Photograph of the Mercury Theatre production of Caesar, the scene in which Julius Caesar (Joseph Holland, center) addresses the conspirators including Brutus (Orson Welles, left).
Et tu, Brute? (pronounced [ɛt ˈtuː ˈbruːtɛ]) is a Latin
phrase literally meaning 'and you, Brutus?' or 'also you, Brutus?',
often translated as 'You as well, Brutus?' or 'Even you, Brutus?'.
Though the historical Caesar's last words are not known with certainty, the Roman historian Suetonius,
a century and a half after the incident, claims Caesar said nothing as
he died, but that others reported that Caesar's last words were the Greek phrase καὶ σύ, τέκνον, which means 'You too, child?' or 'You too, young man?' to Brutus. Another commonly quoted variation of this Greek sentence in Latin is Tu quoque, Brute?
Caesar utters these words in Act III, scene 1, as he is being
stabbed to death, having recognized his friend and protégé Brutus as one
of the assassins. However, there is no evidence that the historical
Caesar spoke these words. Contrary to popular belief, the words are not Caesar's last in the play, as he says "Then fall Caesar!" right after.
On March 15 (the Ides of March), 44 BC, the historic Caesar was attacked by a group of senators, including Brutus,
who was Caesar's friend and protégé. Caesar initially resisted his
attackers, but when he saw Brutus, he reportedly responded as he died. Suetonius mentions the quote merely as a rumor, as does Plutarch who also reports that Caesar said nothing, but merely pulled his toga over his head when he saw Brutus among the conspirators.
Caesar saying Et tu, Brute? in Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar (1599) was not the first time the phrase was used in a dramatic play. Edmond Malone claimed that it appeared in a work that has since been lost—Richard Eedes's Latin play Caesar Interfectus of 1582. The phrase had also occurred in another play by Shakespeare, The
True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke, and the death of good King
Henrie the Sixth, with the Whole Contention betweene the two Houses
Lancaster and Yorke of 1595, which is the earliest printed version of Henry VI, Part 3.
Interpretation
It has been argued that the phrase can be interpreted as a curse or warning.
One theory states that the historic Caesar adapted the words of a Greek
sentence which to the Romans had long since become proverbial: The
complete phrase is said to have been "You too, my son, will have a taste
of power," of which Caesar only needed to invoke the opening words to
foreshadow Brutus' own violent death, in response to his assassination. The poem Satires; Book I, Satire 7 by Horace,
written approximately 30 BC, mentions Brutus and his tyrannicide; in
discussing that poem, author John Henderson considers that the
expression E-t t-u Br-u-t-e, (as he hyphenates it), can be interpreted as a complaint containing a "suggestion of mimetic compulsion".
A Roman legion (Latinromanum legio from legio "military levy, conscription", from legere "to choose") was a large military unit of the Roman army.
History of the term
In the early Roman Kingdom "legion" may have meant the entire Roman army, but sources on this period are few and unreliable.
The subsequent organization of legions varied greatly over time but
legions were typically composed of around five thousand soldiers. During
much of the republican era, a legion was divided into three lines of ten maniples. In the late republic and much of the imperial period (from about 100 BC), a legion was divided into ten cohorts, each of six (or five) centuries. Legions also included a small ala,
or cavalry, unit. By the third century AD, the legion was a much
smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them.
In the fourth century AD, East Romanborder guard legions (limitanei)
may have become even smaller. In terms of organisation and function,
the republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek
and Macedonian phalanx.
Function and constitution
For most of the Roman Imperial period, the legions formed the Roman army's elite heavy infantry, recruited exclusively from Roman citizens, while the remainder of the army consisted of auxiliaries, who provided additional infantry and the vast majority of the Roman army's cavalry. (Provincials who aspired to citizenship gained it when honourably discharged from the auxiliaries.) The Roman army, for most of the Imperial period, consisted mostly of auxiliaries rather than legions.
Longevity
Many of the legions founded before 40 BC were still active until at least the fifth century, notably Legio V Macedonica, which was founded by Augustus in 43 BC and was in Egypt in the seventh century during the Islamic conquest of Egypt.
Overview of typical organization and strength
Imperial Roman legionaries in tight formation, a relief from Glanum, a Roman town in what is now southern France that was inhabited from 27 BC to 260 AD (when it was sacked by invading Alemanni)
Because legions were not permanent units until the Marian reforms
(c. 107 BC), and were instead created, used, and disbanded again,
several hundred legions were named and numbered throughout Roman
history. To date, about 50 have been identified. The republican legions
were composed of levied men that paid for their own equipment and thus
the structure of the Roman army at this time reflected the society, and
at any time there would be four consular legions (with command divided
between the two ruling consuls) and in time of war extra legions could
be levied. Toward the end of the 2nd century BC, Rome started to
experience manpower shortages brought about by property and financial
qualifications to join the army. This prompted consul Gaius Marius
to remove property qualifications and decree that all citizens,
regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for
service in the Roman army with equipment and rewards for fulfilling
years of service provided by the state. The Roman army became a
volunteer, professional and standing army which extended service beyond
Roman citizens but also to non-citizens who could sign on as auxillia (auxiliaries) and were rewarded Roman citizenship upon completion of service and all the rights and privileges that entailed. In the time of Augustus,
there were nearly 50 upon his succession but this was reduced to about
25–35 permanent standing legions and this remained the figure for most
of the empire's history.
Evolution
The legion evolved from 3,000 men in the Roman Republic to over 5,200 men in the Roman Empire, consisting of centuries as the basic units. Until the middle of the first century, ten cohorts
(about 500 men) made up a Roman legion. This was later changed to nine
cohorts of standard size (with six centuries at 80 men each) with the
first cohort being of double strength (five double-strength centuries
with 160 men each). By the fourth century AD, the legion was a much
smaller unit of about 1,000 to 1,500 men, and there were more of them.
This had come about as the large formation legion and auxiliary unit,
10,000 men, was broken down into smaller units - originally temporary
detachments - to cover more territory. In the fourth century AD, East Romanborder guard legions (limitanei)
may have become even smaller. In terms of organisation and function,
the Republican era legion may have been influenced by the ancient Greek
and Macedonian phalanx.
