Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas

The indigenous peoples of the Americas comprise numerous different cultures. Each has its own mythologies. Some are quite distinct, but certain themes are shared across the cultural boundaries.

Coyote and Opossum appear in the stories of several tribes.

Northern America

Proportion of Indigenous Americans in each county of the fifty states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States Census

There is no single mythology of the Indigenous North American peoples, but numerous different canons of traditional narratives associated with religion, ethics and beliefs. Such stories are deeply based in Nature and are rich with the symbolism of seasons, weather, plants, animals, earth, water, fire, sky, and the heavenly bodies. Common elements are the principle of an all-embracing, universal and omniscient Great Spirit, a connection to the Earth and its landscapes, a belief in a parallel world in the sky (sometimes also underground and/or below the water), diverse creation narratives, visits to the 'land of the dead', and collective memories of ancient sacred ancestors.

A characteristic of many of the myths is the close relationship between human beings and animals (including birds and reptiles). They often feature shape-shifting between animal and the human form. Marriage between people and different species (particularly bears) is a common theme. In some stories, animals foster human children.

Although most Native North American myths are profound and serious, some use light-hearted humor – often in the form of tricksters – to entertain, as they subtly convey important spiritual and moral messages. The use of allegory is common, exploring issues ranging from love and friendship to domestic violence and mental illness.

Some myths are connected to traditional religious rituals involving dance, music, songs, and trance (e.g. the sun dance).

Most of the myths from this region were first transcribed by ethnologists during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These sources were collected from Native American elders who still had strong connections to the traditions of their ancestors. They may be considered the most authentic surviving records of the ancient stories, and thus form the basis of the descriptions below.

Northeast (Southeastern Canada and Northeastern US, including the Great Lakes)

From the full moon fell Nokomis - from The Story of Hiawatha, 1910

Myths from this region feature female deities, such as the creator, Big Turtle; and First Mother, from whose body grew the first corn and tobacco. The two great divine culture heroes are Glooskap and Manabus.

Other stories explore the complex relationships between animals and human beings. Some myths were originally recited as verse narratives.

• Anishinaabe traditional beliefs - The Anishinaabeg peoples (Algonquin/Nipissing, Ojibwa/Chippewa/Saulteaux/Mississaugas, Odawa, Potawatomi and Oji-Cree)
• Ho-Chunk mythology - A North American tribe located in now eastern Wisconsin.
• Iroquois mythology - A confederacy of tribes located in the New York state area.
• Seneca mythology - A North American tribe located south of Lake Ontario.
• Wyandot religion - A North American tribe located around the northern shore of Lake Ontario.

Great Plains

Stories unique to the Great Plains feature buffalo, which provided the Plains peoples with food, clothing, housing and utensils. In some myths they are benign, in others fearsome and malevolent. The Sun is an important deity; other supernatural characters include Morning Star and the Thunderbirds.

A common theme is the making of a journey, often to a supernatural place across the landscape or up to the parallel world in the sky.

One of the most dominant trickster stories of the Plains is Old Man, about whom numerous humorous stories are told. The Old Man, known as Waziya, lived beneath the earth with his wife, and they had a daughter. Their daughter married the wind and had four sons: North, East, South, and West. The sun, moon and winds then ruled the universe together.

An important supernatural hero is the Blood Clot Boy, transformed from a clot of blood.

• Ho-Chunk mythology
• Lakota mythology
• Pawnee mythology

Southeastern US

Important myths of this region deal with the origin of hunting and farming, and the origin of sickness and medicine.

An important practice of this region was animism, the belief that all objects, places, and creatures have a soul. Most death, disease, or misfortune would be associated with the failure to put the soul of a slain animal to rest. When this happens, the animal could get vengeance through their "species chief". Large amounts of rare materials found with this regions dead suggest strong evidence that they believed in a sort of afterlife. It is thought that when a member of a tribe died, their soul would hover over their communities, trying to get their friends and relatives to join them, so their funeral ceremonies were not just to commemorate the dead, but to protect the living.

The Green Corn ceremony, also known as Busk, was an annual celebration of a successful corn crop. Their fires were put out and rekindled, grudges are forgiven, and materials are thrown out or broken to then be replaced. It was essentially a renewing of life and community for these tribes.

