol, the science officer, holds an IDIC pendant in "Terra Prime" while she is in mourning for her dying cloned child Elizabeth, named in honor of Charles "Trip" Tucker's deceased sister. In the Enterprise episode "The Andorian Incident" the IDIC symbol appears on small playing pieces that are being used to construct a makeshift map of the P'Jem catacombs in an attempt to escape. In the series DS9 episode "Take Me Out to the Holosuite", Captain Solok, an Academy classmate and longtime rival of Benjamin Sisko, challenges Sisko and other DS9 personnel to a baseball game against his Vulcan team, the Logicians. The IDIC symbol appears on the Vulcans' ballcaps. 

The Vulcan IDIC pendant was designed by Gene Roddenberry as a marketing premium long before the third season. As early as the end of the first season, fans of the show had begun writing in asking for copies of the scripts, film clip frames, etc., and these were soon sold through Roddenberry's mail-order company, Lincoln Enterprises, founded by Bjo Trimble and her husband John before they were fired by Roddenberry and the business turned over to Majel Barrett. As evidenced in some of his letters and memos, Roddenberry was fond of circle-and-triangle designs and had wanted to use them for purposes of theatrical unity as early as the first season's "The Return of the Archons". As reported by editor Ruth Berman (issue #1, Inside Star Trek, July 1968, pp. 15–16), "ardent rock hound and amateur lapidary" Roddenberry came up with the Vulcan philosophy after he presented Leonard Nimoy with a unique "hand-crafted piece of jewelry", a "pendent" (sic) of polished yellow gold (circle) and florentined white gold (triangle), with a stone of brilliant white fabulite—an artificial gem "developed by the laser industry and used in space mechanisms for its optical qualities", and thus well-suited as a gift for an actor in a science fiction show. Readers were encouraged to submit their interest in such a product to the then-Star Trek Enterprises mail order firm. It was noted that "less expensive materials" would keep costs down. 

According to William Shatner in Star Trek Memories, the book about TOS he dictated to Chris Kreski, IDIC was only worked into the episode "Is There in Truth No Beauty?" as an afterthought. The actors all knew it was a mere advertising toy. Reportedly, Leonard Nimoy was asked to wear it and refused, so it was passed on to Shatner; when he also refused, Nimoy reluctantly agreed to wear it. At the last minute, Roddenberry sent down several pages of new script for the dinner scene, in which Spock was to give a long-winded explanation of the philosophy. The actors refused to film it until Roddenberry cut it down.

Ethics

In the Star Trek universe, Vulcans are seen to have a consistent ethical system involving satisfying the preferences of the greatest number of people, even if it means sacrificing the interests of a fewer number of people. This perspective is most similar to the human utilitarian ethical system. In Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, Spock sacrifices himself to save the lives of those on the Enterprise, stating that "the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few, or the one." In Star Trek Into Darkness (2013), Spock uses the same logic to justify his attempt to sacrifice himself. In the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "The Galileo Seven", Spock states that "it is more rational to sacrifice one life than six." In Star Trek: Enterprise, T'Pol states that "the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few" is a Vulcan axiom.

Generally, however, Vulcans are portrayed as adopting a nonviolent stance unless there is a need to sacrifice one life to save many. In the Star Trek: The Original Series episode "Journey to Babel", Spock says that "Vulcans do not approve of violence", and that it is illogical "to kill without reason".

Homeworld

Comparison of the habitable zone of 40 Eridani with the habitable zone in our solar system

The Vulcan homeworld, also named Vulcan, was mentioned in the original series, and in the script-adaptation anthology Star Trek 2, author James Blish put the planet in orbit around the star 40 Eridani A, 16 light years from Earth, an identification later adopted by Roddenberry. Vulcan is a reddish Minshara-Class planet. Its inhabitants were originally called Vulcanians; Spock used this name in the TOS episodes "A Taste of Armageddon" and "Court-Martial", as did Federation colonists in "This Side of Paradise" and Harry Mudd in "Mudd's Women".

In Season 1 of TOS, in "The Man Trap", while Uhura is attempting to make conversation with Spock, he informs her that Vulcan has no moon. 

Much of its surface consists of deserts and mountain ranges, and large areas are set aside as wilderness preserves. It is much hotter, it has a stronger surface gravity, and its atmosphere is thinner than that of Earth. As a result of these factors, humans tend to tire out more quickly than native Vulcans. 

The capital of and largest city on Vulcan is "ShiKahr". Other major cities on Vulcan include Vulcana Regar, T'Paal, Gol, Raal, and Kir. Most major governmental bodies and embassies are located in ShiKahr, including the Vulcan High Command (historically), the first United Earth embassy on Vulcan, and the Vulcan Science Academy.