Size
The size of a typical legion varied throughout the history of ancient Rome, with complements of 4,200 legionaries and 300 equites
(drawn from the wealthier classes – in early Rome all troops provided
their own equipment) in the republican period of Rome (the infantry were
split into 10 cohorts each of four maniples
of 120 legionaries), to 5,200 men plus 120 auxiliaries in the imperial
period (split into 10 cohorts, nine of 480 men each, plus the first
cohort holding 800 men).
History
Roman kings (to c. 500 BC)
In the period before the raising of the legio and the early years of the Roman Kingdom and the Republic, forces are described as being organized into centuries
of roughly one hundred men. These centuries were grouped together as
required and answered to the leader who had hired or raised them. Such
independent organization persisted until the 2nd century BC amongst
light infantry and cavalry, but was discarded completely in later
periods with the supporting role taken instead by allied troops. The
roles of century leader (later formalized as a centurion), second in command and standard bearer are referenced in this early period.
Rome's early period is undocumented and shrouded in myths, but those myths tell that during the rule of Servius Tullius, the census (from Latin: censeō
– accounting of the people) was introduced. With this all Roman
able-bodied, property-owning male citizens were divided into five
classes for military service based on their wealth and then organized
into centuries as sub-units of the greater Roman army or legio
(multitude). Joining the army was both a duty and a distinguishing mark
of Roman citizenship; during the entire pre-Marian period the wealthiest
land owners performed the most years of military service. These
individuals would have had the most to lose should the state have
fallen.
Roman Republic (509–107 BC)
At some point, possibly in the beginning of the Roman Republic after the kings were overthrown, the legio was subdivided into two separate legions, each one ascribed to one of the two consuls.
In the first years of the Republic, when warfare was mostly
concentrated on raiding, it is uncertain if the full manpower of the
legions was summoned at any one time. In 494 BC, when three foreign
threats emerged, the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus raised ten legions which Livy says was a greater number than had been raised previously at any one time.
Also, some warfare was still conducted by Roman forces outside
the legionary structure, the most famous example being the campaign in
479 BC by the clan army of gens Fabia against the Etruscan city of Veii
(in which the clan was annihilated). Legions became more formally
organized in the 4th century BC, as Roman warfare evolved to more
frequent and planned operations, and the consular army was raised to two
legions each.
In the Republic, legions had an ephemeral existence. Except for
Legio I to IV, which were the consular armies (two per consul), other
units were levied by campaign. Rome's Italian allies were required to
provide approximately ten cohorts (auxilia were not organized into
legions) to support each Roman Legion.
In the middle of the Republic, legions were composed of the following units:
Equites (cavalry): The cavalry
was originally the most prestigious unit, where wealthy young Roman men
displayed their skill and prowess, laying the foundation for an
eventual political career. Cavalry equipment was purchased by each of
the cavalrymen and consisted of a round shield, helmet, body armour,
sword and one or more lances. The cavalry was outnumbered in the legion. In a total of circa
3,000 men, (plus the velites that normally enlarged the number to about
4,200), the legion only had around 300 horsemen, divided into 10 units (turmae) of 30 men. These men were commanded by decurions.
In addition to heavy cavalry, there would be the light cavalry levied
from poor citizens and wealthy young citizens not old enough to be in
the hastati or the equites. In battle, they were used to disrupt and outflank
enemy infantry formations and to fight off enemy cavalry. In the latter
type of engagement, they would often (though not always) dismount some
or all of the horsemen to fight a stationary battle on foot, an unusual
tactic for the time, but one that offered significant advantages in
stability and agility in a time before stirrups.
Velites (light infantry): The velites were mainly poorer citizens who could not afford to equip themselves properly. Their primary function was to act as skirmishers
– javelin-throwers, who would engage the enemy early in order either to
harass them or to cover the movement of troops behind them. After
throwing their javelins, they would retreat through the gaps between the
maniples, screened from the attack of the enemy by the heavy infantry
lines. With the shortage of cavalry in the army of the early to mid
Republican army, the velites were also used as scouts. They did not have a precise formal organization or formation.
Heavy infantry:
This was the principal unit of the legion. The heavy infantry was
composed of citizen legionaries that could afford the equipment composed
of an iron helmet, shield, armour and pilum, a heavy javelin whose range was about 30 meters. After 387 BC, the preferred weapon for the hastati and principes was the gladius, a short sword. Their hobnailed sandals (caligae)
were also an effective weapon against a fallen enemy. Prior to the
Marian reforms (see below), the heavy infantry was subdivided, according
to experience, into three separate lines of troops:
The hastati (sing. hastatus)
consisted of raw or inexperienced soldiers, considered to be less
reliable than legionaries of several years' service. The Hastati were
placed at the front for several reasons. One reason is the city of Rome
could ill-afford to lose experienced soldiers, so they put the greenest
soldiers at the front. If they survived, the Hastati/tus would gain
invaluable experience. Another reason is if the newest soldiers
succumbed to battle nerves and broke and tried to run, then there were
experienced soldiers behind them to stiffen their resolve.
The principes (sing. princeps)
These were the more experienced soldiers, often better equipped than
the Hastati, and having more experience on the battlefield, they would
take up the second line in the battle in the event the Hastati failed or
fled. They were the second wave in an early Republican Legion before
the military reforms of Marius.
The triarii (sing. triarius)
were the veteran soldiers, to be used in battle only in extreme
situations; they rested one knee down when not engaged in combat. The triarii served primarily as reserves or barrier troops designed to backstop the hastati and principes, and were equipped with long hastae (spears) rather than the pilum and gladius (the hastati and principes stopped using spears in 387 BC). Thus armed, they fought in a phalanx formation. The sight of an advancing armored formation of triarii legionaries frequently discouraged exultant enemies in pursuit of retreating hastati and principes troops. Ad triarios redisse – To fall back upon the triarii was a Roman idiom – meaning to use one's last resort.
Each of these three lines was subdivided into (usually 10) chief tactical units called maniples. A maniple consisted of two centuries and was commanded by the senior of the two centurions.
At this time, each century of hastati and principes consisted of 60
men; a century of triarii was 30 men. These 3,000 men (twenty maniples
of 120 men, and ten maniples of 60 men), together with about 1,200
velites and 300 cavalry gave the mid Republican ("manipular") legion a
nominal strength of about 4,500 men.
