A Medley of Potpourri

An independence referendum was held on 1 December, after which Ukrainian independence was finalized on 26 December. The current constitution was adopted on 28 June 1996.

Ukraine (

ⁱ/juːˈkreɪn/; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]) is a country in Eastern Europe.^[8] It has an area of 603,628 km² (233,062 sq mi), making it the largest country entirely within Europe.^[9]^[10]^[11] Ukraine borders Russia to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. The territory of Ukraine has been inhabited for at least 44,000 years,^[12] and is the prime candidate site for the domestication of the horse^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16] and for the origins of the Indo-European language family.

In the Middle Ages, the area became a key center of East Slavic culture, as epitomized by the powerful state of Kievan Rus'. Following its fragmentation in the 13th century, the territory of Ukraine was contested, ruled and divided by a variety of powers, including Lithuania, Poland, Austro-Hungary, and Russia. A Cossack republic emerged and prospered during the 17th and 18th centuries, but Ukraine remained otherwise divided until its consolidation into a Soviet republic in the 20th century, becoming an independent state only in 1991.

Ukraine has long been a global breadbasket because of its extensive, fertile farmlands. In 2011, it was the world's third-largest grain exporter with that year's harvest being much larger than average.^[17] Ukraine is one of the ten most attractive agricultural land acquisition regions.^[18] The country also has a well-developed manufacturing sector, particularly in aerospace and industrial equipment.

Ukraine is a unitary republic under a semi-presidential system with separate powers: legislative, executive, and judicial branches. Its capital and largest city is Kiev. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine continues to maintain the second-largest military in Europe, after that of Russia, when reserves and paramilitary personnel are taken into account.^[19] The country is home to 45.4 million people (including Crimea),^[3]^[20] 77.8% of whom are Ukrainians by ethnicity, and with a sizable minority of Russians (17%), as well as Romanians/Moldavians, Belarusians, Crimean Tatars, and Hungarians. Ukrainian is the official language of Ukraine; its alphabet is Cyrillic. Russian is also still widely spoken. The dominant religion in the country is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which has strongly influenced Ukrainian architecture, literature and music.

Etymology

There are different hypotheses as to the etymology of the name Ukraine. According to the older and most widespread hypothesis, it means "borderland",^[21] while more recently some linguistic studies claim a different meaning: "homeland" or "region, country".^[22] "The Ukraine" was once the usual form in English^[23] but since the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine, "the Ukraine" has become much less common in the English-speaking world and style-guides largely recommend not using the definite article.^[24]^[25]

History

Early history

The Eurasian Steppe Belt extends 8,000 kilometres from Hungary in the west through Ukraine and Central Asia to Manchuria in the east. Horsemen of steppe peoples interacted across the entire breadth of the Eurasian grassland throughout most of recorded history.

Neanderthal settlement in Ukraine is seen in the Molodova archaeological sites (43,000-45,000 BC) which include a mammoth bone dwelling.^[26]^[27] Modern human settlement in Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to 32,000 BC, with evidence of the Gravettian culture in the Crimean Mountains.^[28]^[29] By 4,500 BC, the Neolithic Cucuteni-Trypillian Culture flourished in a wide area that included parts of modern Ukraine including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians.^[30] Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian Kingdom, or Scythia.

The Scythian archer by Epiktetos, c. 520 BC.

Later, colonies of Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and the Byzantine Empire, such as Tyras, Olbia and Hermonassa, were founded, beginning in the 6th century BC, on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea, and thrived well into the 6th century AD. The Goths stayed in the area but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s AD. In the 7th century AD, the territory of eastern Ukraine was the centre of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and the Khazars took over much of the land.

Golden Age of Kiev

The baptism of the Grand Prince Vladimir led to the adoption of Christianity in Kievan Rus'.

The Kievan Rus' was founded by the Rus' people, Varangians who first settled there around Ladoga and Novgorod, then gradually moved southward eventually reaching Kiev about 880. Kievan Rus' included the western part of modern Ukraine, and Belarus. The larger part was situated on the territory of modern Russia. According to the Primary Chronicle the Rus' elite initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia.

During the 10th and 11th centuries, it became the largest and most powerful state in Europe.^[31] In the following centuries, it laid the foundation for the national identity of Ukrainians and Russians.^[32] Kiev, the capital of modern Ukraine, became the most important city of the Rus'.

The Varangians later assimilated into the local Slavic population and became part of the first Rus' dynasty, the Rurik Dynasty.^[32] Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid knyazes ("princes"). The seat of Kiev became the subject of many rivalries among Rurikids.

The Golden Age of Kievan Rus' began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (980–1015), who turned Rus' toward Byzantine Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.^[32] This was followed by the state's increasing fragmentation as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death.

The 13th century Mongol invasion devastated Kievan Rus'. Kiev was totally destroyed in 1240.^[33] On today's Ukrainian territory, the state of Kievan Rus' was succeeded by the principalities of Halych and Volodymyr-Volynskyi, which were merged into the state of Galicia-Volhynia.

Danylo Romanovych (Daniel I of Galicia or Danylo Halytskyi) son of Roman Mstyslavych, re-united all of south-western Rus', including Volhynia, Galicia and Rus' ancient capital of Kiev. Danylo was crowned by the papal archbishop in Dorohychyn 1253 as the first King of all Rus'. Under Danylo's reign, the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia was one of the most powerful states in east central Europe.^[34]

Foreign domination

The Tatar Khanate of Crimea was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.

Bohdan Khmelnytsky, "Hetman of Ukraine", established an independent Ukraine after the uprising in 1648 against Poland.

In the mid-14th century, upon the death of Bolesław Jerzy II of Mazovia, king Casimir III of Poland initiated campaigns (1340–1366) to take Galicia-Volhynia. Meanwhile the heartland of Rus', including Kiev, became the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, ruled by Gediminas and his successors, after the Battle on the Irpen' River. Following the 1386 Union of Krewo, a dynastic union between Poland and Lithuania, much of what became northern Ukraine was ruled by the increasingly Slavicised local Lithuanian nobles as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and by 1392 the so-called Galicia–Volhynia Wars ended. Polish colonisers of depopulated lands in northern and central Ukraine founded or refounded many towns. In 1430 Podolia was incorporated under the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland as Podolian Voivodeship. In 1441, in the southern Ukraine, especially Crimea and surrounding steppes, Genghisid prince Haci I Giray founded the Crimean Khanate.

In the centuries following the Mongol invasion, much of Ukraine was controlled by Lithuania (from the 14th century on) and since the Union of Lublin (1569) was included in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as of 1619, seen in this outline.

The Cossack Hetmanate is considered as a direct ancestor of today's Ukraine.

In 1569 the Union of Lublin established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and a considerable part of Ukrainian territory was transferred from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, becoming Polish territory de jure. Under the demographic, cultural and political pressure of Polonisation begun already in late 14th century, many landed gentry of Polish Ruthenia (another name for the land of Rus) converted to Catholicism and became indistinguishable from the Polish nobility.^[35] Deprived of native protectors among Rus nobility, the commoners (peasants and townspeople) began turning for protection to the emerging Zaporozhian Cossacks, who by the 17th century became devoutly Orthodox. The Cossacks did not shy from taking up arms against those they perceived as enemies, including the Polish state and its local representatives.^[36]

The Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest powers in Eastern Europe until the 18th century; in 1571 it even captured and devastated Moscow.^[37] The borderlands suffered annual Tatar invasions and tens of thousands of soldiers were required to protect the southern boundaries. From the beginning of the 16th century until the end of 17th century, Crimean Tatar slave raiding bands made almost annual forays into agricultural Slavic lands in search of captives for sale as slaves,^[38] exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Ukraine over the period 1500–1700.^[39] According to Orest Subtelny, "from 1450 to 1586, eighty-six Tatar raids were recorded, and from 1600 to 1647, seventy."^[40] In 1688, Tatars captured a record number of 60,000 Ukrainians.^[41] The Tatar raids took a heavy toll, discouraging settlement in more southerly regions where the soil was better and the growing season was longer. Muscovy, Poland-Lithuania, Moldavia and Wallachia were all subjected to extensive slave raiding. The last remnant of the Crimean Khanate was finally conquered by the Russian Empire in 1783.^[42] The Taurida Governorate was formed to govern this territory.

In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was formed by Dnieper Cossacks and by Ruthenian peasants who had fled Polish serfdom.^[43] Poland exercised little real control over this population, but found the Cossacks to be a useful opposing force to the Turks and Tatars,^[44] and at times the two were allies in military campaigns.^[45] However the continued harsh enserfment of peasantry by Polish nobility and especially the suppression of the Orthodox Church alienated the Cossacks.^[44]

The Cossacks sought representation in the Polish Sejm, recognition of Orthodox traditions, and the gradual expansion of the Cossack Registry. These were rejected by the Polish nobility, who dominated the Sejm.

In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky and Petro Doroshenko led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king John II Casimir.^[46]

The Ruin

The Battle of Poltava in 1709, as depicted by Denis Martens the Younger, 1726

Kyrylo Rozumovskyi, the last Hetman of left- and right-bank Ukraine 1750–1764, was, in May 1763, the first person to declare Ukraine to be a sovereign state.

In 1657–1686 came "The Ruin", a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, Turks and Cossacks for control of Ukraine, which occurred at about the same time as the Deluge of Poland. For three years, Khmelnytsky's armies controlled present-day western and central Ukraine, but, deserted by his Tatar allies, he suffered a crushing defeat at Berestechko, and turned to the Russian tsar for help.

In 1654, Khmelnytsky signed the Treaty of Pereyaslav, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the tsar. The wars escalated in intensity with hundreds of thousands of deaths. Defeat came in 1686 as the "Eternal Peace" between Russia and Poland gave Kiev and the Cossack lands east of the Dnieper over to Russian rule and the Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper to Poland.

In 1709, Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1639–1709) sided with Sweden against Russia in the Great Northern War (1700–1721). This brilliant political and military leader enjoyed good relations with the Romanov dynasty. After Peter the Great became tsar, Mazepa as hetman gave him more than twenty years of loyal military and diplomatic service and was well rewarded.

Eventually Peter recognized that to consolidate and modernize Russia's political and economic power it was necessary to do away with the hetmanate and Ukrainian and Cossack aspirations to autonomy. Mazepa joined the Poles and Swedes against Russia. The move was disastrous for the hetmanate, Ukrainian autonomy, and Mazepa. He died in exile after fleeing from the Battle of Poltava (1709), where the Swedes and their Cossack allies suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of Peter's Russian forces.