Cherokee Myth of Creation

There was a time when there was no earth, and all creatures lived in a place above the sky called Galvlo’i. Everything below was only water, but when Galvlo’i got too crowded, the creatures decided to send down Water Beetle to see if he could find them a new place to live. He obliged and dove down into the water, all the way to the bottom of the sea, where he picked up a bit of mud and brought it to the surface. Once above the water, the mud spread out in all directions and became an island. The Great Spirit secured the island by attaching cords to it and tying it to the vault in the sky.

Though the land was now stable, the ground was too soft for any of the animals to stand on, so they sent down Buzzard to scope it out. He flew around for some time until he could find a dry enough spot to land, and when he did the flapping of his wings caused the mud to shift. It went down in some places and up in others, creating the peaks, valleys, hills, and mountains of the earth. The rest of the creatures were now able to come down, but they soon realized it was very dark, so they invited the sun to come with them. Everyone was happy except Crawfish, who said his shell turned a bright red because the sun was too close, so they raised the sun seven different times until Crawfish was satisfied.

The Great Spirit then created plants for this new land, after which he told the animals to stay awake for seven days. Only Owl was able to do so, and as a reward, the Great Spirit gave him the gift of sight in the dark. The plants tried as well, but only the pines, furs, holly, and a select few others were able to stay awake, so he gave them the gift of keeping their leaves year-round. Great Spirit then decided he wanted to have people live on this island, so he created one man and one woman. The pair did not yet know how to make children, so the man took a fish and pressed it against the woman's stomach, after which she gave birth. They did this for seven days until Great Spirit felt there was enough humans for the time being, and made it so a woman could only give birth once a year.

See also:

• Cherokee mythology – A North American tribe that migrated from the great lakes area to the southeastern woodlands.
• Choctaw mythology – A North American tribe from the area of modern-day Alabama, Florida, Mississippi and Louisiana.
• Creek mythology – A North American tribe from the area of modern-day Georgia and Alabama.

California and Great Basin

Myths of this region are dominated by the sacred creator/trickster Coyote. Other significant characters include the Sun People, the Star Women and Darkness.

A few of the most distinctive ceremonies of this region were their funeral customs and their commemoration of the dead. When a death occurred, the house in which it happened would be burnt down, and there would sometimes be bans on speaking the name of the dead. Widows would be smeared with pitch and their hair would be cut until the annual mourning releases them. This mourning came to be known as the "burning", the "cry", or the "dance of the dead". During these ceremonies, multiple properties are burned while the tribe dances, chants, and wails, in order to appease the ghosts.

Another common ceremony is one that takes place when adolescents hit puberty. Girls go through a series of grueling tabus when her first period starts but is followed by a celebratory dance when it ends. Boys will undergo an official initiation into the tribe by participating in ceremonies that recount the tribes' mysteries and myths.

See also:

• Earth-maker myth
• Kuksu – a religion in Northern California practiced by members within several Indigenous peoples of California.
• Miwok mythology – a North American tribe in Northern California.
• Ohlone mythology – a North American tribe in Northern California.
• Pomo religion – a North American tribe in Northern California.

Southwest

Myths of the Navajo, Apache, and Pueblo peoples tell how the first human beings emerged from an underworld to the Earth. According to the Hopi Pueblo people, the first beings were the Sun, two goddesses known as Hard Being Woman (Huruing Wuhti) and Spider Woman. It was the goddesses who created living creatures and human beings. Other themes include the origin of tobacco and corn, and horses; and a battle between summer and winter. Some stories describe parallel worlds in the sky and underwater. these peoples went on to kill each other due to Zuni tales.

See also:

• Ute mythology – a North American tribe located in both the Northwestern and Southwestern United States.
• Diné Bahaneʼ (Navajo) – a North American nation from the Southwestern United States.
• Hopi mythology – a North American tribe in Arizona.
• Zuni mythology – a North American tribe in New Mexico.

Plateau

Myths of the Plateau region express the people's intense spiritual feeling for their landscapes and emphasize the importance of treating with respect the animals that they depend upon for food. Sacred tricksters here include Coyote and Fox.