Late Republic (107–30 BC)
Visual representation of the post Marian Reform Legion showing size and disposition for Infantry formations
The Marian reforms (of Gaius Marius) enlarged the centuries to 80
men, and grouped them into six-century "cohorts" (rather than
two-century maniples). Each century had its own standard and was made up
of ten units (contubernia) of eight men who shared a tent, a millstone, a mule and cooking pot.
Following the reforms of the general Marius
in the 2nd century BC, the legions took on the second, narrower meaning
that is familiar in the popular imagination as close-order citizen
heavy infantry.
At the end of the 2nd century BC, Gaius Marius
reformed the previously ephemeral legions as a professional force
drawing from the poorest classes, enabling Rome to field larger armies
and providing employment for jobless citizens of the city of Rome.
However, this put the loyalty of the soldiers in the hands of their
general rather than the State of Rome itself. This development
ultimately enabled Julius Caesar to cross the Rubicon with an army loyal to him personally and effectively end the Republic.
The legions of the late Republic and early Empire are often called Marian legions. Following the Battle of Vercellae
in 101 BC, Marius granted all Italian soldiers Roman citizenship. He
justified this action to the Senate by saying that in the din of battle
he could not distinguish Roman from ally. This effectively eliminated
the notion of allied legions; henceforth all Italian legions would be
regarded as Roman legions, and full Roman citizenship was open to all
the regions of Italy. At the same time, the three different types of
heavy infantry were replaced by a single, standard type based on the Principes: armed with two heavy javelins called pila (singular pilum), the short sword called gladius, chain mail (lorica hamata), helmet and rectangular shield (scutum).
The role of allied legions would eventually be taken up by contingents of allied auxiliary troops, called Auxilia. Auxilia
contained specialist units, engineers and pioneers, artillerymen and
craftsmen, service and support personnel and irregular units made up of
non-citizens, mercenaries and local militia. These were usually formed
into complete units such as light cavalry, light infantry or velites, and labourers. There was also a reconnaissancesquad of 10 or more light mounted infantry called speculatores who could also serve as messengers or even as an early form of military intelligence service.
As part of the Marian reforms, the legions' internal organization was standardized. Each legion was divided into cohorts.
Prior to this, cohorts had been temporary administrative units or
tactical task forces of several maniples, even more transitory than the
legions themselves. Now the cohorts were ten permanent units, composed
of 6 centuries and in the case of the first cohort 5 double strength
centuries each led by a centurion assisted by an optio.
The cohorts came to form the basic tactical unit of the legions.
Ranking within the legion was based on length of service, with the
senior Centurion commanding the first century of the first cohort; he
was called the primus pilus
(First Spear), and reported directly to the superior officers (legates
and tribuni). All career soldiers could be promoted to the higher ranks
in recognition of exceptional acts of bravery or valour. A newly
promoted junior Centurion would be assigned to the sixth century of the
tenth cohort and slowly progressed through the ranks from there.
Every legion had a large baggage train, which included 640 mules
(1 mule for every 8 legionaries) just for the soldiers' equipment. To
keep these baggage trains from becoming too large and slow, Marius had
each infantryman carry as much of his own equipment as he could,
including his own armour, weapons and 15 days' rations, for about
25–30 kg (50–60 pounds) of load total. To make this easier, he issued
each legionary a cross stick to carry their loads on their shoulders.
The soldiers were nicknamed Marius' Mules because of the amount
of gear they had to carry themselves. This arrangement allowed for the
possibility for the supply train to become temporarily detached from the
main body of the legion, thus greatly increasing the army's speed when
needed.
A typical legion of this period had 5,120 legionaries as well as a
large number of camp followers, servants and slaves. Legions could
contain as many as 11,000 fighting men when including the auxiliaries.
During the Later Roman Empire, the legion was reduced in size to 1,000
to allow for easier provisioning and to expand the regions under
surveillance. Numbers would also vary depending on casualties suffered
during a campaign; Julius Caesar's legions during his campaign in Gaul often only had around 3,500 men.
Tactics were not very different from the past, but their
effectiveness was largely improved because of the professional training
of the soldiers.
A re-enactor as a Roman centurion, c. 70.
A re-enactor, showing a Roman miles, (2nd century).
After the Marian reforms and throughout the history of Rome's Late
Republic, the legions played an important political role. By the 1st
century BC, the threat of the legions under a demagogue was recognized. Governors were not allowed to leave their provinces with their legions. When Julius Caesar broke this rule, leaving his province of Gaul and crossing the Rubicon into Italy, he precipitated a constitutional crisis. This crisis and the civil wars which followed brought an end to the Republic and led to the foundation of the Empire under Augustus in 27 BC.
The Roman empire under Hadrian (ruled 117–38), showing the legions deployed in 125
Early Empire (27 BC–AD 284)
Map of Roman legions by 14 AD.
Generals, during the recent Republican civil wars, had formed their
own legions and numbered them as they wished. During this time, there
was a high incidence of Gemina (twin) legions, where two legions were consolidated into a single organization (and was later made official and put under a legatus and six duces). At the end of the civil war against Mark Antony,
Augustus was left with around fifty legions, with several double counts
(multiple Legio Xs for instance). For political and economic reasons,
Augustus reduced the number of legions to 28 (which diminished to 25
after the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, in which 3 legions were completely destroyed by the Germanics).
Beside streamlining the army, Augustus also regulated the
soldiers' pay. At the same time, he greatly increased the number of
auxiliaries to the point where they were equal in number to the
legionaries. He also created the Praetorian Guard along with a permanent navy where served the liberti,
or freed slaves.
The legions also became permanent at this time, and not recruited for
particular campaigns. They were also allocated to static bases with
permanent castra legionaria (legionary fortresses).
Augustus' military policies proved sound and cost effective, and
were generally followed by his successors. These emperors would
carefully add new legions, as circumstances required or permitted, until
the strength of the standing army stood at around 30 legions (hence the
wry remark of the philosopher Favorinus that It is ill arguing with the master of 30 legions).
With each legion having 5,120 legionaries usually supported by an equal
number of auxiliary troops (according to Tacitus), the total force
available to a legion commander during the Pax Romana
probably ranged from 11,000 downwards, with the more prestigious
legions and those stationed on hostile borders or in restive provinces
tending to have more auxiliaries. By the time of the emperor Severus,
193-211, the auxiliaries may have composed 55 to 60% of the army,
250,000 of 447,000. Some legions may have even been reinforced at times
with units making the associated force near 15,000–16,000 or about the
size of a modern division.