Timeline divergence

In the 2009 film Star Trek, the Kelvin timeline Vulcan is destroyed by a Prime timeline Romulan ship commanded by Nero. Using his ship's mining tools, Nero drilled into the core of the planet to deliver a small amount of red matter, creating a singularity within the planet. The black hole created consumed the planet from the inside, killing almost all of its inhabitants.

By Star Trek Into Darkness a Vulcan colony had been established named "New Vulcan". New Vulcan is effectively the Vulcan home world in the alternate timeline. In Star Trek Beyond, Vulcan couriers deliver news to Mr. Spock that his original timeline counterpart Ambassador Spock has died.

History

Vulcans once practiced a form of polytheism; this can be seen in gods of war, peace, and death depicted on the Stone of Gol, as well as the celebration of Rumarie. The DVD commentary for "Amok Time" says that TOS writer D. C. Fontana named the Vulcan god of death "Shariel", a bust of whom is seen in Spock's quarters. 

In about the 4th century AD, Vulcans emerged from their violent tendencies and civil wars under a philosopher named Surak, who advocated the suppressing of emotion in favor of logic. This period was known as the "Great Awakening", and much of present-day Vulcan philosophy emerged from this period. According to the Star Trek: New Frontier book series (which, like all novels, are not considered canon), the Great Awakening caused many wars and conflicts to occur amongst various Vulcan tribes; those who supported Surak's cause would become separated from friends and even close family members who did not. For cases in which parents were separated by this, a ritual was created called the "ku'nit ka'fa'ar", a battle to determine which parent would maintain their child. Despite the acceptance of Surak's teachings, generations of imperfect copies of his writings, combined with changes in the Vulcan language over time, resulted in a diluted form of the culture he instituted. 

Surak's views and lifestyle were not universally accepted by Vulcan society. One particular group of Vulcans who called themselves "those who march beneath the Raptor's wings" were so adamant in their opposition against Surak that it resulted in a nuclear war fought with neutron bombs, of which Surak himself became a victim. After a time the portion of Vulcan society who rejected Surak's teachings left the planet for the stars. These Vulcan separatists would eventually become known as the Romulans. Knowledge of the common ancestry of Romulans and Vulcans would obscure into myth over the millennia, and while some Vulcans had direct dealings with Romulans in the 22nd century, the common ancestry would not become widely known until the mid-23rd century. 

A great deal of Star Trek spin-off fiction, in particular the novel The Romulan Way by Diane Duane and Peter Morwood, has stated that the leader of the Vulcan-Romulan migration was a close follower of Surak's named S'Task. S'Task would see the founding of the Romulan Empire, but was killed by political factions shortly thereafter. 

Vulcans did recover from the effects of barbarism and turn much of their attention to space travel for 1,500 years. What would later become known as the Vulcan High Command was initially formed to orchestrate space exploration, but it ended up seizing control of the Vulcan government. 

Spock was one of three Starfleet officers from the 23rd century who travel in time to 1930s New York City, in the TOS episode "The City on the Edge of Forever". He would also briefly travel to Earth in 1968 on a mission, in the episode "Assignment: Earth"; accidentally in 1969, in "Tomorrow Is Yesterday"; and again in 1986, in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home. (Technically speaking, these three events occurred after the founding of the Federation, but are included here as they constitute pre-First Contact encounters with contemporary humans.) 

In 1957, the launch of Sputnik I, Earth's first artificial satellite, was observed by a Vulcan vessel that subsequently crashed on the planet, marooning several crew members for a number of months in Carbon Creek, Pennsylvania; this constituted the first true contact between humans and Vulcans, but it was never recorded as such as the humans were unaware of the alien nature of their guests.

On April 5, 2063, Vulcans and humans made official first contact near the town of Bozeman, Montana, following the successful test of Earth scientist Zefram Cochrane's first warp-powered starship, as depicted in Star Trek: First Contact.

 

In 2097, the Vulcans annexed the Andorian planetoid Weytahn and renamed it Pan Mokar. 

In 2105, the Vulcans and the Andorians agreed to a compromise over Weytahn/Pan Mokar. Still, tensions continued due to the threat of mutual annihilation. 

By the 22nd century of Star Trek, the Vulcan High Command is apparently a form of military government that controls both the Vulcan space fleet and most of the planet itself. Most of the Vulcans, including T'Pol, from Star Trek: Enterprise served the High Command. It is dissolved in the early fourth season of Star Trek: Enterprise. 

In 2151, Sub-Commander T'Pol joined the crew of the Earth Starfleet vessel Enterprise (NX-01), within a couple of weeks setting a Vulcan endurance record for serving aboard a human vessel. In 2154, T'Pol became a commissioned officer with Starfleet. 

Throughout the run of Star Trek: Enterprise, Captain Jonathan Archer frequently had run-ins with the High Command—even after Archer proved conclusively, several times, that he was able to travel through time, the High Command stubbornly refused to acknowledge the possibility that time travel could ever be possible (although T'Pol tried to keep an open mind). The High Command, on at least one occasion, sent Vulcan starships to actively spy on the Enterprise and report on the ship's activities (see episode "Breaking the Ice"), an act that infuriated Archer. 