See also:

• Salish mythology – a North American tribe or band in Montana, Idaho, Washington and British Columbia, Canada

Arctic (coastal Alaska, northern Canada, and Greenland)

The myths of this region are strongly set in the landscape of tundra, snow, and ice. Memorable stories feature the winds, the moon, and the giants. Some accounts say that Anguta is the supreme being, who created the Earth, sea and heavenly bodies. His daughter, Sedna created all living things – animals and plants. She is regarded also as the protecting divinity of the Inuit.

Subarctic (inland northern Canada and Alaska)

Here some myths reflect the extreme climate and the people's dependence on salmon as a major food resource. In imagination, the landscape is populated by both benign and malevolent giants.

Northwest

In this region, the dominant sacred trickster is Raven, who brought daylight to the world and appears in many other stories. Myths explore the people's relationship with the coast and the rivers along which they traditionally built their towns. There are stories of visits to parallel worlds beneath the sea. and up in the sky

See also:

• Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology – an Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.
• Lummi – a North American tribe from the Pacific Northwest, Washington state area.
• Nuu-chah-nulth mythology – a group of indigenous peoples living on Vancouver Island in British Columbia.
• Haida mythology – a nation living in Haida Gwaii and the Alaska Panhandle.
• Tsimshian mythology – an indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest Coast living on the British Columbia Coast and Alaska's Annette Islands.

Aztecs

The Aztecs, who predominantly inhabited modern-day central Mexico, had a complex system of beliefs based on deities who directly affected the lives of humans, including those who controlled rain, the rising Sun, and fertility. Voluntary human sacrifice was a central piece to the order of the universe and human survival.

The Aztecs viewed people as servants and warriors of the gods, whom were not merciful or generous, but all-powerful beings that needed to be fed and appeased in order to avoid disaster and punishment. Thus, the concept of human sacrifice emerged. This practice was not new and had been used in other cultures such as the Mayans, but the Aztecs made this their main event, so to speak, in their ceremonies. These sacrifices were mainly to appease the sun god.

Creation Myth

According to the Aztecs, the creation of the earth started with a god called Ometeotl, otherwise known as the dual god, as they were made from the union of Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl, whom the Aztecs believed were the lord and lady of their sustenance. Tonacatecuhtli and Tonacacihuatl had four children: Xipe Totec, which translates to "the flayed god" in Nahuatl, is associated with the color red. He is the god of the seasons and all things that grow on the earth. Tezcatlipoca, which translates to "smoking mirror", is associated with the color black. He is the god of the earth and the most powerful of the four children. Quetzalcoatl, which translates to "plumed serpent", is associated with the color white. He is the god of air. Finally, Huitzilopochtli, which translates to "hummingbird of the south", is associated with the color blue. He is the god of war.

Quetzalcoatl (The Plumed Serpent), the god of the air. And Tezcatlipoca (Smoking Mirror), the god of the earth.

The four children decided they wanted to create a world with people to live in it. Quetzalcoatl and Huitzilopochtli made the first attempt, starting by making fire. This fire became the sun, but only half a sun, because it was not big or bright enough to light their entire world. They then made the first man and woman, which they called Cipactonal and Oxomoco respectively. Their many children were called macehuales, and were to be the farmers of the land. From there they created time, and then the underworld known as Mictlan. They made two gods to rule this underworld called Mictlantecuhtli and Mictecacihuatl.

Eventually the world needed a real sun, so Tezcatlipoca took it upon himself to become the sun. This is known as the age of the first sun. During this time they also created giants to walk the earth. Quetzalcoatl, believing his brothers reign had lasted long enough, struck him from the sky with a club, and he fell into the waters of the earth. Angry, he rose from the water as a Jaguar and hunted all the giants to extinction. Once he finished, he rose back up into the sky and became the constellation Ursa Major. Quetzalcoatl then became the sun, birthing the age of the second sun. In order to get revenge on his brother, Tezcatlipoca threw a giant blast of wind at the world, blowing his brother and many of the macehuales away. Some macehuales survived, but they were turned to monkeys and fled to the jungles. In the age of the third sun, Tlaloc took over and became the worlds new sun. He is the god of rain who makes things sprout. Quetzalcoatl came to destroy the world again, this time with a rain made of fire, turning all people in this age to birds. He then gave the world to Tlaloc's wife, Chalchiuhtlicue (goddess of rivers/streams, and all manners of water). During her rule as the sun, a great rain came and flooded the world, turning the macehuales to fish and causing the sky to fall, covering the earth so nothing could live there, therein ending the age of the fourth sun. Finally, seeing how they had failed as a result of their bickering, Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca settled their differences and turned themselves into giant trees on either end of the world, using their branches to hold up the sky. Their father, Tonacatecuhtli, saw this mending of their mistakes and gave them the heavens to rule, with a highway of stars that we now know as the Milky Way.