Throughout the imperial era, the legions played an important political role. Their actions could secure the empire for a usurper or take it away. For example, the defeat of Vitellius in the Year of the Four Emperors was decided when the Danubian legions chose to support Vespasian.
In the empire, the legion was standardized, with symbols and an
individual history where men were proud to serve. The legion was
commanded by a legatus or legate.
Aged around thirty, he would usually be a senator on a three-year
appointment. Immediately subordinate to the legate would be six elected military tribunes
– five would be staff officers and the remaining one would be a noble
heading for the Senate (originally this tribune commanded the legion).
There would also be a group of officers for the medical staff, the
engineers, record-keepers, the praefectus castrorum (commander of the camp) and other specialists such as priests and musicians.
Later Empire (from 284 AD)
A re-enactor, portraying a legionary at the end of the 3rd century
Map of Roman legions by 212 AD.
In the Later Roman Empire, the number of legions was increased and the Roman Army expanded. There is no evidence to suggest that legions changed in form before the Tetrarchy,
although there is evidence that they were smaller than the paper
strengths usually quoted. The final form of the legion originated with
the elite legiones palatinae created by Diocletian
and the Tetrarchs. These were infantry units of around 1,000 men rather
than the 5,000, including cavalry, of the old Legions. The earliest legiones palatinae were the Lanciarii, Joviani, Herculiani and Divitenses.
The 4th century saw a very large number of new, small legions created, a process which began under Constantine II. In addition to the elite palatini, other legions called comitatenses and pseudocomitatenses, along with the auxilia palatina, provided the infantry of late Roman armies. The Notitia Dignitatum lists 25 legiones palatinae, 70 legiones comitatenses, 47 legiones pseudocomitatenses and 111 auxilia palatina in the field armies, and a further 47 legiones in the frontier armies. Legion names such as Honoriani and Gratianenses
found in the Notitia suggest that the process of creating new legions
continued through the 4th century rather than being a single event. The
names also suggest that many new legions were formed from vexillationes
or from old legions. In addition, there were 24 vexillationes palatini,
73 vexillationes comitatenses; 305 other units in the Eastern limitanei
and 181 in the Western limitanei.
According to the late Roman writer Vegetius' De Re Militari, each century had a ballista and each cohort had an onager, giving the legion a formidable siege train of 59 Ballistae and 10 Onagers, each manned by 10 libritors
(artillerymen) and mounted on wagons drawn by oxen or mules. In
addition to attacking cities and fortifications, these would be used to
help defend Roman forts and fortified camps (castra) as well. They would even be employed on occasion, especially in the later Empire, as field artillery during battles or in support of river crossings.
Despite a number of reforms, the Legion system survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire, and was continued in the Eastern Roman Empire until around 7th century, when reforms begun by Emperor Heraclius to counter the increasing need for soldiers around the Empire resulted in the Theme system.
Despite this, the Eastern Roman/Byzantine armies continued to be
influenced by the earlier Roman legions, and were maintained with
similar level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization.
Legionary ranks
Aside from the rank and file legionary (who received the base wage of 10 assēs a day or 225 denarii
a year), the following list describes the system of officers which
developed within the legions from the Marian reforms (104 BC) until the
military reforms of Diocletian (c. 290).
Legionary ranks
Aside from the rank and file legionary (who received the base wage of 10 assēs a day or 225 denarii
a year), the following list describes the system of officers which
developed within the legions from the Marian reforms (104 BC) until the
military reforms of Diocletian (c. 290).
Senior officers
Legatus Augusti pro praetore, Imperial Legate: The commander of two or more legions. The Imperial Legate also served as the governor of the province in which the legions he commanded were stationed. Of Senatorial rank,
the Imperial Legate was appointed by the Emperor and usually held
command for 3 or 4 years. In the present time, an Imperial Legate would
be called a General.
Legatus legionis, Legion Legate: The overall legion commander. The post was usually filled by a senator, appointed by the emperor, who held command for 3 or 4 years, although he could serve for a much longer period. In a Roman province with only one legion, the legatus was also the provincial governor.
In such circumstances, the Legatus was dual-hatted as both Legion
Legate and Imperial Legate. The Legion Legate also served as commander
of the auxiliary units attached to the legion though they were not formally a part of the legion's command structure.
Tribunus laticlavius, Broad Band Tribune:
Named for the broad striped tunic worn by men of senatorial rank, this
tribune was appointed by the emperor or the Senate. Though generally
young, he was more experienced than the tribuni angusticlavii, he served
as second in command of the legion, behind the legate. Because of his
age and inexperience he was not the actual second in command in battle,
but if the legate died he would take command of the legion.
Praefectus castrorum, Camp Prefect:
The Camp Prefect was third in command of the legion. Generally he was a
long serving veteran from a lower social status than the tribunii whom he outranked, and who previously had served as primus pilus
and finished his 25 years with the legions. He was used as a senior
officer in charge of training a legion, though he could also command a
cohort of auxiliaires.
Tribuni angusticlavii, Narrow Band Tribunes:
Each legion had five lower ranking tribunes, who were normally from the
equestrian class and had at least some years of prior military
experience. They often served the role of administrative officers. This tribunate was often a first, but optional, step in a young man's political career.
Centurions
The rank of centurion
was an officer grade that included many ranks, meaning centurions had
very good prospects for promotion. The most senior centurion in a legion
was known as the primus pilus (first file or spear), who directly commanded the first century of the first cohort
and commanded the whole first cohort when in battle. Within the second
to tenth cohorts, the commander of each cohort's first century was known
as a pilus prior and was in command of his entire cohort when in
battle. The seniority of the pilus prior centurions was followed by the
five other century commanders of the first cohort, who were known as primi ordines.
A historical reenactor in Roman centurion costume
The six centuries of a normal cohort, were, in order of precedence:
The forward hastati (forward spears)
The rear hastati (rear spears)
The forward principes (forward principal line)
The rear principes (rear principal line)
The forward triarii (forward third line)
The rear triarii (rear third line)
The centuries took their titles from the old use of the legion drawn
up in three lines of battle using three classes of soldier. (Each
century would then hold a cross-section of this theoretical line,
although these century titles were now essentially nominal.) Each of the
three lines is then sub-divided within the century into a more forward
and a more rear century.