The hetmanate was abolished in 1764; the Zaporizhska Sich abolished in 1775, as Russia centralised control over its lands. As part of the partitioning of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795, the Ukrainian lands west of the Dnieper were divided between Russia and Austria. From 1737 to 1834, expansion into the northern Black Sea littoral and the eastern Danube valley was a cornerstone of Russian foreign policy.

Lithuanians and Poles controlled vast estates in Ukraine, and were a law unto themselves. Judicial rulings from Cracow were routinely flouted, while peasants were heavily taxed and practically tied to the land as serfs. Occasionally the landowners battled each other using armies of Ukrainian peasants. The Poles and Lithuanians were Roman Catholics and tried with some success to convert the Orthodox lesser nobility. In 1596, they set up the "Greek-Catholic" or Uniate Church, under the authority of the Pope but using Eastern rituals; it dominates western Ukraine to this day. Tensions between the Uniates and the Orthodox were never resolved, and the religious differentiation left the Ukrainian Orthodox peasants leaderless, as they were reluctant to follow the Ukrainian nobles.^[47]

Cossacks led an uprising, called Koliivshchyna, starting in the Ukrainian borderlands of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1768. Ethnicity was one root cause of this revolt, which included Ukrainian violence that killed tens of thousands of Poles and Jews. Religious warfare also broke out between Ukrainian groups. Increasing conflict between Uniate and Orthodox parishes along the newly reinforced Polish-Russian border on the Dnepr River in the time of Catherine II set the stage for the uprising. As Uniate religious practices had become more Latinized, Orthodoxy in this region drew even closer into dependence on the Russian Orthodox Church. Confessional tensions also reflected opposing Polish and Russian political allegiances.^[48]

After the Russians annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783, the region called New Russia was settled by Ukrainian and Russian migrants.^[49] Despite the promises of Ukrainian autonomy given by the Treaty of Pereyaslav, the Ukrainian elite and the Cossacks never received the freedoms and the autonomy they were expecting from Imperial Russia. However, within the Empire, Ukrainians rose to the highest Russian state and church offices. ^[a] At a later period, tsarists established a policy of Russification of Ukrainian lands, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language in print, and in public.^[50]

19th century, World War I and revolution

Mykhailo Hrushevskyi, President of the Central Council of Ukraine.

Leonid Perfetsky picture representing a conflict between the soldiers of Ukrainian Galician Army and Volunteer Army in the streets of Kiev during their joint operation against the Bolsheviks in August 1919.^[51]

Ukraine in 1918

Pavlo Skoropadskyi, Hetman of Ukraine

Symon Petliura — national leader, head of Directory of Ukraine.

In the 19th century, Ukraine was a rural area largely ignored by Russia and Austria. With growing urbanization and modernization, and a cultural trend toward romantic nationalism, a Ukrainian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-national-poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861) and the political theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the growing nationalist movement.

After Ukraine and Crimea became aligned with the Russian Empire in the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), significant German immigration occurred after it was encouraged by Catherine the Great and her immediate successors. Immigration was encouraged into Ukraine and especially the Crimea by Catherine in her proclamation of open migration to the Russian Empire. Immigration was encouraged for Germans and other Europeans to thin the previously dominant Turk population and encourage more complete use of farmland.

Beginning in the 19th century, there was a continuous migration from Ukraine to settle the distant areas of the Russian Empire. According to the 1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians in Siberia and 102,000 in Central Asia.^[52] An additional 1.6 million emigrated to the east in the ten years after the opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1906.^[53]

Nationalist and socialist parties developed in the late 19th century. Austrian Galicia, which enjoyed substantial political freedom under the relatively lenient rule of the Habsburgs, became the center of the nationalist movement.

Ukrainians entered World War I on the side of both the Central Powers, under Austria, and the Triple Entente, under Russia. 3.5 million Ukrainians fought with the Imperial Russian Army, while 250,000 fought for the Austro-Hungarian Army.^[54] During the war, Austro-Hungarian authorities established the Ukrainian Legion to fight against the Russian Empire. This legion was the foundation of the Ukrainian Galician Army that fought against the Bolsheviks and Poles in the post-World War I period (1919–23). Those suspected of Russophile sentiments in Austria were treated harshly. Up to 5,000 supporters of the Russian Empire from Galicia were detained and placed in Austrian internment camps in Talerhof, Styria and in a fortress at Terezín (now in the Czech Republic).^[55]

World War I brought about the end of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires. The Russian Revolution of 1917 ended the Russia empire, led to the founding of the Soviet Union under the Bolsheviks, and subsequent civil war in Russia. A Ukrainian national movement for self-determination reemerged, with heavy Communist and Socialist influence. During 1917–20, several separate Ukrainian states briefly emerged: the Ukrainian People's Republic, the Hetmanate, the Directorate and the pro-Bolshevik Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (or Soviet Ukraine) successively established territories in the former Russian Empire; while the West Ukrainian People's Republic and the Hutsul Republic emerged briefly in the former Austro-Hungarian territory. This led to civil war, and an anarchist movement called the Black Army led by Nestor Makhno, developed in Southern Ukraine during that war.^[56]

However, Poland defeated Western Ukraine in the Polish-Ukrainian War, but failed against the Bolsheviks in an offensive against Kiev. According to the Peace of Riga concluded between the Soviets and Poland, western Ukraine was officially incorporated into Poland, which in turn recognised the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in March 1919. With establishment of the Soviet power in Ukraine, the country lost half of its territory: the eastern Galicia was given to Poland, Pripyat marshes region – to Belarus, half of Sloboda Ukraine and northern fringes of Severia were passed to Russia, while on the left bank of Dniester River was created Moldavian autonomy. Eventually, Ukraine became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Soviet Union in December 1922.^[57]

Western Ukraine, Carpathian Ruthenia and Bukovina

Portrait of Hutsuls, living in Carpathian Ruthenia, c. 1902

The war in Ukraine continued for another two years; by 1921, however, most of Ukraine had been taken over by the Soviet Union, while Galicia and Volhynia (West Ukraine) were incorporated into independent Poland. Bukovina was annexed by Romania and Carpathian Ruthenia, with mediation of the United States, was admitted to the Czechoslovak Republic as an autonomy.

A powerful underground Ukrainian nationalist movement arose in Poland in the 1920s and 1930s due to Polish national policies in Western Ukraine, which was led by the Ukrainian Military Organization and the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN). The movement attracted a militant following among students. Hostilities between state authorities and the popular movement led to a substantial number of fatalities. The autonomy which had been promised Eastern Galicia (West Ukraine) was never implemented. A number of Ukrainian parties, the Ukrainian Catholic Church, an active press, and a business sector existed in Poland. Economic conditions improved in the 1920s, but the region suffered from the Great Depression in the 1930s.

Inter-war Soviet Ukraine

Children affected by famine in the aftermath of the civil war in southern Ukraine, Berdyansk, 1922.

The civil war that eventually brought the Soviet government to power devastated Ukraine. It left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless. In addition, Soviet Ukraine had to face the famine of 1921.^[58] Seeing an exhausted Ukraine, the Soviet government remained very flexible during the 1920s.^[59] Thus, under the aegis of the Ukrainization policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of Mykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership encouraged a national renaissance in literature and the arts. The Ukrainian culture and language enjoyed a revival, as Ukrainisation became a local implementation of the Soviet-wide policy of Korenisation (literally indigenisation) policy.^[57] The Bolsheviks were also committed to introducing universal health care, education and social-security benefits, as well as the right to work and housing.^[60] Women's rights were greatly increased through new laws designed to wipe away centuries-old inequalities.^[61] Most of these policies were sharply reversed by the early 1930s after Joseph Stalin gradually consolidated power to become the de facto communist party leader.

Two future leaders of the Soviet Union, Nikita Khrushchev (pre-war CPSU chief in Ukraine) and Leonid Brezhnev (an engineer from Dniprodzerzhynsk) depicted together.

The communists gave a privileged position to manual labour^{[citation needed]}, the largest class in the cities, where Russians dominated. The typical worker was more attached to class identity than to ethnicity^{[citation needed]}. Although there were incidents of ethnic friction among workers (in addition to Ukrainians and Russians there were many Poles, Germans, Jews and others in the Ukrainian workforce), industrial laborers had already adopted Russian culture and language to a great extent^{[citation needed]}. Few workers whose ethnicity was Ukrainian were attracted to campaigns of Ukrainianisation or de-Russification, but remained loyal members of the Soviet working class^{[citation needed]}. There was allegedly little antagonism between workers identifying themselves as Ukrainian or Russian^{[citation needed]}.

Starting from the late 1920s, Ukraine was involved in the Soviet industrialisation and the republic's industrial output quadrupled during the 1930s.^[57]

The industrialisation had a heavy cost for the peasantry, demographically a backbone of the Ukrainian nation. To satisfy the state's need for increased food supplies and to finance industrialisation, Stalin instituted a programme of collectivisation of agriculture as the state combined the peasants' lands and animals into collective farms and enforced the policies by the regular troops and secret police.^[57] Those who resisted were arrested and deported and the increased production quotas were placed on the peasantry. The collectivisation had a devastating effect on agricultural productivity. As the members of the collective farms were not allowed to receive any grain until sometimes unrealistic quotas were met, starvation in the Soviet Union became more common. In 1932–33, millions starved to death in a famine known as Holodomor or "Great Famine".^[c] Scholars are divided as to whether this famine fits the definition of genocide, but the Ukrainian parliament and other countries recognise it as such.^[c]

Dnieper Hydroelectric Station, hydroelectric power station under construction circa 1930.