There are many stories of how the age of the fifth and final sun came to be. One story tells of how Tezcatlipoca took flint and used it to make fires to light the world again, before discussing with his brothers what should be done. They decided to make a new sun that feeds on the hearts and blood of humans. To feed it, they made four hundred men and five women. This is where the story goes into different directions. Some say that both Quetzalcoatl and Tlaloc wanted their sons to become the new sun, so they each threw their sons into one of the fires created by Tezcatlipoca. Tlaloc waited for the fire to burn out before throwing his son into the embers, so his son became the moon. Quetzalcoatl elected to throw his son directly into the fiery blaze, so he became the fifth and final sun that we see in the sky today. Another story tells of the gathering of the gods at the ancient city of Teotihuacan, to discuss how to make a new sun. A god by the name of Nanahuatzin, god of disease, offered to throw himself into the fire and become the new sun. Being a weak and sickly god, the others thought he should not be the one to do it, and that a stronger and more powerful god should be the sun. Tecuciztecatl, a very wealthy god, stepped forward and said he would do it, but was not able to find the courage to jump into the flames. Nanahuatzin, with little hesitation, then threw himself into the fire. Seeing his bravery, Tecuciztecatl decided to jump in too. They were both transformed into suns, but the light was now too bright to see anything, so one of the other gods threw a rabbit at Tecuciztecatl, dimming his light and turning him into the moon. Nanahuatzin, now the new sun, was essentially reborn as Ollin Tonatiuh. The problem they now had was that he would not move from his position in the sky unless the other gods sacrificed their blood for him. So a god by the name of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, lord of dawn, threw a dart at Tonatiuh, but missed. Tonatiuh then threw one back at Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, hitting him in the head and turning him into Itzlacoliuhqui, god of coldness, frost, and obsidian. Realizing that they could not refuse, the other gods offered their bare chests to him, and Quetzalcoatl cut out their hearts with a sacrificial knife. With the blood of the gods, Tonatiuh began to move across the sky in the same pattern that we see to this day. Quetzalcoatl took the clothing and ornaments of the sacrificed gods and wrapped them in bundles, which the people then worshipped.

See also:

• Aztec mythology – an ancient Mesoamerican empire centered in the valley of Mexico.

Central America

• Maya mythology – an ancient Central American people of southern Mexico and northern Central America.
• Olmec religion – an ancient Central American people of south-central Mexico, in the present-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco.
• Purépecha religion – a Central American people centered around Lake Pátzcuaro.

South America

• Brazilian mythology – the subset of Brazilian folklore with cultural elements of diverse origin found in Brazil, comprising folk tales, traditions, characters and beliefs regarding places, peoples, and entities.
• Chilote mythology – the cultures of Chono and Huilliche, who live on the Chiloé Archipelago, off the coast of southern Chile.
• Guarani mythology – an indigenous people of the Gran Chaco, especially in Paraguay and parts of the surrounding areas of Argentina, Brazil, and Bolivia.
• Inca mythology (Religion in the Inca Empire) – a South American empire based in the central Andes mountain range.
• Mapuche religion – an indigenous people in Chile.
• Muisca mythology – the indigenous people of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense in the modern Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes.