Primus pilus, literally First File: The Primus Pilus
was the commanding centurion of the first century, first cohort and the
senior-most centurion of the entire legion. (Unlike other cohorts, the
first cohort had only one javelin century, instead of a "front spear"
and a "back spear" century.) The primus pilus had a chance of later
becoming a Praefectus Castrorum. When the primus pilus retired,
he would most likely gain entry into the equestrian class. He was paid
60 times the base wage. Primus Pilus were also paid more than an average
centurion and like a narrowband tribune.
Pilus prior: The "front file" centurions were the commanders
of the 10 1st centuries within the legion, making them senior centurions
of their respective cohorts. While the legion was in battle formation,
the Pilus Prior was given command of their entire cohort. The Primus
Pilus was also a Pilus Prior, and the most senior of all the centurions
within the legion. These positions were usually held by experienced
veteran soldiers who had been moved up within the ranks. This rank is
subordinate to the Primus Pilus.
Primi ordines: The "ranks of the first [cohort]" were the
five centurions of the first cohort, and included the primus pilus.
They, excluding the primus pilus, were paid 30 times the base wage. This
rank is senior to all other centurions, save the primus pilus and pilus
prior.
Other centurions: Each legion had 59 or 60 centurions, one to
command each century of the 10 cohorts. They were the backbone of the
professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day-to-day
life of the soldiers and issued commands in the field. They were
generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct
appointments from the emperor or other higher-ranking officials. The
cohorts were ranked from the first to the tenth and the century within
each cohort ranked from 1 to 6, with only five centuries in the first
cohort (for a total of 59 centurions and the primus pilus). The century
that each centurion commanded was a direct reflection of his rank:
command of the 1st century of the first cohort was the highest, and the
6th century of the 10th cohort was the lowest. Paid ten times the basic
wage.
Lower ranks
Optio:
One for each centurion (59–60), they were appointed by the centurion
from within the ranks to act as his second in command and were paid
twice the basic wage. Equivalent to a modern First Sergeant.[11]
Tesserarius:
(Guard commander) One for each century. They acted as seconds to the
Optios and were paid one and a half times the basic wage. Keeper of the
watchword, administrative assistant to HQ Staff, third in command of a
century. These men fought as normal soldiers when the century they were
attached to was not in the vanguard. Equivalent to a modern Staff Sergeant.
Decurion: Commanded a cavalry unit (turma) of 10 to 30 eques legionis.
Decanus: Commanded a contubernium or ten men tent party, eight soldiers and two non-combatants, equivalent to a Sergeant or Corporal. A group of four soldiers would be referred to as a Quaternion.
Special duty posts
Aquilifer: A single position within the legion. The aquilifer was the legion's standard– or Aquila
(eagle)– bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious
position. Losing the aquila was considered the greatest dishonor a
legion could endure. This post therefore had to be filled with steady
veteran soldiers, with an excellent understanding of the tactics of the
legion. He was paid twice the basic wage.
Signifer: Each century had a signifer (thus, there were 59 in a legion) and within each cohort the 1st century's signifer would be the senior. He was standard-bearer for the centurial signum,
a spear shaft decorated with medallions and topped with an open hand to
signify loyalty, which was a rallying point for the soldiers. In
addition to carrying the signum, the signifer also assumed
responsibility for the financial administration of the unit and
functioned as the legionaries' banker. He was paid twice the basic wage.
Cornicen
(Horn blower): Worked hand in hand with the signifer drawing the
attention of the men to the centurial signum and issuing the audible
commands of the officers. He was paid twice the basic wage.
Imaginifer: A special position from the time of Augustus
onwards. Carried the standard bearing the image of the Emperor as a
constant reminder of the troops' loyalty to him. He was paid twice the
basic wage.
Immunes:
Immunes were legionary soldiers who possessed specialized skills,
qualifying them for better pay and excusing them from labour and guard
work. Engineers, artillerymen, musicians, clerks, quartermasters, drill and weapons instructors, carpenters, hunters, medical staff and military police
were all immune soldiers. These men were still fully trained
legionaries, however, and were called upon to serve in the battle lines
when needed.
Evocatus: A veteran of the Roman army who had earned his military diploma
for military service, but had chosen to re-enlist. They received double
pay and were excluded from regular duties, such as manual labour.
Duplicarius: A special pay grade that could also be awarded regardless of rank, received double the basic pay.
Pay
From the time of Gaius Marius onwards, legionaries received 225 denarii a year (equal to 900 Sestertii); this basic rate remained unchanged until Domitian,
who increased it to 300 denarii. In spite of the steady inflation
during the 2nd century, there was no further rise until the time of Septimius Severus,
who increased it to 500 denarii a year. However, the soldiers did not
receive all the money in cash, as the state deducted a clothing and food
tax from their pay. To this wage, a legionary on active campaign would
hope to add the booty of war, from the bodies of their enemies and as
plunder from enemy settlements. Slaves could also be claimed from the prisoners of war and divided amongst the legion for later sale, which would bring in a sizeable supplement to their regular pay.
All legionary soldiers would also receive a praemia (veterans' benefits) on completion of their term of service of 25 years or more: a sizeable sum of money (3,000 denarii from the time of Augustus) and/or a plot of good farmland
(good land was in much demand); farmland given to veterans often helped
in establishing control of the frontier regions and over rebellious
provinces. Later, under Caracalla, the praemia increased to 5,000 denarii.
Symbols
From 104 BC onwards, each legion used an aquila (eagle) as its standard symbol. The symbol was carried by an officer known as aquilifer,
and its loss was considered to be a very serious embarrassment, and
often led to the disbanding of the legion itself. Normally, this was
because any legion incapable of regaining its eagle in battle was so
severely mauled that it was no longer effective in combat.
In Gallic War (Bk IV, Para. 25), Julius Caesar describes an
incident at the start of his first invasion of Britain in 55 BC that
illustrated how fear for the safety of the eagle could drive Roman
soldiers. When Caesar's troops hesitated to leave their ships for fear
of the Britons, the aquilifer of the tenth legion
threw himself overboard and, carrying the eagle, advanced alone against
the enemy. His comrades, fearing disgrace, 'with one accord, leapt down
from the ship' and were followed by troops from the other ships.