The famine claimed up to 10 million Ukrainian lives as peasants' food stocks were forcibly removed by the Soviet government by the NKVD secret police.^[62] Some explanations for the causes for the excess deaths in rural areas of Ukraine, southern Russia and Kazakhstan during the Soviet famine of 1932–33 have been given by dividing the causes into three groups: objective non-policy-related factors, like the drought of 1931 and poor weather in 1932; inadvertent result of policies with other objectives, like rapid industrialisation, socialisation of livestock and neglected crop rotation patterns; and deaths caused intentionally by a starvation policy. The Communist leadership perceived famine not as a humanitarian catastrophe but as a means of class struggle and used starvation as a punishment tool to force peasants into collective farms.^[63] It was largely the same groups of individuals who were responsible for the mass killing operations during the civil war, collectivisation, and the Great Terror. These groups were associated with Efim Georgievich Evdokimov (1891–1939) and operated in Ukraine during the civil war, in the North Caucasus in the 1920s, and in the Secret Operational Division within General State Political Administration (OGPU) in 1929–31. Evdokimov transferred into Communist Party administration in 1934, when he became Party secretary for North Caucasus Krai. But he appears to have continued advising Joseph Stalin and Nikolai Yezhov on security matters, and the latter relied on Evdokimov's former colleagues to carry out the mass killing operations that are known as the Great Terror in 1937–38.^[64]

On 13 January 2010, Kiev Appellate Court posthumously found Stalin, Kaganovich and other Soviet Communist Party functionaries guilty of genocide against Ukrainians during the Holodomor famine.^[65]

With Joseph Stalin's change of course in the late 1920s, however, Soviet toleration of Ukrainian national identity came to an end. Systematic state terror of the 1930s destroyed Ukraine's writers, artists and intellectuals; the Communist Party of Ukraine was purged of its "nationalist deviationists". Two waves of Stalinist political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union (1929–34 and 1936–38) resulted in the killing of some 681,692 people; this included four-fifths of the Ukrainian cultural elite and three-quarters of all the Red Army's higher-ranking officers.^[57]^[b]

World War II

Kiev suffered significant damage during World War II, and was occupied by Nazi Germany from 19 September 1941 until 6 November 1943.

Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became reunited with the rest of Ukraine. The unification that Ukraine achieved for the first time in its history was a decisive event in the history of the nation.^[66]^[67]

In 1940, Romania ceded Bessarabia and northern Bukovina in response to Soviet demands. The Ukrainian SSR incorporated northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. But it ceded the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. All these territorial gains were internationally recognised by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.

Soviet soldiers preparing rafts to cross the Dnieper (the sign reads "Let's go, Kiev!") in the 1943 Battle of the Dnieper

German armies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, thereby initiating four straight years of incessant total war. The Axis allies initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the encirclement battle of Kiev, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", because the resistance by the Red Army and by the local population was fierce. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of the Soviet Western Front) were killed or taken captive there.^[68]^[69]

Although the majority of Ukrainians fought alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance,^[70] in Western Ukraine appeared anti-Soviet (also anti-Nazi and anti-Polish) movement Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA, 1942). Primary it was created as forces of Ukrainian Government in exile^[71] but soon it falled under the influence of nationalist underground (Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, OUN) which had developed in interwar Poland as a radical reaction on the Polish politics towards Ukrainian minority. UPA supported OUN declared goal of restoration the independent Ukrainian state on the territory with Ukrainian ethnic majority. Although this was the reason of conflict with Nazi Germany (in particular it had caused arrests of some prominent nationalist leaders including Stepan Bandera) at times Melnyk-wing OUN allied with the Nazi forces. Some UPA divisions also carried out the massacres of ethnic Poles,^[72] what caused also relatively smaller Polish actions in response.^[73] After the war UPA continued to fight the USSR till 1950s. Using guerrilla war tactics, the insurgents targeted for assassination and terror those who they perceived as representing, or cooperating at any level with, the Soviet state.^[74]^[75]

At the same time, the Ukrainian Liberation Army, another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.

In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million^[70] to 7 million.^[76]^[d] The pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance in Ukraine is estimated to number at 47,800 from the start of occupation to 500,000 at its peak in 1944; with about 50% being ethnic Ukrainians.^[77] Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are not very reliable, with figures ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as many as 100,000 fighters.^[78]^[79]

Most of the Ukrainian SSR was organised within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual German settlement. Initially, some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939 under pressure, hailed the Germans as liberators. But brutal German rule in the occupied territories eventually turned its supporters against them. Nazi administrators of conquered Soviet territories made little attempt to exploit the dissatisfaction of Ukraine with Stalinist political and economic policies.^[80] Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, systematically carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported men to work in forced labour camps in Germany, and began a systematic depopulation of Ukraine (along with Poland) to prepare it for German colonisation.^[80] They blockaded the transport of food on the Kiev River.^[81]

The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front.^[82] It has been estimated that 93% of all German casualties took place there.^[83] The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated between 5 and 8 million,^[84]^[85] including estimated one and a half million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen,^[86] sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.7 million Soviet troops who fell in battle against the Nazis,^[87]^[88]^[89] 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.^[87]^[89]^[d]^[e] Victory Day is celebrated as one of ten Ukrainian national holidays.^[90]

Post-World War II

Ukrainian territorial evolution, 1918-1991

Sergey Korolyov, a native of Zhytomyr, the head Soviet rocket engineer and designer during the Space Race

The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.^[91] The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–47, which was caused by a drought and the wartime destruction of infrastructure. The death toll of this famine varies, with even the lowest estimate in the tens of thousands.^[92]^[93]^[94]

In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations organization.^[95] The first Soviet computer, MESM, was built at the Kiev Institute of Electrotechnology and became operational in 1950.^[96]

Post-war ethnic cleansing occurred in the newly expanded Soviet Union. As of 1 January 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees", comprising 20% of the total.^[97] In addition, over 450,000 ethnic Germans from Ukraine and more than 200,000 Crimean Tatars were victims of forced deportations.^[97]

Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR. Having served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of Ukrainian SSR in 1938–49, Khrushchev was intimately familiar with the republic; after taking power union-wide, he began to emphasize the friendship between the Ukrainian and Russian nations. In 1954, the 300th anniversary of the Treaty of Pereyaslav was widely celebrated. Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR.^[98]

Kharkiv during the late Soviet era (1981)

By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.^[99] During the 1946–1950 five-year plan, nearly 20% of the Soviet budget was invested in Soviet Ukraine, a 5% increase from prewar plans. As a result, the Ukrainian workforce rose 33.2% from 1940 to 1955 while industrial output grew 2.2 times in that same period.

Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production,^[100] and an important centre of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research. Such an important role resulted in a major influence of the local elite. Many members of the Soviet leadership came from Ukraine, most notably Leonid Brezhnev. He later ousted Khrushchev and became the Soviet leader from 1964 to 1982. Many prominent Soviet sports players, scientists, and artists came from Ukraine.

On 26 April 1986, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.^[101] This was the only accident to receive the highest possible rating of 7 by the International Nuclear Event Scale, indicating a "major accident", until the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in March 2011.^[102] At the time of the accident, 7 million people lived in the contaminated territories, including 2.2 million in Ukraine.^[103]

After the accident, the new city of Slavutych was built outside the exclusion zone to house and support the employees of the plant, which was decommissioned in 2000. A report prepared by the International Atomic Energy Agency and World Health Organization attributed 56 direct deaths to the accident and estimated that there may have been 4,000 extra cancer deaths.^[104]

Independence

Ukrainian President Leonid Kravchuk and Russian President Boris Yeltsin signed the Belavezha Accords, dissolving the Soviet Union, December 8, 1991

On 16 July 1990, the new parliament adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.^[105] The declaration established the principles of the self-determination of the Ukrainian nation, its democracy, political and economic independence, and the priority of Ukrainian law on the Ukrainian territory over Soviet law. A month earlier, a similar declaration was adopted by the parliament of the Russian SFSR. This started a period of confrontation between the central Soviet, and new republican authorities. In August 1991, a conservative faction among the Communist leaders of the Soviet Union attempted a coup to remove Mikhail Gorbachev and to restore the Communist party's power. After the attempt failed, on 24 August 1991 the Ukrainian parliament adopted the Act of Independence in which the parliament declared Ukraine as an independent democratic state.^[106]

A referendum and the first presidential elections took place on 1 December 1991. That day, more than 90% of the electorate expressed their support for the Act of Independence, and they elected the chairman of the parliament, Leonid Kravchuk to serve as the first president of the country. At the meeting in Brest, Belarus on 8 December, followed by the Alma Ata meeting on 21 December, the leaders of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine, formally dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).^[107]

Victims of Stalin's Great Terror in the Bykivnia mass graves, near Kiev, 2011

Although the idea of an independent Ukrainian nation had previously not existed in the 20th century in the minds of international policy makers,^[108] Ukraine was initially viewed as a republic with favorable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union.^[109] However, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than some of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, Ukraine lost 60% of its GDP from 1991 to 1999,^[110]^[111] and suffered five-digit inflation rates.^[112] Dissatisfied with the economic conditions, as well as the amounts of crime and corruption in Ukraine, Ukrainians protested and organised strikes.^[113]

The Ukrainian economy stabilized by the end of the 1990s. A new currency, the hryvnia, was introduced in 1996. Since 2000, the country has enjoyed steady real economic growth averaging about seven percent annually.^[114]^[115] A new Constitution of Ukraine was adopted under second President Leonid Kuchma in 1996, which turned Ukraine into a semi-presidential republic and established a stable political system. Kuchma was, however, criticised by opponents for corruption, electoral fraud, discouraging free speech and concentrating too much power in his office.^[116] During this time Ukraine also pursued full nuclear disarmament, giving up the third largest nuclear weapons stockpile in the world and dismantling or removing all strategic bombers on its territory.^[117]

Orange Revolution

Protesters at Independence Square on the first day of the Orange Revolution

In 2004, Viktor Yanukovych, then Prime Minister, was declared the winner of the presidential elections, which had been largely rigged, as the Supreme Court of Ukraine later ruled.^[118] The results caused a public outcry in support of the opposition candidate, Viktor Yushchenko, who challenged the outcome of the elections. This resulted in the peaceful Orange Revolution, bringing Viktor Yushchenko and Yulia Tymoshenko to power, while casting Viktor Yanukovych in opposition.^[119]

Activists of the Orange Revolution were funded and trained in tactics of political organisation and nonviolent resistance by a coalition of Western pollsters and professional consultants who were partly funded by a range of Western government and non-government agencies but received most of their funding from domestic sources.^{[nb 1]}^[120] According to The Guardian, the foreign donors included the U.S. State Department and USAID along with the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, the International Republican Institute, the NGO Freedom House and George Soros's Open Society Institute.^[121] The National Endowment for Democracy, a foundation supported by the U.S. government, has supported non-governmental democracy-building efforts in Ukraine since 1988.^[122] Writings on nonviolent struggle by Gene Sharp contributed in forming the strategic basis of the student campaigns.^[123]