Borax

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borax 

Borax

Names
IUPAC name disodium;3,7-dioxido-2,4,6,8,9-pentaoxa-1,3,5,7-tetraborabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane;decahydrate<refname=NIMH.borax/>
Other names borax decahydrate sodium borate decahydrate sodium tetraborate decahydrate sodium tetrahydroxy tetraborate hexahydrate
Identifiers
CAS Number	1303-96-4
3D model (JSmol)	Interactive image
ChEBI	CHEBI:86222
ChEMBL	ChEMBL3833375
ChemSpider	17339255
EC Number	603-411-9
E number	E285 (preservatives)
KEGG	D03243
PubChem CID	16211214
RTECS number	VZ2275000
UNII	91MBZ8H3QO

InChI

SMILES
Properties
Chemical formula	B4O7Na2·10H2O Na2B4O7·10H2O B4H20Na2O17
Molar mass	381.37 (decahydrate)
Appearance	white, crystalline solid
Density	1.73 g/cm3 (decahydrate, solid)
Melting point	743 °C (1,369 °F; 1,016 K) (anhydrous) 75 °C (decahydrate, decomposes)
Boiling point	1,575 °C (2,867 °F; 1,848 K) (anhydrous)
Solubility in water	31.7 g/L
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)	−85.0·10−6 cm3/mol (anhydrous)
Refractive index (nD)	n1=1.447, n2=1.469, n3=1.472 (decahydrate)
Structure
Crystal structure	Monoclinic, mS92, No. 15
Space group	C2/c
Point group	2/m
Lattice constant	a = 1.1885 nm, b = 1.0654 nm, c = 1.2206 nm α = 90°, β = 106.623°°, γ = 90°
Lattice volume (V)	1.4810 nm3
Formula units (Z)	4
Pharmacology
ATC code	S01AX07 (WHO)
Hazards
GHS labelling:
Pictograms
Hazard statements	H360
Precautionary statements	P201, P308+P313
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)	[6] 1 0 0
NIOSH (US health exposure limits):
PEL (Permissible)	none
REL (Recommended)	TWA 1 mg/m3 (anhydrous and pentahydrate) TWA 5 mg/m3 (decahydrate)
IDLH (Immediate danger)	N.D.
Related compounds
Other anions	Sodium aluminate
Other cations	Lithium tetraborate
Related compounds	Boric acid, sodium perborate
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Borax is a salt (ionic compound), a hydrated borate of sodium, with chemical formula Na₂H₂₀B₄O₁₇ often written Na₂B₄O₇·10H₂O. It is a colorless crystalline solid, that dissolves in water to make a basic solution. It is commonly available in powder or granular form, and has many industrial and household uses, including as a pesticide, as a metal soldering flux, as a component of glass, enamel, and pottery glazes, for tanning of skins and hides, for artificial aging of wood, as a preservative against wood fungus, and as a pharmaceutic alkalizer. In chemical laboratories, it is used as a buffering agent.

The compound is often called sodium tetraborate decahydrate, but that name is not consistent with its structure. The anion is not tetraborate [B₄O₇]²⁻ but tetrahydroxy tetraborate [B₄O₅(OH)₄]²⁻, so the more correct formula should be Na₂B₄O₅(OH)₄·8H₂O. Informally, the product is often called sodium borate decahydrate or just sodium borate.

The terms tincal /ˈtɪŋkəl/ "tinkle" and tincar /ˈtɪŋkər/ "tinker" refer to native borax, historically mined from dry lake beds in various parts of Asia.

History

Borax was first discovered in dry lake beds in Tibet. Native tincal from Tibet, Persia, and other parts of Asia was traded via the Silk Road to the Arabian Peninsula in the 8th century AD.

Borax first came into common use in the late 19th century when Francis Marion Smith's Pacific Coast Borax Company began to market and popularize a large variety of applications under the 20 Mule Team Borax trademark, named for the method by which borax was originally hauled out of the California and Nevada deserts.

Etymology

The English word borax is Latinized: the Middle English form was boras, from Old French boras, bourras. That may have been from Medieval Latin baurach (another English spelling), borac(-/um/em), borax, along with Spanish borrax (> borraj) and Italian borrace, in the 9th century.

The words tincal and tincar were adopted into English in the 17th century from Malay tingkal and from Urdu/Persian Arabic تنکار‎ tinkār/tankār; thus the two forms in English. These all appear to be related to the Sanskrit टांकण ṭānkaṇa.

Hydrates

The term borax properly refers to the so called decahydrate Na₂B₄O₇·10H₂O, more correctly written Na₂B₄O₅(OH)₄·8H₂O. However, the term may be applied also to the related compounds

Borax pentahydrate

Borax pentahydrate has the formula Na₂B₄O₇·5H₂O, more properly Na₂B₄O₅(OH)₄·3H₂O It is a colorless solid with density is 1.880 kg/m³ that crystallizes from water solutions above 60.8 °C in the rhombohedral crystal system. It occurs naturally as the mineral tinkhanite. It can be obtained by heating the decahydrate above 61 °C.