With the birth of the Roman Empire, the legions created a bond
with their leader, the emperor himself. Each legion had another officer,
called imaginifer, whose role was to carry a pike with the imago (image, sculpture) of the emperor as pontifex maximus.
Each legion, furthermore, had a vexillifer who carried a vexillum or signum,
with the legion name and emblem depicted on it, unique to the legion.
It was common for a legion to detach some sub-units from the main camp
to strengthen other corps. In these cases, the detached subunits carried
only the vexillum, and not the aquila, and were called, therefore, vexillationes.
A miniature vexillum, mounted on a silver base, was sometimes awarded
to officers as a recognition of their service upon retirement or
reassignment.
Civilians could also be rewarded for their assistance to the
Roman legions. In return for outstanding service, a citizen was given an
arrow without a head. This was considered a great honour and would
bring the recipient much prestige.
Discipline
The military discipline of the legions was quite harsh. Regulations
were strictly enforced, and a broad array of punishments could be
inflicted upon a legionary who broke them. Many legionaries became
devotees in the cult of the minor goddess Disciplina, whose virtues of frugality, severity and loyalty were central to their code of conduct and way of life.
Minor punishments
Castigatio – being hit by the centurion with his staff or animadversio fustium (Tac. Annals I, 23)
– Reduction of rations or to be forced to eat barley instead of the usual grain ration
Pecuniaria mulcta – Reduction in pay, fines or deductions from the pay allowance
– Flogging in front of the century, cohort or legion
– Whipping with the flagrum (flagellum, flagella), or "short whip" – a much more brutal punishment than simple flogging. The "short whip" was used by slave volunteers, volones, who constituted the majority of the army in the later years of the Roman Empire.
Fustuarium – a sentence for desertion or dereliction of duty. The legionary would be stoned or beaten to death by cudgels,
in front of the assembled troops, by his fellow soldiers or those whose
lives had been put in danger. Soldiers under sentence of fustuarium who escaped were not pursued but lived under sentence of banishment from Rome.
Decimation – According to 17th century belief(possibly folk etymology),
the Romans practiced this punishment in which a sentence was carried
out against an entire unit that had mutinied, deserted, or shown
dereliction of duty. One out of every ten men, chosen by lots, would be
beaten to death, usually by the other nine with their bare hands, who
would be forced to live outside the camp and in some instances obliged
to renew the military oath, the sacramentum.
Factors in the legion's success
Montesquieu
wrote that "the main reason for the Romans becoming masters of the
world was that, having fought successively against all peoples, they
always gave up their own practices as soon as they found better ones."
Roman organization was more flexible than those of many
opponents. Over time, the legions effectively handled challenges ranging
from cavalry, to guerrillas, and to siege warfare.
Roman discipline (cf. decimation (Roman army)),
organization and systematization sustained combat effectiveness over a
longer period. These elements appear throughout the legion in training,
logistics, field fortification etc.
The Romans were more persistent and more willing to absorb and
replace losses over time than their opponents. Wars with Carthage and
the Parthians and most notably, the campaigns against Pyrrhus of Epirus, illustrate this.
Roman leadership was mixed, but over time it was often effective in securing Roman military success.
The influence of Roman military and civic culture, as embodied
particularly in the heavy infantry legion, gave the Roman military
consistent motivation and cohesion.
Strict, and more importantly, uniform discipline made commanding,
maintaining, and replacing Roman legionaries a much more consistent
exercise.
Roman military equipment (cf. Roman military personal equipment),
particularly armor, was more withstanding and far more ubiquitous,
especially in the late Republican and Early Imperial era, than that of
most of their opponents. Soldiers equipped with shields, helmets and
highly effective body armor had a major advantage over warriors
protected, in many cases, with nothing other than their shields,
particularly in a prolonged engagement.
Roman engineering skills were second to none in ancient Europe, and
their mastery of both offensive and defensive siege warfare,
specifically the construction and investiture of fortifications (cf. sudis, castra), was another major advantage for the Roman legions.
Roman military training focused on the more effective thrusting of the sword rather than the slash.
The Shaolin Monastery (Chinese: 少林寺; pinyin: Shàolín sì), also known as the Shaolin Temple, is a Chan ("Zen") Buddhist temple in Dengfeng County, Henan Province, China.
Believed to have been founded in the fifth century, the Shaolin Temple
is the main temple of the Shaolin school of Buddhism to this day.
The name refers to the woods of Shaoshi (少室; Shǎo Shì) mountain, one of the seven peaks of the Song mountains. The first Shaolin Monastery abbot was Batuo (also called Fotuo or Buddhabhadra), a dhyāna master who came to ancient China from ancient India or from Central Asia in 464 AD to spread Buddhist teachings.
According to the Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks (645 AD) by Daoxuan, Shaolin Monastery was built on the north side of Shaoshi, the central peak of Mount Song, one of the Sacred Mountains of China, by Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei dynasty in 477 AD, to accommodate the Indian master beside the capital Luoyang city. Yang Xuanzhi, in the Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang (547 AD), and Li Xian, in the Ming Yitongzhi (1461), concur with Daoxuan's location and attribution. The Jiaqing Chongxiu Yitongzhi (1843) specifies that this monastery, located in the province of Henan, was built in the 20th year of the Taihe era of the Northern Wei dynasty, that is, the monastery was built in 495 AD.
As the center of Chan Buddhism, the Shaolin Temple attracted many emperors’ attention in China’s history. During the Tang dynasty 618–907 AD Empress Wu Zetian
(AD 625–705) paid several visits to the Shaolin Temple discussing Chan
philosophy with high monk Tan Zong. According to legend, Emperor Taizong granted the Shaolin Temple extra land and a special "imperial dispensation" to consume meat and alcohol during the Tang dynasty.
If true, this would have made Shaolin the only temple in China that did
not prohibit alcohol. Regardless of historical veracity, these rituals
are not practiced today.
This legend is not corroborated in any period documents, such as the
Shaolin Stele erected in 728. The stele does not list any such imperial
dispensation as reward for the monks' assistance during the campaign
against Wang Shichong, only land and a water mill are granted.[5] The founder of the Yuan dynasty, Kublai Khan (AD 1215–1294) ordered all Buddhist temples in China to be led by the Shaolin Temple; eight princes during the Ming dynasty turned themselves into Shaolin monks.