Yanukovych returned to a position of power in 2006, when he became Prime Minister in the Alliance of National Unity,^[124] until snap elections in September 2007 made Tymoshenko Prime Minister again.^[125] Amid the 2008–09 Ukrainian financial crisis the Ukrainian economy plunged by 15%.^[126] Disputes with Russia over debts for natural gas briefly stopped all gas supplies to Ukraine in 2006 and again in 2009, leading to gas shortages in several other European countries.^[127]^[128] Viktor Yanukovych was elected President in 2010 with 48% of votes.^[129]

Euromaidan and 2014 revolution

Euromaidan. State flag of Ukraine carried by a protester to the heart of developing clashes in Kiev. Events of 18 February 2014

The Euromaidan (Ukrainian: Євромайдан, literally "Eurosquare") protests started in November 2013 after the president, Viktor Yanukovych, began shying away from an association agreement that had been in the works with the European Union and instead chose to establish closer ties with Russia.^[130]^[131] Some Ukrainians took to the streets to show their support for closer ties with Europe.^[132] Meanwhile, in the predominantly Russian-speaking east, a large portion of the population opposed the Euromaidan protests, instead supporting the Yanukovych government.^[133] Over time, Euromaidan came to describe a wave of demonstrations and civil unrest in Ukraine, the scope of which evolved to include calls for the resignation of President Yanukovych and his government.^[134] Violence escalated after 16 January 2014 when the government accepted Bondarenko-Oliynyk laws, also known as Anti-Protest Laws. Anti-government demonstrators occupied buildings in the centre of Kiev, including the Justice Ministry building, and riots left 98 dead with approximately fifteen thousand injured and 100 considered missing^[135]^[136]^[137]^[138] from 18–20 February.^[139]^[140] Owing to violent protests on 22 February 2014, Members of Parliament found the president unable to fulfill his duties and exercised "constitutional powers" to set an election for 25 May to select his replacement.^[141] The results of the 25 May 2014 election were reported by The New York Times as "a decisive victory in the Ukrainian presidential election" for Petro Poroshenko running on a pro-European Union platform, winning with over fifty percent of the vote, and therefore not requiring a run-off election since Tymoshenko, his closest rival during the election, was only able to garner less than a third of his number of votes.^[142]^[143]^[144] Upon his election, Poroshenko announced that his immediate priorities would be to take action in the civil unrest in Eastern Ukraine and mend ties with Russia.^[142]^[143]^[144] Poroshenko was inaugurated as president on 7 June 2014, as previously announced by his spokeswoman Irina Friz in a low-key ceremony without a celebration on Kiev's Maidan Nezalezhnosti square (the center of the Euromaidan protests^[145]) for the ceremony.^[146]^[147]

Pro-Russian unrest in southern and eastern Ukraine

Pro-Russian protesters in Donetsk, March 8, 2014

In the wake of the collapse of the Yanukovych government and the resultant 2014 Ukrainian revolution in February 2014, a secession crisis began on Ukraine's Crimean Peninsula which has a significant number of Russophone people. Unmarked, armed Russian soldiers began being moved into Crimea on 28 February 2014.^[148] On 1 March 2014, exiled Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych requested that Russia use military forces "to establish legitimacy, peace, law and order, stability and defending the people of Ukraine".^[149] On the same day, Russian president Vladimir Putin requested and received authorization from the Russian Parliament to deploy Russian troops to Ukraine and took control of the Crimean Peninsula by the next day.^[150]^[151]^[152]^[153] In addition, NATO was perceived by most Russians as encroaching upon Russia's borders. This weighed heavily upon Moscow’s decision to take measures to secure its Black Sea port in Crimea.^[154]

On 6 March 2014, the Crimean Parliament voted to "enter into the Russian Federation with the rights of a subject of the Russian Federation" and later held a referendum asking the people of these regions whether they wanted to join Russia as a federal subject, or if they wanted to restore the 1992 Crimean constitution and Crimea's status as a part of Ukraine.^[155] Though passed with an overwhelming majority, the vote was not monitored by outside parties and the results are internationally contested, also it is claimed it was enforced by armed group which intruded and enforced voting according to their demands.^[156]^[157]^[158] Crimea and Sevastopol formally declared independence as the Republic of Crimea and requested that they be admitted as constituents of the Russian Federation.^[159] On 18 March 2014, Russia and Crimea signed a treaty of accession of the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol in the Russian Federation, though the United Nations General Assembly voted in favor of a non-binding statement to oppose Russian annexation of the peninsula.^[160]

Meanwhile, unrest began in the Eastern and Southern regions of Ukraine.^[161] In several cities in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions armed men, declaring themselves as local militia, seized government buildings, police and special police stations in several cities of the regions. Talks in Geneva between the EU, Russia, Ukraine and USA yielded a Joint Diplomatic Statement referred to as the 2014 Geneva Pact^[162] in which the parties requested that all unlawful militias lay down the arms and vacate seized government buildings, and also establish a political dialogue that could lead to more autonomy for Ukraine's regions. When Petro Poroshenko won the presidential election held on 25 May 2014, he vowed to continue the military operations by the Ukrainian government forces to end the armed insurgency.^[163] More than 1,100 civilians have been killed in the military campaign.^[164] According to the United Nations, 730,000 Ukrainian refugees have fled to Russia since the beginning of 2014 and 117,000 have fled to other parts of Ukraine.^[165] As president-elect, Poroshenko promised to pursue the return of Crimea to Ukrainian sovereignty.^[163]

Historical maps of Ukraine

The Ukrainian state has occupied a number of territories since its initial foundation. Most of these territories have been located within Eastern Europe, however, as depicted in the maps in the gallery below, has also at times extended well into Eurasia and South-Eastern Europe. At times there has also been a distinct lack of a Ukrainian state, as its territories were, on a number of occasions, annexed by its more powerful neighbours.

Territory of Slavic peoples (6th century).
Historical map of Kievan Rus' and territory of Ukraine: last 20 years of the state (1220–1240).
The Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia or Kingdom of Halych-Volynia (1245–1349).
Historical map of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Rus' and Samogitia until 1434.
Proposed Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth or Commonwealth of Three Nations (1658).
Historical map of Ukrainian Cossack Hetmanate and territory of Zaporozhian Cossacks under rule of Russian Empire (1751).

Geography

The Bay of Laspi on Crimea's Black Sea coast at sunset

The Ai-Petri's peak is 1,234.2 metres (4,049 ft) above mean sea level.^[166]

At 603,628 square kilometres (233,062 sq mi) and with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi), Ukraine is the world's 46th-largest country (after the Central African Republic, before Madagascar). It is the largest wholly European country and the second largest country in Europe (after the European part of Russia, before metropolitan France).^[i]^[31] It lies between latitudes 44° and 53° N, and longitudes 22° and 41° E.

The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertile plains (or steppes) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the Dnieper (Dnipro), Seversky Donets, Dniester and the Southern Buh as they flow south into the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. To the southwest, the delta of the Danube forms the border with Romania. Its various regions have diverse geographic features ranging from the highlands to the lowlands. The country's only mountains are the Carpathian Mountains in the west, of which the highest is the Hora Hoverla at 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and the Crimean Mountains on Crimea, in the extreme south along the coast.^[167] However Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as the Volyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and the Near-Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of Dnieper); to the east there are the south-western spurs of the Central Russian Uplands over which runs the border with Russia. Near the Sea of Azov can be found the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. The snow melt from the mountains feeds the rivers, and natural changes in altitude form a sudden drop in elevation and create many opportunities to form waterfalls.

Significant natural resources in Ukraine include iron ore, coal, manganese, natural gas, oil, salt, sulphur, graphite, titanium, magnesium, kaolin, nickel, mercury, timber and an abundance of arable land. Despite this, the country faces a number of major environmental issues such as inadequate supplies of potable water; air and water pollution and deforestation, as well as radiation contamination in the north-east from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.
Recycling toxic household waste is still in its infancy in Ukraine.^[168]

Typical agricultural landscape of Ukraine, Kherson Oblast

Great White Pelicans are native to south-western Ukraine

Biodiversity

Ukraine is home to a very wide range of animals, fungi, micro-organisms and plants.

Animals

The speckled ground squirrel is a native of the east Ukrainian steppes

Lake Synevir is the largest lake in the Ukrainian Carpathians

Ukraine is divided into two main zoological areas. One of these areas, in the west of the country, is made up of the borderlands of Europe, where there are species typical of mixed forests, the other is located in eastern Ukraine, where steppe-dwelling species thrive. In the forested areas of the country it is not uncommon to find lynxes, wolves, wild boar and martens, as well as many other similar species; this is especially true of the Carpathian Mountains, where a large number of predatory mammals make their home, as well as a contingent of brown bears. Around Ukraine's lakes and rivers beavers, otters and mink make their home, whilst within, carp, bream and catfish are the most commonly found species of fish. In the central and eastern parts of the country, rodents such as hamsters and gophers are found in large numbers.

Fungi

More than 6,600 species of fungi (including lichen-forming species) have been recorded from Ukraine,^[169]^[170] but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Ukraine, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.^[171]
Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Ukraine, and 2217 such species have been tentatively identified.^[172]

Climate

Ukraine has a mostly temperate continental climate, although the southern coast has a humid subtropical climate.^[173] Precipitation is disproportionately distributed; it is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast. Western Ukraine receives around 1,200 millimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea receives around 400 millimetres (15.7 in). Winters vary from cool along the Black Sea to cold farther inland. Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to 11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.^[174]

Politics

The „first constitution of Europe“, the Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk of 1710, already provided for the democratic principles of separation of powers between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, before Montesquieu's The Spirit of Laws (1748), and a democratically elected parliament.

In the modern era, Ukraine has become a much more democratic country^[175]^[176]^[177]^[178]

Ukraine is a republic under a mixed semi-parliamentary semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

The Constitution of Ukraine

With the proclamation of its independence on 24 August 1991, and adoption of a constitution on 28 June 1996, Ukraine became a semi-presidential republic. However, in 2004, deputies introduced changes to the Constitution, which tipped the balance of power in favour of a parliamentary system.
From 2004 to 2010, the legitimacy of the 2004 Constitutional amendments had official sanction, both with the Constitutional Court of Ukraine, and most major political parties.^[179] Despite this, on 30 September 2010 the Constitutional Court ruled that the amendments were null and void, forcing a return to the terms of the 1996 Constitution and again making Ukraine's political system more presidential in character.