Borax dihydrate

Borax dihydrate has the formula Na₂B₄O₇·2H₂O, more properly Na₂B₄O₅(OH)₄. It can be obtained by heating the decahydrate or pentahydrate to above 116-120 °C. 

Anhydrous borax

Anhydrous borax is sodium tetraborate proper, with formula Na₂B₄O₇. It can be obtained by heating any hydrate to 300 °C. It has one amorphous (glassy) form and three crystalline forms -- α, β, and γ, with melting points of 1015, 993 and 936 K respectively. α-Na2B4O7 is the stable form.

Chemistry

The structure of borax according to X-ray crystallography.

Structure

From the chemical perspective, borax contains the [B₄O₅(OH)₄]²⁻ ion. In this structure, there are two four-coordinate boron centers and two three-coordinate boron centers.

Physical properties

The crystalline decahydrate is a proton conductor at temperatures above 21 °C. Conductivity is maximum along the b axis.

Reactions

Borax is also easily converted to boric acid and other borates, which have many applications. Its reaction with hydrochloric acid to form boric acid is:

Na₂B₄O₇·10H₂O + 2 HCl → 4 H₃BO₃ + 2 NaCl + 5H₂O

The "decahydrate" is sufficiently stable to find use as a primary standard for acid base titrimetry.

Molten borax dissolves many metal oxides to form glasses. This property is important for its uses in metallurgy and for the borax bead test of qualitative chemical analysis.

Solubility

Borax is soluble in a variety of solvents; however, it is notably insoluble in ethanol.

Organic solvent	Temperature °C (°F)	Borax decahydrate % by weight in saturated solution
Glycerol 98.5%	20 (68)	52.60
Glycerol 86.5%	20 (68)	47.19
Ethylene glycol	25 (77)	41.60
Diethylene glycol	25 (77)	18.60
Methanol	25 (77)	19.90
Aqueous ethanol 46.5%	15.5 (60)	2.48
Acetone	25 (77)	0.60
Ethyl acetate	25 (77)	0.14

Solubility of borax decahydrate in water

Temperature °C (°F)	Borax decahydrate % by weight in saturated solution
0 (32)	1.99
5 (41)	2.46
10 (50)	3.09
15 (59)	3.79
20 (68)	4.70
25 (77)	5.80
30 (86)	7.20
35 (95)	9.02
40 (104)	11.22
45 (113)	14.21
50 (122)	17.91
55 (131)	23.22
60 (140)	30.32
65 (149)	33.89
70 (158)	36.94
75 (167)	40.18
80 (176)	44.31
85 (185)	48.52
90 (194)	53.18
95 (203)	58.94
100 (212)	65.63

Natural sources

Borax "cottonball"

 

Main article: Borax (mineral)

Borax occurs naturally in evaporite deposits produced by the repeated evaporation of seasonal lakes. The most commercially important deposits are found in: Turkey; Boron, California; and Searles Lake, California. Also, borax has been found at many other locations in the Southwestern United States, the Atacama desert in Chile, newly discovered deposits in Bolivia, and in Tibet and Romania. Borax can also be produced synthetically from other boron compounds.

Naturally occurring borax (known by the trade name Rasorite–46 in the United States and many other countries) is refined by a process of recrystallization.

Traction steam engine hauling borax, Death Valley National Park, California, 1904

Uses

Borax-based laundry detergent

Ant control

Borax is used in control solutions because it is toxic to ants. Because it is slow-acting, worker ants will carry the borax to their nests and poison the rest of the colony.

Household products

Borax is used in various household laundry and cleaning products, including the 20 Mule Team Borax laundry booster, Boraxo powdered hand soap, and some tooth bleaching formulas.

pH buffer

Borate ions (commonly supplied as boric acid) are used in biochemical and chemical laboratories to make buffers, e.g. for polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of DNA and RNA, such as TBE buffer (borate buffered tris-hydroxymethylaminomethonium) or the newer SB buffer or BBS buffer (borate buffered saline) in coating procedures. Borate buffers (usually at pH 8) are also used as preferential equilibration solution in dimethyl pimelimidate (DMP) based crosslinking reactions.