Traditionally Bodhidharma
is credited as founder of the martial arts at the Shaolin Temple.
However, martial arts historians have shown this legend stems from a
17th-century qigong manual known as the Yijin Jing.
The authenticity of the Yi Jin Jing has been discredited by some historians including Tang Hao, Xu Zhen and Ryuchi Matsuda. This argument is summarized by modern historian Lin Boyuan in his Zhongguo wushu shi:
As for the "Yi Jin Jing" (Muscle
Change Classic), a spurious text attributed to Bodhidharma and included
in the legend of his transmitting martial arts at the temple, it was
written in the Ming dynasty, in 1624, by the Daoist priest Zining of Mt.
Tiantai, and falsely attributed to Bodhidharma. Forged prefaces,
attributed to the Tang general Li Jing and the Southern Song general Niu
Gao were written. They say that, after Bodhidharma faced the wall for
nine years at Shaolin temple, he left behind an iron chest; when the
monks opened this chest they found the two books "Xi Sui Jing" (Marrow
Washing Classic) and "Yi Jin Jing" within. The first book was taken by
his disciple Huike, and disappeared; as for the second, "the monks
selfishly coveted it, practicing the skills therein, falling into
heterodox ways, and losing the correct purpose of cultivating the Real.
The Shaolin monks have made some fame for themselves through their
fighting skill; this is all due to having obtained this manuscript".
Based on this, Bodhidharma was claimed to be the ancestor of Shaolin
martial arts. This manuscript is full of errors, absurdities and
fantastic claims; it cannot be taken as a legitimate source.
The oldest available copy was published in 1827. The composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624.
Even then, the association of Bodhidharma with martial arts only became
widespread as a result of the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine:
One of the most recently invented
and familiar of the Shaolin historical narratives is a story that claims
that the Indian monk Bodhidharma, the supposed founder of Chinese Chan
(Zen) Buddhism, introduced boxing into the monastery as a form of
exercise around a.d. 525. This story first appeared in a popular novel, The Travels of Lao T’san,
published as a series in a literary magazine in 1907. This story was
quickly picked up by others and spread rapidly through publication in a
popular contemporary boxing manual, Secrets of Shaolin Boxing Methods,
and the first Chinese physical culture history published in 1919. As a
result, it has enjoyed vast oral circulation and is one of the most
“sacred” of the narratives shared within Chinese and Chinese-derived
martial arts. That this story is clearly a twentieth-century invention
is confirmed by writings going back at least 250 years earlier, which
mention both Bodhidharma and martial arts but make no connection between
the two.
Other scholars see an earlier connection between Da Mo and the
Shaolin Monastery. Scholars generally accept the historicity of Da Mo
(Bodhidharma) who arrived in China from his country India
around 480. Da Mo (Bodhidharma) and his disciples are said to have
lived a spot about a mile from the Shaolin Temple that is now a small
nunnery.
In the 6th century, around 547, The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries says Da Mo visited the area near Mount Song. In 645 The Continuation of the Biographies of Eminent Monks describes him as being active in the Mount Song region.
Around 710 Da Mo is identified specifically with the Shaolin Temple
(Precious Record of Dharma's Transmission or Chuanfa Baoji) and writes of his sitting facing a wall in meditation for many years.
It also speaks of Huikes many trials in his efforts to receive
instruction from Da Mo. In the 11th century a (1004) work embellishes
Da Mo legends with great detail. A stele inscription at the Shaolin
Monastery dated 728 reveals Da Mo residing on Mount Song.
Another stele in 798 speaks of Huike seeking instruction from Da Mo.
Another engraving dated 1209 depicts the barefoot saint holding a shoe
according to the ancient legend of Da Mo. A plethora of 13th- and
14th-century steles feature Da Mo in Various roles. One 13th-century
image shows him riding a fragile stalk across the Yangtze River. In 1125 a special temple was constructed in his honor at the Shaolin Monastery.
Destructions and renovations
The monastery has been destroyed and rebuilt many times. During the Red Turban Rebellion
in the 14th century, bandits ransacked the monastery for its real or
supposed valuables, destroying much of the temple and driving the monks
away. The monastery was likely abandoned from 1351 or 1356 (the most
likely dates for the attack) to at least 1359, when government troops
retook Henan. The events of this period would later figure heavily in
16th-century legends of the temple's patron saint Vajrapani, with the story being changed to claim a victory for the monks, rather than a defeat.
In 1641, rebel forces led by Li Zicheng sacked the monastery due to the monks' support of the Ming dynasty and the possible threat they posed to the rebels. This effectively destroyed the temple's fighting force. The temple fell into ruin and was home to only a few monks until the early 18th century, when the government of the Qing dynasty patronized and restored the temple.
Perhaps the best-known story of the Temple's destruction is that
it was destroyed by the Qing government for supposed anti-Qing
activities. Variously said to have taken place in 1647 under the Shunzhi Emperor, in 1674, 1677, or 1714 under the Kangxi Emperor, or in 1728 or 1732 under the Yongzheng Emperor, this destruction is also supposed to have helped spread Shaolin martial arts through China by means of the five fugitive monks.
Some accounts claim that a supposed southern Shaolin Temple was
destroyed instead of, or in addition to, the temple in Henan: Ju Ke, in
the Qing bai lei chao (1917), locates this temple in Fujian province. These stories commonly appear in legendary or popular accounts of martial history, and in wuxia fiction.
While these latter accounts are popular among martial artists,
and often serve as origin stories for various martial arts styles, they
are viewed by scholars as fictional. The accounts are known through
often inconsistent 19th-century secret society histories and popular
literature, and also appear to draw on both Fujianese folklore and
popular narratives such as the classical novel Water Margin. Modern scholarly attention to the tales is mainly concerned with their role as folklore.
Recent history
There is evidence of Shaolin martial arts being exported to Japan since the 18th century. Martial arts such as OkinawanShōrin-ryū (小林流) style of Karate, for example, has a name meaning "Shaolin School" and the JapaneseShorinji Kempo
(少林寺拳法) is translated as "Shaolin Temple Fist Method". Other
similarities can be seen in centuries-old Chinese and Japanese martial
arts manuals.
In 1928, the warlord Shi Yousan
set fire to the monastery, burning it for over 40 days, destroying a
significant percent of the buildings, including many manuscripts of the
temple library.