The ruling on the 2004 Constitutional amendments became a major topic of political discourse. Much of the concern was due to the fact that neither the Constitution of 1996 nor the Constitution of 2004 provided the ability to "undo the Constitution", as the decision of the Constitutional Court would have it, even though the 2004 constitution arguably has an exhaustive list of possible procedures for constitutional amendments (articles 154–159). In any case, the current Constitution could be modified by a vote in Parliament.^[179]^[180]^[181]

On 21 February 2014 an agreement between President Viktor Yanukovych and opposition leaders saw the country return to the 2004 Constitution. The historic agreement, brokered by the European Union, followed protests that began in late November 2013 and culminated in a week of violent clashes in which scores of protesters were killed. In addition to returning the country to the 2004 Constitution, the deal provided for the formation of a coalition government, the calling of early elections, and the release of former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko from prison.^[182] A day after the agreement was reached the Ukraine parliament dismissed Yanukovych and installed its speaker Oleksandr Turchynov as interim president^[183] and Arseniy Yatsenyuk as the Prime Minister of Ukraine.^[184]

The president, parliament and government

The session chamber of the Verkhovna Rada, the Parliament of Ukraine

Home of the President of Ukraine

Cabinet of Ukraine building

The President is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formal head of state.^[185] Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seat unicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada.^[186] The parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch and the Cabinet of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister.^[187] However, the President still retains the authority to nominate the Ministers of the Foreign Affairs and of Defence for parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint the Prosecutor General and the head of the Security Service.

Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the President in accordance with the proposals of the Prime Minister. This system virtually requires an agreement between the President and the Prime Minister, and has in the past led to problems, such as when President Yushchenko exploited a perceived loophole by appointing so-called 'temporarily acting' officers, instead of actual governors or local leaders, thus evading the need to seek a compromise with the Prime Minister. This practice was controversial and was subject to Constitutional Court review.

Ukraine has a large number of political parties, many of which have tiny memberships and are unknown to the general public.^{[citation needed]} Small parties often join in multi-party coalitions (electoral blocs) for the purpose of participating in parliamentary elections.

Courts and law enforcement

The Klovsky Palace is home to the Supreme Court of Ukraine.

Officers of the Highways' Police (ДАI) during a marathon.

The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by measures adopted in Ukrainian law in 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except in the instance of gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their positions for life in an attempt to insulate them from politics. Although there are still problems with the performance of the system, it is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as being an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. The World Justice Project ranks Ukraine 66 out of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.^[188]

Prosecutors in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to the European Commission for Democracy through Law 'the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance with Council of Europe standards".^[189] In addition to this, from 2005 until 2008 the criminal judicial system maintained an average 99.5% conviction rate and this number grew to 99.83% in 2012,^[190] equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with^[191] suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial.^[192] On 24 March 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organization".^[192] One day after setting this commission Yanukovych stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system."^[192] Judicial and penal institutions play a fundamental role in protecting citizens and safeguarding the common good. The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive. In contemporary Ukraine prison ministry of chaplains does not exist de jure.

Since 1 January 2010 it has been permissible to hold court proceedings in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of a translator.^[193] Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian, the nation's only language with any truly official administrative status.

Law enforcement agencies in Ukraine are typically organised under the authority of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They consist primarily of the national police force (Мiлiцiя) and various specialised units and agencies such as the State Border Guard and the Coast Guard services. In recent years the law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, have faced criticism for their heavy handling of the 2004 Orange Revolution, this criticism stems from the use by the Kuchma government's contemplated use of Berkut special operations units and internal troops in a plan to put an end to demonstrations on Kiev's Maidan Nezalezhnosti. The actions of the government saw many thousands of police officers mobilised and stationed throughout the capital, primarily to dissuade protesters from challenging the state's authority but also to provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were armed and another 10,000 were held in reserve nearby.^[194] Bloodshed was only avoided when Lt. Gen. Sergei Popkov heeded his colleagues' calls to withdraw.

The Ministry of Internal Affairs is also responsible for the maintenance of the State Security Service; Ukraine's domestic intelligence agency, which has on occasion been accused of acting like a secret police force serving to protect the country's political elite from media criticism. On the other hand however, it is widely accepted that members of the service provided vital information about government plans to the leaders of the Orange Revolution to prevent the collapse of the movement.

Foreign relations

Ukrainian Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk meets President Barack Obama in the Oval Office on 12 March 2014.

Ukraine's interim Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk and Oleksandr Turchynov, the acting president of Ukraine, meet John Kerry, 4 March 2014

In 1999–2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union, which had asked for seats for all 15 of its union republics. Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made a substantial contribution to UN peacekeeping operations since 1992.

Foreign Minister Andrii Deshchytsia (left) meets with his Austrian counterpart Sebastian Kurz for talks in Vienna on 20 March 2014.

Ukraine currently considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective, but in practice balances its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. The European Union's Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into force on 1 March 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement. The EU Common Strategy toward Ukraine, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognizes Ukraine's long-term aspirations but does not discuss association. On 31 January 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and on 10 March 1992, it became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Ukraine also has a close relationship with NATO and had previously declared interest in eventual membership; however, this was removed from the government's foreign policy agenda upon election of Viktor Yanukovych to the presidency, in 2010. It is the most active member of the Partnership for Peace (PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the European Union. The Association Agreement with the EU was expected to be signed into effect by the end of 2011, but the process has been suspended as of 2012 due to recent political developments.^[195]

Ukraine maintains peaceful and constructive relations with all its neighbours; it had enjoyed especially close ties with Russia and Poland, although relations with the former were complicated by the annexation of Crimea, energy dependence and payment disputes following the events of February 2014.

Ukraine is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.

Administrative divisions

The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as a unitary state (as stated in the country's constitution) with unified legal and administrative regimes for each unit.
Ukraine is subdivided into twenty-four oblasts (provinces) and one autonomous republic (avtonomna respublika), Crimea. Additionally, the cities of Kiev, the capital, and Sevastopol, both have a special legal status. The 24 oblasts and Crimea are subdivided into 490 raions (districts), or second-level administrative units. The average area of a Ukrainian raion is 1,200 square kilometres (460 sq mi); the average population of a raion is 52,000 people.^[196]

Urban areas (cities) can either be subordinated to the state (as in the case of Kiev and Sevastopol), the oblast or raion administrations, depending on their population and socio-economic importance. Lower administrative units include urban-type settlements, which are similar to rural communities, but are more urbanized, including industrial enterprises, educational facilities and transport connections, and villages.

Following the 2014 Crimean crisis, Crimea and Sevastopol became de facto administrated by the Russian Federation, which claims them as the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol. They are still recognised as being Ukrainian territory by the majority of the international community.

Volyn

Rivne

Kiev

Poltava

Sumy

Kharkiv

Dnipropetrovsk

Odessa

Kherson

Zaporizhia

Donetsk

Crimea

Luhansk

Kiev

Sevastopol

Lviv

•

Oblasts
Cherkasy Chernihiv Chernivtsi Dnipropetrovsk Donetsk	Ivano-Frankivsk Kharkiv Kherson Khmelnytskyi Kiev	Kirovohrad Luhansk Lviv Mykolaiv Odessa	Poltava Rivne Sumy Ternopil Vinnytsia	Volyn Zakarpattia Zaporizhia Zhytomyr
Autonomous republic		Cities with special status
Autonomous Republic of Crimea		City of Kiev City of Sevastopol

Armed forces

BTR-80 in Iraq and frigate Hetman Sahaydachniy (U130)

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world.^[197]^[198] In May 1992, Ukraine signed the Lisbon Protocol in which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. Ukraine ratified the treaty in 1994, and by 1996 the country became free of nuclear weapons.^[197]

Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country plans to convert the current conscript-based military into a professional volunteer military.^[199]

Ukraine has been playing an increasingly larger role in peacekeeping operations. On Friday 3 January 2014, the Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sagaidachniy joined the European Union’s counter piracy Operation Atalanta and will be part of the EU Naval Force off the coast of Somalia for two months.^[200] Ukrainian troops are deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion.^[201] A Ukrainian unit was deployed in Lebanon, as part of UN Interim Force enforcing the mandated ceasefire agreement. There was also a maintenance and training battalion deployed in Sierra Leone. In 2003–05, a Ukrainian unit was deployed as part of the Multinational force in Iraq under Polish command. The total Ukrainian armed forces deployment around the world is 562 servicemen.^[202]

Military units of other states participate in multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly, including U.S. military forces.^[203]

Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state.^[204] The country has had a limited military partnership with Russia, other CIS countries and a partnership with NATO since 1994. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards NATO, and a deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future.^[199] Recently deposed President Viktor Yanukovych considered the current level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient,^[205] and was against Ukraine joining NATO.^[206] During the 2008 Bucharest summit, NATO declared that Ukraine will become a member of NATO, whenever it wants and when it would correspond to the criteria for the accession.^[205]

Economy

Trends in the Human Development Index of Ukraine, 1970-2010

In Soviet times, the economy of Ukraine was the second largest in the Soviet Union, being an important industrial and agricultural component of the country's planned economy.^[31] With the dissolution of the Soviet system, the country moved from a planned economy to a market economy. The transition process was difficult for the majority of the population which plunged into poverty.^[207] Ukraine's economy contracted severely following the years after the Soviet dissolution. Day-to-day life for the average person living in Ukraine was a struggle. A significant number of citizens in rural Ukraine survived by growing their own food, often working two or more jobs and buying the basic necessities through the barter economy.^[208]

The Ukrainian-made Antonov An-225 Mriya is the largest aircraft ever built

In 1991, the government liberalised most prices to combat widespread product shortages, and was successful in overcoming the problem. At the same time, the government continued to subsidise state-run industries and agriculture by uncovered monetary emission. The loose monetary policies of the early 1990s pushed inflation to hyperinflationary levels. For the year 1993, Ukraine holds the world record for inflation in one calendar year.^[209] Those living on fixed incomes suffered the most.^[57] Prices stabilised only after the introduction of new currency, the hryvnia, in 1996.