Co-complexing agent

Borax as a source of borate has been used to take advantage of the co-complexing ability of borate with other agents in water to form complex ions with various substances. Borate and a suitable polymer bed are used to chromatograph non-glycated hemoglobin differentially from glycated hemoglobin (chiefly HbA1c), which is an indicator of long-term hyperglycemia in diabetes mellitus.

Water-softening agent

Borax alone does not have a high affinity for the hardness cations, although it has been used for water-softening. Its chemical equation for water-softening is given below:

Ca²⁺ _(aq) + Na₂B₄O_{7 (aq)} → Ca B₄O_{7 (s)}↓ + 2 Na⁺ _(aq)

Mg²⁺ _(aq) + Na₂B₄O_{7 (aq)} → Mg B₄O_{7 (s)}↓ + 2 Na⁺ _(aq)

The sodium ions introduced do not make water ‘hard’. This method is suitable for removing both temporary and permanent types of hardness.

Flux

A mixture of borax and ammonium chloride is used as a flux when welding iron and steel. It lowers the melting point of the unwanted iron oxide (scale), allowing it to run off. Borax is also used mixed with water as a flux when soldering jewelry metals such as gold or silver, where it allows the molten solder to wet the metal and flow evenly into the joint. Borax is also a good flux for "pre-tinning" tungsten with zinc — making the tungsten soft-solderable. Borax is often used as a flux for forge welding.

Small-scale gold mining

Old steam tractor and borax wagons, Death Valley National Park

In artisanal gold mining, borax is sometimes used as part of a process known as the borax method (as a flux) meant to eliminate the need for toxic mercury in the gold extraction process, although it cannot directly replace mercury. Borax was reportedly used by gold miners in parts of the Philippines in the 1900s. There is evidence that, in addition to reducing the environmental impact, this method achieves better gold recovery for suitable ores and is less expensive. This borax method is used in northern Luzon in the Philippines, but miners have been reluctant to adopt it elsewhere for reasons that are not well understood. The method has also been promoted in Bolivia and Tanzania.

Flubber

Main article: Flubber (material)

A rubbery polymer sometimes called Slime, Flubber, 'gluep' or 'glurch' (or erroneously called Silly Putty, which is based on silicone polymers), can be made by cross-linking polyvinyl alcohol with borax. Making flubber from polyvinyl acetate-based glues, such as Elmer's Glue, and borax is a common elementary-science demonstration.

Food additive

Borax, given the E number E285, is used as a food additive, but is banned in some countries, such as the United States, China, and Thailand. As a consequence, certain foods, such as caviar, produced for sale in the United States contain higher levels of salt to assist preservation. In addition to its use as a preservative, borax imparts a firm, rubbery texture to food. In China, borax (Chinese: 硼砂; pinyin: péng shā or Chinese: 月石; pinyin: yuè shí) has been found in foods including wheat and rice noodles named lamian (Chinese: 拉面; pinyin: lāmiàn), shahe fen (Chinese: 沙河粉; pinyin: shāhéfěn), char kway teow (Chinese: 粿條; pinyin: guǒ tiáo), and chee cheong fun (Chinese: 肠粉; pinyin: chángfěn) In Indonesia, it is a common, but forbidden, additive to such foods as noodles, bakso (meatballs), and steamed rice. The country's Directorate of Consumer Protection warns of the risk of liver cancer with high consumption over a period of five to ten years.