The Cultural Revolution launched in 1966 targeted religious orders including the monastery. The five monks who were present at the monastery when the Red Guards attacked were shackled and made to wear placards declaring the crimes charged against them. The monks were jailed after publicly being flogged and paraded through the street as people threw rubbish at them. The government purged Buddhist materials from within the monastery walls, leaving it barren for years.
The film crew for the Jet Li movie Martial Arts of Shaolin was shocked to find that there were no remaining monks when they filmed at the monastery complex in 1986.
Martial arts groups from all over the world have made donations
for the upkeep of the temple and grounds, and are subsequently honored
with carved stones near the entrance of the temple. In the past, many
have tried to capitalise on Shaolin Monastery fame by building their own
schools on Mount Song. However, the Chinese government eventually
outlawed this; the schools were moved to the nearby towns.
A dharma gathering was held from 19 August to 20 August 1999, in Shaolin Monastery for Shi Yongxin's assumption of office as abbot. Over the next two decades the Monastery grew into a global business empire. In March 2006, Russian President Vladimir Putin
became the first foreign leader to visit the monastery. In 2007, the
Chinese government partially lifted the 300-year ban of the Jieba, the
ancient ceremony of the nine marks which are burned onto the head with
sticks of incense. The ban was lifted only for those who were mentally
and physically prepared to participate in the tradition.
Two modern bathrooms were recently added to the temple for use by
monks and tourists. The new bathrooms reportedly cost three million yuan to build. Films have also been released like Shaolin Temple and more recently, Shaolin starring Andy Lau.
In 1994 the temple registered its name as a trademark. In the
late 2000s, Shi Yongxin began authorizing Shaolin branches outside of
mainland China in what has been called a franchise scheme. The branches
are run by current and former monks and allow dispersion of Shaolin
culture and study of Shaolin kung fu around the world.
As of January, 2011, Yongxin and the temple operated over 40 companies
in cities across the world, including London and Berlin, which have
purchased land and property.
In 2018, for the first time in its 1500-year history, the Shaolin Monastery raised the national flag as a part of a "patriotism drive" under the new National Religious Affairs Administration, a part of the United Front Work Department which "oversees propaganda efforts as well as relations with the global Chinese diaspora". Senior theology lecturer Sze Chi Chan of Hong Kong Baptist University analyzes this move as General SecretaryXi Jinping making an example of the Shaolin Monastery to send a message to other temples and the Chinese Catholic Church.
Governance
The
Shaolin Monastery was historically led by an abbot, but the communist
era restrictions on religious expression and independence have since
changed this ancient system. The monastery is currently led by a
committee composed primarily of government officials. The treasurer is
appointed by the government, and as such the abbot has little control
over finances. Profits are split with Dengfeng; the municipality takes two thirds of the profits and the monastery retains one third.
Shaolin temple buildings
The temple's inside area is 160 by 360 meters (520 ft × 1,180 ft),
that is, 57,600 square meters (620,000 sq ft). It has seven main halls
on the axis and seven other halls around, with several yards around the
halls. The temple structure includes:
Mountain Gate (山门; shan men) (built 1735; The entrance tablet written with golden characters "Shaolin Temple" (少林寺; shao lin si) in black background by the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty in 1704).
Forest of Steles (碑林; bei lin)
Ciyun Hall (慈雲堂; ci yun tang) (built 1686; changed 1735; reconstructed 1984). It includes Corridor of Steles (碑廊; bei lang), which has 124 stone tablets of various dynasties since the Northern Qi dynasty (550–570).
West Arrival Hall (西来堂; xi lai tang) a.k.a. Kung fu Hall (锤谱堂; chui pu tang) (built 1984).
Heavenly Kings (Devaraja) Palace Hall (天王殿; tian wang dian) (built in Yuan dynasty; repaired in Ming, Qing dynasties).
Bell Tower (钟楼; zhong lou) (built 1345; reconstructed 1994; the bell was built in 1204).
White Robe (Avalokitesvara) Palace Hall (白衣殿; bai yi (Guan yin) dian) a.k.a. Kung fu Hall (quan pu dian) (built in Qing dynasty).
Ksitigarbha Palace Hall (地臧殿; di zang dian): (built in early Qing dynasty; reconstructed 1979).
1000 Buddha Palace Hall (千佛殿; qian fo dian) a.k.a. Vairocana Pavilion (毗庐阁; pi lu ge): (built 1588; repaired 1639,1776).
Ordination Platform (built 2006).
Monks' Rooms
Shaolin Pharmacy Bureau (built 1217; reconstructed 2004).
Bodhidharma Pavilion (chu zu an) (built first in Song dynasty)
Bodhidharma Cave
Forest of Pagodas Yard (塔林院; ta lin yuan):
(built before 791). It has 240 tomb pagodas of various sizes from the
Tang, Song, Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties (618–1911).
Shaolin Temple Wushu Guan (Martial arts hall)
A mural painting in the temple (early 19th century)
Shaolin Monastery Stele on Mount Song (皇唐嵩岳少林寺碑), erected in 728 AD
A tree within the Shaolin Monastery used by the monks to practice finger-punching
The Pagoda forest (wide view)
The Pagoda forest (close view), located about 300 meters (980 ft) west of the Shaolin Monastery in Henan
Southern and Northern Shaolin Monasteries
A number of traditions make reference to a Southern Shaolin Monastery located in Fujian province.
There has also been a Northern Shaolin monastery in northern China.
Associated with stories of the supposed burning of Shaolin by the Qing government and with the tales of the Five Elders,
this temple, sometimes known by the name Changlin, is often claimed to
have been either the target of Qing forces or a place of refuge for
monks displaced by attacks on the Shaolin Monastery in Henan. Besides
the debate over the historicity of the Qing-era destruction, it is
currently unknown whether there was a true southern temple, with several
locations in Fujian given as the location for the monastery. Fujian
does have a historic monastery called Changlin, and a monastery referred
to as a "Shaolin cloister" has existed in Fuqing, Fujian, since the Song dynasty, but whether these have an actual connection to the Henan monastery or a martial tradition is still unknown. The Southern Temple has been a popular subject of wuxia fiction, first appearing in the 1893 novel Shengchao Ding Sheng Wannian Qing, where it is attacked by the Qianlong Emperor with the help of the White Eyebrow Taoist.
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