The building of the National Bank of Ukraine

The country was also slow in implementing structural reforms. Following independence, the government formed a legal framework for privatisation. However, widespread resistance to reforms within the government and from a significant part of the population soon stalled the reform efforts. A large number of state-owned enterprises were exempt from the privatisation process.

In the meantime, by 1999, the GDP had fallen to less than 40% of the 1991 level.^[210] It recovered considerably in the following years, but as at 2014 had yet to reach the historical maximum.^[211] In the early 2000s, the economy showed strong export-based growth of 5 to 10%, with industrial production growing more than 10% per year.^[212] Ukraine was hit by the economic crisis of 2008 and in November 2008, the IMF approved a stand-by loan of $16.5 billion for the country.^[213]

Ukraine's 2010 GDP (PPP), as calculated by the CIA, is ranked 38th in the world and estimated at $305.2 billion.^[31] Its GDP per capita in 2010 according to the CIA was $6,700 (in PPP terms), ranked 107th in the world.^[31] Nominal GDP (in U.S. dollars, calculated at market exchange rate) was $136 billion, ranked 53rd in the world.^[31] By July 2008 the average nominal salary in Ukraine reached 1,930 hryvnias per month.^[214] Despite remaining lower than in neighbouring central European countries, the salary income growth in 2008 stood at 36.8%^[215] According to the UNDP in 2003 4.9% of the Ukrainian population lived under 2 US dollars a day^[216] and 19.5% of the population lived below the national poverty line that same year.^[217] According to the World Bank in 2010 only 0.1% of population lived under 2 US dollar a day.^[218]

Ukrainian administrative divisions by monthly salary

Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles and spacecraft. Antonov airplanes and KrAZ trucks are exported to many countries. The majority of Ukrainian exports are marketed to the European Union and CIS.^[219] Since independence, Ukraine has maintained its own space agency, the National Space Agency of Ukraine (NSAU). Ukraine became an active participant in scientific space exploration and remote sensing missions. Between 1991 and 2007, Ukraine has launched six self made satellites and 101 launch vehicles, and continues to design spacecraft.^[220]^[221]^[222]

Dnipropetrovsk's central business district

The country imports most energy supplies, especially oil and natural gas and to a large extent depends on Russia as its energy supplier. While 25% of the natural gas in Ukraine comes from internal sources, about 35% comes from Russia and the remaining 40% from Central Asia through transit routes that Russia controls. At the same time, 85% of the Russian gas is delivered to Western Europe through Ukraine.^[223]

The World Bank classifies Ukraine as a middle-income state.^[224] Significant issues include underdeveloped infrastructure and transportation, corruption and bureaucracy. The public will to fight against corrupt officials and business elites culminated in a strong wave of public demonstrations against the Victor Yanukovych’s regime in November 2013.^[225] In 2007 the Ukrainian stock market recorded the second highest growth in the world of 130 percent.^[226] According to the CIA, in 2006 the market capitalization of the Ukrainian stock market was $111.8 billion.^[31]

Growing sectors of the Ukrainian economy include the information technology (IT) market, which topped all other Central and Eastern European countries in 2007, growing some 40 percent.^[227] Ukraine ranks fourth in the world in number of certified IT professionals after the United States, India and Russia.^[228]

Corporations

An industrial robot at work in the ZAZ automobile plant in Zaporizhia

Kiev is home to most of Ukraine's largest private businesses

Ukraine has a very large heavy-industry base and is one of the largest refiners of metallurgical products in Eastern Europe.^[229] However, the country is also well known for its production of high-technological goods and transport products, such as Antonov aircraft and various private and commercial vehicles.^[230] The country's largest and most competitive firms are components of the PFTS index, traded on the PFTS Ukraine Stock Exchange.

Well-known Ukrainian brands include Naftogaz Ukrainy, AvtoZAZ, PrivatBank, Roshen, Yuzhmash, Nemiroff, Motor Sich, Khortytsa, Kyivstar and Aerosvit.^[231]

Ukraine is regarded as a developing economy with high potential for future success, though such a development is thought likely only with new all-encompassing economic and legal reforms.^[232] Although Foreign Direct Investment in Ukraine has remained relatively strong ever since recession of the early 1990s, the country has had trouble maintaining stable economic growth. Issues relating to current corporate governance in Ukraine are primarily linked to the large scale monopolisation of traditional heavy industries by wealthy individuals such as Rinat Akhmetov, the enduring failure to broaden the nation's economic base and a lack of effective legal protection for investors and their products.^[233] Despite all this, Ukraine's economy is still expected to grow by around 3.5% in 2010.^[234]

Transport

The Kharkiv-Dnipropetrovsk motorway (M18)

Most of the Ukrainian road system has not been upgraded since the Soviet era, and is now outdated. In total, Ukrainian paved roads stretch for 164,732 kilometres (102,360 mi).^[31] The network of major routes, marked with the letter 'M' for 'International' (Ukrainian: Міжнародний), extends nationwide and connects all the major cities of Ukraine as well as providing cross-border routes to the country's neighbours. Currently there are only two true motorway standard highways in Ukraine; a 175 kilometres (109 miles) stretch of motorway from Kharkiv to Dnipropetrovsk and a section of the M03 which extends 18 km (11 mi) from Kiev to Boryspil, where the city's international airport is located.^{[citation needed]}

Rail transport is heavily utilised in Ukraine

Rail transport in Ukraine plays the role of connecting all major urban areas, port facilities and industrial centres with neighbouring countries. The heaviest concentration of railway track is located in the Donbas region of Ukraine. Although the amount of freight transported by rail fell by 7.4% in 1995 in comparison with 1994, Ukraine is still one of the world's highest rail users.^[235] The total amount of railroad track in Ukraine extends for 22,473 kilometres (13,964 mi), of which 9,250 kilometres (5,750 mi) is electrified.^[31] Currently the state has a monopoly on the provision of passenger rail transport, and all trains, other than those with cooperation of other foreign companies on international routes, are operated by its company 'Ukrzaliznytsia'.

The aviation section in Ukraine is developing very quickly, having recently established a visa-free programme for EU nationals and citizens of a number of other Western nations,^[236] the nation's aviation sector is handling a significantly increased number of travellers. Additionally, the granting of the Euro 2012 football tournament to Poland and Ukraine as joint hosts prompted the government to invest huge amounts of money into transport infrastructure, and in particular airports.^[237]

Kiev Boryspil is the county's largest international airport; it has a total of three main passenger terminals and is the base for both of Ukraine's national airlines. Other large airports in the country include those in Kharkiv, Lviv and Donetsk (all of which have recently constructed, modern terminals and aviation facilities), whilst those in Dnipropetrovsk and Odessa have plans for terminal upgrades in the near future. Ukraine has a number of airlines, the largest of which are the nation's flag carriers, Aerosvit and UIA. Antonov Airlines, a subsidiary of the Antonov Aerospace Design Bureau is the only operator of the world's largest fixed wing aircraft, the An-225.

International maritime travel is mainly provided through the Port of Odessa, from where ferries sail regularly to Istanbul, Varna and Haifa. The largest ferry company presently operating these routes is Ukrferry.^[238]

Energy

In 2014, Ukraine was ranked number 19 on the Emerging Market Energy Security Growth Prosperity Index, published by the think tank Bisignis Institute, which ranks emerging market countries using government corruption, GDP growth and oil reserve information.^[239]

Fuel resources

Ukraine produces and processes its own natural gas and petroleum. However, the majority of these commodities are imported. Sixty percent of Ukrainian natural gas supplies are provided by Russia.^{[citation needed]}

Natural gas is heavily utilised not only in energy production but also by steel and chemical industries of the country, as well as by the district heating sector. In 2012, Shell started exploration drilling for shale gas in Ukraine—a project aimed at the nation's total gas supply independence.^{[citation needed]}

Ukraine has sufficient coal reserves and increases its use in electricity generation.^{[citation needed]}

Power generation

Rivne Nuclear Power Plant

Ukraine has been a net energy exporting country, for example in 2011, 3.3% of electricity produced were exported,^[240] but also one of Europe's largest energy consumers.^[241] As of 2011, 47.6% of total electricity generation was from nuclear power^[240] The largest nuclear power plant in Europe, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, is located in Ukraine. Most of the nuclear fuel has been coming from Russia.^[when?] In 2008 Westinghouse Electric Company won a five-year contract selling nuclear fuel to three Ukrainian reactors starting in 2011.^[242] Following Euromaidan then President Viktor Yanukovich introduced a ban on Rosatom nuclear fuel shipments to Europe via Ukraine, which was in effect from 28 January until 6 March 2014.^[243] After the Russian annexation of Crimea in April 2014, the National Nuclear Energy Generating Company of Ukraine Energoatom and Westinghouse extended the contract for fuel deliveries through 2020.^[244]

Coal- and gas-fired thermal power stations and hydroelectricity are the second and third largest kinds of power generation in the country.^{[citation needed]}

Renewable energy use

The share of renewables within the total energy mix is still very small, but is growing fast. Total installed capacity of renewable energy installations more than doubled in 2011 and as of 2012 stands at 397 MW.^[245] In 2011 several large solar power stations were opened in Ukraine, among them Europe's largest solar park in Perovo, (Crimea).^[246] Ukrainian State Agency for Energy Efficiency and Conservation forecasts that combined installed capacity of wind and solar power plants in
Ukraine could increase by another 600 MW in 2012.^[247] According to Macquarie Research, by 2016 Ukraine will construct and commission new solar power stations with a total capacity of 1.8 GW, almost equivalent to the capacity of two nuclear reactors.^[248]

The Economic Bank for Reconstruction and Development estimates that Ukraine has great renewable energy potential: the technical potential for wind energy is estimated at 40 TWh/year, small hydropower stations at 8.3 TWh/year, biomass at 120 TWh/year, and solar energy at 50 TWh/year.^[249] In 2011, Ukraine's Energy Ministry predicted that the installed capacity of generation from alternative and renewable energy sources would increase to 9% (about 6 GW) of the total electricity production in the country.^[250]

Internet

Ukraine has a large and steadily growing Internet sector, mostly uninfluenced by the financial crisis of 2007–08; rapid growth is forecast for at least two more years.^[251] Internet penetration – 45% and 19.9 million users in December 2012.^[252] Ukraine ranks 8th among the world's TOP-10 countries with the fastest Internet access speed.^[253]

Tourism

Crimea hosts many seaside resorts and historic sites

Ukraine occupies 8th place in Europe by the number of tourists visiting, according to the World Tourism Organisation rankings,^[254] due to its numerous tourist attractions: mountain ranges suitable for skiing, hiking and fishing: the Black Sea coastline as a popular summer destination; nature reserves of different ecosytems; churches, castle ruins and other architectural and park landmarks; various outdoor activity points. Kiev, Lviv, Odessa, Kamyanets-Podilskyi and Yalta are Ukraine's principal tourist centers each offering many historical landmarks as well as formidable hospitality infrastructure.