Other uses

Rio Tinto borax mine pit, Boron, California

• Ingredient in enamel glazes
• Component of glass, pottery, and ceramics
• Used as an additive in ceramic slips and glazes to improve fit on wet, greenware, and bisque
• Fire retardant
• Anti-fungal compound for cellulose insulation
• Moth proofing 10% solution for wool
• Pulverized for the prevention of stubborn pests (e.g. German cockroaches) in closets, pipe and cable inlets, wall panelling gaps, and inaccessible locations where ordinary pesticides are undesirable
• Precursor for sodium perborate monohydrate that is used in detergents, as well as for boric acid and other borates
• Tackifier ingredient in casein, starch and dextrin based adhesives
• Precursor for boric acid, a tackifier ingredient in polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol based adhesives
• To make indelible ink for dip pens by dissolving shellac into heated borax
• Curing agent for snake skins
• Curing agent for salmon eggs, for use in sport fishing for salmon
• Swimming pool buffering agent to control pH
• Neutron absorber, used in nuclear reactors and spent fuel pools to control reactivity and to shut down a nuclear chain reaction
• As a micronutrient fertilizer to correct boron-deficient soils.
• Preservative in taxidermy
• To color fires with a green tint
• Was traditionally used to coat dry-cured meats such as hams to improve the appearance and discourage flies.
• Used by blacksmiths in forge welding
• Used as a flux for melting metals and alloys in casting to draw out impurities and prevent oxidation.
• Used as a woodworm treatment (diluted in water)
• In Particle Physics as an additive to Nuclear emulsion, to extend the latent image lifetime of charged particle tracks. The first observation of the pion, which was awarded the 1950 Nobel Prize, used this type of emulsion.

Toxicity

Borax, sodium tetraborate decahydrate, according to one study, is not acutely toxic. Its LD₅₀ (median lethal dose) score is tested at 2.66 g/kg in rats, meaning that a significant dose of the chemical is needed to cause severe symptoms or death. The lethal dose is not necessarily the same for humans. On pesticide information websites it is listed as a non-lethal compound and of no hazardous concerns.

Borax has been in use as an insecticide in the United States with various restrictions since 1946. All restrictions were removed in February 1986 due to the low toxicity of borax, as reported in two EPA documents relating to boric acid and borax.

EPA has determined that, because they are of low toxicity and occur naturally, boric acid and its sodium salts should be exempted from the requirement of a tolerance (maximum residue limit) for all raw agricultural commodities.

Although it cited inconclusive data, a re-evaluation in 2006 by the EPA still found that "There were no signs of toxicity observed during the study and no evidence of cytotoxicity to the target organ." In the reevaluation, a study of toxicity due to overexposure was checked and the findings were that "The residential handler inhalation risks due to boric acid and its sodium salts as active ingredients are not a risk concern and do not exceed the level of concern..." but that there could be some risk of irritation to children inhaling it if used as a powder for cleaning rugs.

Sodium tetraborate decahydrate has no known hazard issues.

Overexposure to borax dust can cause respiratory irritation, while no skin irritation is known to exist due to external borax exposure. Ingestion may cause gastrointestinal distress including nausea, persistent vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Effects on the vascular system and human brain include headaches and lethargy, but are less frequent. In severe cases, a "beefy" red rash affecting the palms, soles, buttocks and scrotum has occurred. 

Possible carcinogen

The Indonesian Directorate of Consumer Protection warns of the risk of liver cancer with high consumption of borax over a period of 5–10 years.

Risk to fertility and pregnancy

Borax was added to the Substance of Very High Concern (SVHC) candidate list on December 16, 2010. The SVHC candidate list is part of the EU Regulations on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals 2006 (REACH), and the addition was based on the revised classification of borax as toxic for reproduction category 1B under the CLP Regulations. Substances and mixtures imported into the EU which contain borax are now required to be labelled with the warnings "May damage fertility" and "May damage the unborn child". It was proposed for addition to REACH Annex XIV by the ECHA on July 1, 2015. If this recommendation is approved, all imports and uses of borax in the EU will have to be authorized by the ECHA.

Review of the boron toxicity (as boric acid and borates) published 2012 in Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health concluded: "It clearly appears that human B [boron] exposures, even in the highest exposed cohorts, are too low to reach the blood (and target tissue) concentrations that would be required to exert adverse effects on reproductive functions."

A draft risk assessment released by Health Canada in July 2016 has found that overexposure to boric acid has the potential to cause developmental and reproductive health effects. Since people are already exposed to boric acid naturally through their diets and water, Health Canada advised that exposure from other sources should be reduced as much as possible, especially for children and pregnant women. The concern is not with any one product, but rather multiple exposures from a variety of sources. With this in mind, the department also announced that registrations for certain pesticides that contain boric acid, which are commonly used in homes, will have their registrations cancelled and be phased out of the marketplace. As well, new, more protective label directions are being introduced for other boric acid pesticides that continue to be registered in Canada (for example, enclosed bait stations and spot treatments using gel formulations).