However, this was not the end of the High Command's questionable activities. They appeared to participate in open acts of persecution towards other Vulcans, such as isolating and quarantining victims of Pa'nar Syndrome rather than treating them; prejudicial acts against any Vulcan proven to have committed a mind meld; and hunting down and capturing, even often killing, members of the underground dissident group, the Syrranites. 

In 2154, V'Las, the head of the High Command and undercover agent for the Romulans, bombed the United Earth embassy on Vulcan in an attempt to frame and eliminate all Syrranites while simultaneously attempting an invasion of Andoria. He was foiled by the crew of the Enterprise. During these events, the Kir'Shara, a device containing the original writings of Surak, was discovered by Jonathan Archer. This led to the prompt dissolution of the High Command and a reevaluation of traditional values. It also resulted in Vulcan agreeing to stop "looking over Earth's shoulder" in space exploration matters. 

It was revealed to viewers that the High Command's illogical and often emotionally based actions were, in reality, the result of covert Romulan influence. The Romulans had secretly made contact with V'Las and attempted to reunify their long-lost peoples. After the invasion of Andoria was foiled, the High Command was disbanded and V'Las was dismissed from his post. Subsequently, the altered political climate on Vulcan caused the undercover Romulan operative Talok to leave Vulcan, apparently ending the infiltration. 

After the dissolution of the High Command, the Vulcan space fleet experienced a serious shortage of personnel, many of whom were still sympathetic to the old guard. Minister T'Pau, who now oversaw Vulcan's fleet operations, attempted to rebuild the fleet with personnel who understood true logic. 

On August 12, 2161, Vulcan became one of the founding members of the United Federation of Planets.

In the time of Star Trek: Enterprise, Vulcans are often seen to be rather arrogant and cold in their behavior towards humans. It is explained that after first contact, Vulcan shared technology with Earth, but many humans, such as Jonathan Archer, greatly resented the fact that Vulcans seemed to be holding back humanity's efforts at space travel. Soval, Vulcan's ambassador to Earth, appeared particularly distrustful of humans, and was often at odds with Archer and his crew. Soval later justified this behavior in the fourth season episode "The Forge":

'We don't know what to do about humans. Of all the species we've made contact with, yours is the only one we can't define. You have the arrogance of Andorians, the stubborn pride of Tellarites. One moment you're as driven by your emotions as Klingons, and the next, you confound us by suddenly embracing logic"

Soval also explained that, since Earth recovered from World War III far more quickly than Vulcan did from its equivalent (in "The Forge" and its sequel episodes, it is said that Vulcans took almost a thousand years to fully rebuild their society after their last catastrophic war), it alarmed many Vulcans, who were confused as to how to deal with a rapidly growing and emotional society such as Earth's. 

After the overthrow of the corrupt Vulcan High Command and the death of Admiral Maxwell Forrest, who sacrificed his life to save Soval from a terrorist attack, the attitudes of Soval, and Vulcan society in general, became more cordial and accepting towards humanity.

Star Trek (2009) alternative timeline

In the alternative timeline of the 2009 film, the planet Vulcan is destroyed in 2258 by the mad Romulan known as Nero (Eric Bana), who had time traveled from the future. Using his space mining vessel, the Narada, Nero created a singularity in Vulcan's planetary core as part of his quest to avenge the destruction of Romulus. The resulting implosion destroyed Vulcan, killing most of its six billion inhabitants. Only around 10,000 managed to escape, including Spock and some of the Elders. However, the film's writers have stated that this does not include Vulcans who were living off planet at the time. At the end of the film, Spock Prime tells the younger Spock a suitable planet has been located to establish a colony for the surviving Vulcans; this world is subsequently referred to (in the sequel Star Trek Into Darkness) as "New Vulcan". New Vulcan remains the capital of the Vulcan state (including all of Vulcan's offworld colonies), now known as the Confederacy of Surak.

Character development

Blessing gesture that was the inspiration for the Vulcan salute

Leonard Nimoy discussed the origin of the Vulcan salute in his autobiography I Am Spock. As a bit of stage "business" in the episode "Amok Time", he invented the famous "Live long and prosper" Vulcan salute based on the hand symbol used by Jewish priests (kohanim) during the Priestly Blessing in the synagogue. The gesture actually emulates the initial Shin of the Shema (Nimoy has also commented that the "sh" could also indicate Shaddai, or the Almighty; more recently, on William Shatner's Raw Nerve, he associated it with Shekhinah.) On numerous occasions, for example in the 1983 TV special Star Trek Memories (which is often syndicated along with The Original Series), Nimoy recounts how as a child, he peeked during the blessing and witnessed the gesture, although the congregation are supposed to put hands over eyes or turn away at this moment in acknowledgement of the presence of the Almighty.