The Seven Wonders of Ukraine and Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine are the selection of the most important landmarks of Ukraine, chosen by the general public through an internet-based vote.

Demographics

Composition of Ukraine by nationality

Ukrainians			77.8%
Russians			17.3%
Belarusians			0.6%
Moldovans			0.5%
Crimean Tatars			0.5%
Bulgarians			0.4%
Hungarians			0.3%
Romanians			0.3%
Poles			0.3%
Other			1.7%
Source: Ethnic composition of the population of Ukraine, 2001 Census

Main ethnic groups of Ukrainian raions (2001)

According to the Ukrainian Census of 2001, Ukrainians make up 77.8% of the population. Other significant groups have identified themselves as belonging to the nationality of Russians (17.3%), Belarusians (0.6%), Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Tatars (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles (0.3%), Jews (0.2%), Armenians (0.2%), Greeks (0.2%) and Tatars (0.2%).^[2] The industrial regions in the east and southeast are the most heavily populated, and about 67.2% of the population lives in urban areas.^[255]^[256]

Population decline

Ukraine's population has been declining since the 1990s due to its high death rate and a low birth rate. The population is shrinking by over 150,000 a year.^[when?] The birth rate has recovered in recent years from a low level around 2000, and is now comparable to the European average. It would need to increase by another 50% or so to stabilize the population and offset the high mortality rate.^{[citation needed]}

In 2007, the country's rate of population decline was the fourth highest in the world.^[257]
Life expectancy is falling, and Ukraine suffers a high mortality rate from environmental pollution, poor diets, widespread smoking, extensive alcoholism and deteriorating medical care.^[258]^[259]
In the years 2008 to 2010, more than 1.5 million children were born in Ukraine, compared to fewer than 1.2 million during 1999–2001 during the worst of the demographic crisis. In 2008 Ukraine posted record-breaking birth rates since its 1991 independence. Infant mortality rates have also dropped from 10.4 deaths to 8.3 per 1,000 children under one year of age. This is lower than in 153 countries of the world.^[260]

Fertility and natalist policies

Population of Ukraine (in millions) from 1950 to 2009^[261]^[262]

The current birth rate in Ukraine, as of 2010, is 10.8 births/1,000 population, and the death rate is 15.2 deaths/1,000 population (see demographic tables)

The phenomenon of lowest-low fertility, defined as total fertility below 1.3, is emerging throughout Europe and is attributed by many to postponement of the initiation of childbearing. Ukraine, where total fertility (a very low 1.1 in 2001), was one of the world's lowest, shows that there is more than one pathway to lowest-low fertility. Although Ukraine has undergone immense political and economic transformations during 1991–2004, it has maintained a young age at first birth and nearly universal childbearing. Analysis of official national statistics and the Ukrainian Reproductive Health Survey show that fertility declined to very low levels without a transition to a later pattern of childbearing. Findings from focus group interviews suggest explanations of the early fertility pattern. These findings include the persistence of traditional norms for childbearing and the roles of men and women, concerns about medical complications and infertility at a later age, and the link between early fertility and early marriage.^[263]

To help mitigate the declining population, the government continues to increase child support payments. Thus it provides one-time payments of 12,250 Hryvnias for the first child, 25,000 Hryvnias for the second and 50,000 Hryvnias for the third and fourth, along with monthly payments of 154 Hryvnias per child.^[215]^[264] The demographic trend is showing signs of improvement, as the birth rate has been steadily growing since 2001.^[265] Net population growth over the first nine months of 2007 was registered in five provinces of the country (out of 24), and population shrinkage was showing signs of stabilising nationwide. In 2007 the highest birth rates were in the western oblasts.^[266] In 2008, Ukraine emerged from lowest-low fertility, and the upward trend has continued since, except for a slight dip in 2010 due to the economic crisis of 2009 (see demographic tables).

Urbanisation

In total, Ukraine has 457 cities, 176 of them are labelled oblast-class, 279 smaller raion-class cities, and two special legal status cities. These are followed by 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.^[196]

v t e Largest cities or towns of Ukraine Geonames.org
	Rank	Name	Oblast	Pop.	Rank	Name	Oblast	Pop.
Kiev Kharkiv	1	Kiev	Kiev (city)	2,814,258	11	Luhansk	Luhansk	431,109	Odessa Dnipropetrovsk
	2	Kharkiv	Kharkiv	1,441,622	12	Vinnytsia	Vinnytsia	370,800
	3	Odessa	Odessa	1,003,705	13	Makiivka	Donetsk	358,156
	4	Dnipropetrovsk	Dnipropetrovsk	1,001,962	14	Sevastopol	Sevastopol (city)	340,297
	5	Donetsk	Donetsk	962,024	15	Simferopol	Crimea	336,330
	6	Zaporizhia	Zaporizhia	772,600	16	Kherson	Kherson	302,526
	7	Lviv	Lviv	760,026	17	Poltava	Poltava	298,652
	8	Kryvyi Rih	Dnipropetrovsk	664,499	18	Chernihiv	Chernihiv	296,836
	9	Mykolaiv	Mykolaiv	498,518	19	Cherkasy	Cherkasy	286,037
	10	Mariupol	Donetsk	486,856	20	Horlivka	Donetsk	279,637

Language

Percentage of ethnic Ukrainians by subdivision according to the 2001 census (by oblast)

Percentage of native Russian speakers by subdivision according to the 2001 census (by oblast)^[f]

According to the constitution, the state language of Ukraine is Ukrainian.^[267] Russian is widely spoken, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine.^[267] According to the 2001 census, 67.5 percent of the population declared Ukrainian as their native language and 29.6 percent declared Russian.^[268]

Most native Ukrainian speakers know Russian as a second language.^[267] Russian was the de facto official language of the Soviet Union but both Russian and Ukrainian were official languages in the Soviet Union^[269] and in the schools of the Ukrainian SSR learning Ukrainian was mandatory.^[267] Effective in August 2012, a new law on regional languages entitles any local language spoken by at least a 10% minority be declared official within that area.^[270] Russian was within weeks declared as a regional language in several southern and eastern oblasts (provinces) and cities.^[271] Russian can now be used in these cities'/oblasts' administrative office work and documents.^[272]^[273] On 23 February 2014, following the 2014 Ukrainian revolution, the Ukrainian Parliament voted to repeal the law on regional languages, making Ukrainian the sole state language at all levels; however, this vote was vetoed by acting President Turchynov on March 2.^[274]^[275]

Ukrainian is mainly spoken in western and central Ukraine.^[267] In western Ukraine, Ukrainian is also the dominant language in cities (such as Lviv). In central Ukraine, Ukrainian and Russian are both equally used in cities, with Russian being more common in Kiev,^[f] while Ukrainian is the dominant language in rural communities. In eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is primarily used in cities, and Ukrainian is used in rural areas. These details result in a significant difference across different survey results, as even a small restating of a question switches responses of a significant group of people.^[f]

For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s, the usage of the Ukrainian language in public life had decreased significantly.^[276] Following independence, the government of Ukraine began restoring the image and usage of Ukrainian language through a policy of Ukrainisation.^[277] Today, all foreign films and TV programs, including Russian ones, are subtitled or dubbed in Ukrainian.^{[not in citation given]}

According to the Constitution of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Ukrainian is the only state language of the republic. However, the republic's constitution specifically recognises Russian as the language of the majority of its population and guarantees its usage 'in all spheres of public life'. Similarly, the Crimean Tatar language (the language of 12 percent of population of Crimea)^[278] is guaranteed a special state protection as well as the 'languages of other ethnicities'. Russian speakers constitute an overwhelming majority of the Crimean population (77 percent), with Crimean Tatar speakers 11.4 percent and Ukrainian speakers comprising just 10.1 percent.^[279] But in everyday life the majority of Crimean Tatars and Ukrainians in Crimea use Russian.^[280]

Religion

The Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, a UNESCO World Heritage Site^[281]

St. Nicholas Roman Catholic Cathedral in Kyiv

Estimates compiled by the independent Razumkov Centre in a nationwide survey in 2006 found that 75.2 percent of the respondents believe in God and 22 percent said they did not believe in God. 37.4 percent said that they attended church on regular basis.^[282]

"What religious group do you belong to?" Sociology poll by Razumkov Centre about the religious situation in Ukraine (2006)

Atheist or do not belong to any church

UOC – Kiev Patriarchate

UOC – Moscow Patriarchate

UAOC

Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church

Roman Catholic Church

Among Ukrainians who are affiliated with an organised religion, the most common religion in Ukraine is Orthodox Christianity, currently split between three Church bodies: the Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kiev Patriarchate, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church autonomous church body under the Patriarch of Moscow, and the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church.^[283]

A distant second by the number of the followers is the Eastern Rite Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, which practices a similar liturgical and spiritual tradition as Eastern Orthodoxy, but is in communion with the Holy See of the Roman Catholic Church and recognises the primacy of the Pope as head of the Church.^[284]

Additionally, there are 863 Latin Rite Catholic communities, and 474 clergy members serving some one million Latin Rite Catholics in Ukraine.^[283] The group forms some 2.19 percent of the population and consists mainly of ethnic Poles and Hungarians, who live predominantly in the western regions of the country.

Protestant Christians form around 2.19 percent of the population. Protestant numbers have grown greatly since Ukrainian independence. The Evangelical Baptist Union of Ukraine is the largest group, with more than 150,000 members and about 3,000 clergy. The second largest Protestant church is the Ukrainian Church of Evangelical faith (Pentecostals) with 110,000 members and over 1,500 local churches and over 2,000 clergy, but there also exist other Pentecostal groups and unions and together all Pentecostals are over 300,000, with over 3,000 local churches. Also there are many Pentecostal high education schools such as the Lviv Theological Seminary and the Kiev Bible Institute. Other groups include Calvinists, Jehovah's Witnesses, Lutherans, Methodists and Seventh-day Adventists. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon) are also present.^[283]

There are an estimated 500,000 Muslims in Ukraine and about 300,000 of them are Crimean Tatars.^[285] There are 487 registered Muslim communities, 368 of them on Crimea. In addition, some 50,000 Muslims live in Kiev; mostly foreign-born.^[286]

The Jewish population is a tiny fraction of what it was before World War II. (In Tsarist times, Ukraine had been part of the Pale of Settlement, to which Jews were largely restricted in the Russian Empire.) The largest Jewish communities in 1926 were in Odessa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; and Kiev, 140,500 or 27.3%.^[287] The 2001 census indicated that there are 103,600 Jews in Ukraine, although community leaders claimed that the population could be as large as 300,000. There are no statistics on what share of the Ukrainian Jews are observant, but Orthodox Judaism has the strongest presence in Ukraine. Smaller Reform and Conservative Jewish (Masorti) communities exist as well.^[283]

One 2006 survey put the number of non-religious in Ukraine at approximately 62.5% of the population.^[282]

Famines and migration

The famines of the 1930s, followed by the devastation of World War II, comprised a demographic disaster. Life expectancy at birth fell to a level as low as ten years for females and seven for males in 1933 and plateaued around 25 for females and 15 for males in the period 1941–44.^[288] According to The Oxford companion to World War II, "Over 7 million inhabitants of Ukraine, more than one-sixth of the pre-war population, were killed during the Second World War."^[289]

Significant migration took place in the first years of Ukrainian independence. More than one million people moved into Ukraine in 1991–92, mostly from the other former Soviet republics. In total, between 1991 and 2004, 2.2 million immigrated to Ukraine (among them, 2 million came from the other former Soviet Union states), and 2.5 million emigrated from Ukraine (among them, 1.9 million moved to other former Soviet Union republics).^[290] Currently, immigrants constitute an estimated 14.7% of the total population, or 6.9 million people; this is the fourth largest figure in the world.^[291] In 2006, there were an estimated 1.2 million Canadians of Ukrainian ancestry,^[292] giving Canada the world's third-largest Ukrainian population behind Ukraine itself and Russia. There are also large Ukrainian immigrant communities in the United States, Australia, Brazil and Argentina.

Health

The municipal children's hospital in Kremenchuk, Poltava Oblast

The Ukrainian Red Cross Society was established in April, 1918 in Kyiv as an independent humanitarian society of the Ukrainian People's Republic. Its immediate tasks were to help refugees and prisoners of war, care of handicapped people, orphaned children, fighting famine and epidemics, support and organize sick quarters, hospitals and public canteens. At present, society involves more than 6.3 million of supporters and activists. Its Visiting Nurses Service has 3200 qualified nurses. The organization takes part in more than 40 humanitarian programmes all over Ukraine, which are mostly funded by public donation and corporate partnerships. By its own estimations, the Society annually provides services to more than 105 000 of lonely elderly people, about 23 000 of people disabled during the Second World War and handicapped workers, more than 25 000 of war veterans, and more than 8 000 of adults handicapped since childhood. The assistance for orphaned and disabled children is also rendered.

Ukraine's healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist nationwide.^[293] The public sector employs most healthcare professionals, with those working for private medical centres typically also retaining their state employment as they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a regular basis.

All the country's medical service providers and hospitals are subordinate to the Ministry of Health, which provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for the day-to-day administration of the healthcare system. Despite this standards of hygiene and patient-care have fallen.^[294]

Population pyramid of Ukraine in 2012 from International Futures

Hospitals in Ukraine are organised along the same lines as most European nations, according to the regional administrative structure; resultantly most towns have their own hospital (Міська Лікарня) and many also have district hospitals (Районна Лікарня). Larger and more specialised medical complexes tend only to be found in major cities, with some even more specialised units located only in the capital, Kiev. However, all oblasts have their own network of general hospitals which are able to deal with almost all medical problems and are typically equipped with major trauma centres; such hospitals are called 'regional hospitals' (Обласна Лікарня).

Ukraine currently faces a number of major public health issues, and is considered to be in a demographic crisis due to its high death rate and low birth rate (the current Ukrainian birth rate is 11 births/1,000 population, and the death rate is 16.3 deaths/1,000 population). A factor contributing to the high death rate is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes such as alcohol poisoning and smoking.^[259] In 2008, the country's population was one of the fastest declining in the world at −5% growth.^[257]^[295] The UN warned that Ukraine's population could fall by as much as 10 million by 2050 if trends did not improve.^[296] In addition, obesity, systemic high blood pressure and the HIV endemic are all major challenges facing the Ukrainian healthcare system.

As of March 2009 the Ukrainian government to reforming the health care system, by the creation of a national network of family doctors and improvements in the medical emergency services.^[297] former Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko put forward (in November 2009) an idea to start introducing a public healthcare system based on health insurance in the spring of 2010.^[298]

Education

The University of Kiev is one of Ukraine's most important educational institutions

According to the Ukrainian constitution, access to free education is granted to all citizens. Complete general secondary education is compulsory in the state schools which constitute the overwhelming majority. Free higher education in state and communal educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis.^[299] There is also a small number of accredited private secondary and higher education institutions.

Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total access of education for all citizens, which continues today, the literacy rate is an estimated 99.4%.^[31] Since 2005, an eleven-year school programme has been replaced with a twelve-year one: primary education takes four years to complete (starting at age six), middle education (secondary) takes five years to complete; upper secondary then takes three years.^[300] In the 12th grade, students take Government tests, which are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These tests are later used for university admissions.

Ukraine produces the fourth largest number of post-secondary graduates in Europe, while being ranked seventh in population

The first higher education institutions (HEIs) emerged in Ukraine during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The first Ukrainian higher education institution was the Ostrozka School, or Ostrozkiy Greek-Slavic-Latin Collegium, similar to Western European higher education institutions of the time. Established in 1576 in the town of Ostrog, the Collegium was the first higher education institution in the Eastern Slavic territories. The oldest university was the Kyiv Mohyla Academy, first established in 1632 and in 1694 officially recognised by the government of Imperial Russia as a higher education institution. Among the oldest is also the Lviv University, founded in 1661. More higher education institutions were set up in the 19th century, beginning with universities in Kharkiv (1805), Kiev (1834), Odessa (1865) and Chernivtsi (1875) and a number of professional higher education institutions, e.g.: Nizhyn Historical and Philological Institute (originally established as the Gymnasium of Higher Sciences in 1805), a Veterinary Institute (1873) and a Technological Institute (1885) in Kharkiv, a Polytechnic Institute in Kiev (1898) and a Higher Mining School (1899) in Katerynoslav. Rapid growth followed in the Soviet period. By 1988 a number of higher education institutions increased to 146 with over 850,000 students.^[301] Most HEIs established after 1990 are those owned by private organisations.

Residence of Bukovinian and Dalmatian Metropolitans building by Josef Hlávka, 1882, now Chernivtsi University.

The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational establishments, scientific and methodological facilities under national, municipal and self-governing bodies in charge of education.^[302] The organisation of higher education in Ukraine is built up in accordance with the structure of education of the world's higher developed countries, as is defined by UNESCO and the UN.^[303] Ukraine has more than 800 higher education institutions and in 2010 the number of graduates reached 654,700 people.^[304]

Nowadays higher education is either state funded or private. Students that study at state expense receive a standard scholarship if their average marks at the end-of-term exams and differentiated test is at least 4 (see the 5-point grade system below); this rule may be different in some universities. In the case of all grades being the highest (5), the scholarship is increased by 25%. For most students the level of government subsidy is not sufficient to cover their basic living expenses. Most universities provide subsidised housing for out-of-city students. Also, it is common for libraries to supply required books for all registered students. There are two degrees conferred by Ukrainian universities: the Bachelor's Degree (4 years) and the Master's Degree (5–6th year). These degrees are introduced in accordance with the Bologna process, in which Ukraine is taking part. Historically, Specialist's Degree (usually 5 years) is still also granted; it was the only degree awarded by universities in the Soviet times.

Regional differences

Ukrainian is the dominant language in Western Ukraine and in Central Ukraine, while Russian is the dominant language in the cities of Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine. In the Ukrainian SSR schools, learning Russian was mandatory; currently in modern Ukraine, schools with Ukrainian as the language of instruction offer classes in Russian and in the other minority languages.^[267]^[305]^[306]^[307]
The average view(s) of the inhabitants of Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine on the Russian language, on Soviet Union and Ukrainian nationalism tends to be the exact opposite of the views of Western Ukrainians; while the views on these subjects of the people of Central Ukraine tends not to be so extreme as in Western Ukraine, Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine.^[306]^[308]^[309]^[310] There are not only clear regional differences on questions of identity but historical cleavages remain evident at the level of individual social identification. Attitudes toward the most important political issue, relations with Russia, differed strongly between Lviv, identifying more with Ukrainian nationalism and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church and Donetsk, predominantly Russian orientated and favourable to the Soviet era, while in central and southern Ukraine, as well as Kiev, such divisions were less important and there was less antipathy toward people from other regions (a poll by the Research & Branding Group held March 2010 showed that the attitude of the citizens of Donetsk to the citizens of Lviv was 79% positive and that the attitude of the citizens of Lviv to the citizens of Donetsk was 88% positive^[311]). However, all were united by an overarching Ukrainian identity based on shared economic difficulties, showing that other attitudes are determined more by culture and politics than by demographic differences.^[311]^[312] Surveys of regional identities in Ukraine have shown that the feeling of belonging to a "Soviet identity" is strongest in the Donbas (about 40%) and the Crimea (about 30%).^[313]

During elections voters of Western and Central Ukrainian oblasts (provinces) vote mostly for parties (Our Ukraine, Batkivshchyna)^[314]^[315] and presidential candidates (Viktor Yuschenko, Yulia Tymoshenko) with a pro-Western and state reform platform, while voters in Southern and Eastern oblasts vote for parties (CPU, Party of Regions) and presidential candidates (Viktor Yanukovych) with a pro-Russian and status quo platform.^[316]^[317]^[318]^[319] However, this geographical division is decreasing.^[320]^[321]^[322]

Culture

Traditional Ukrainian village architecture in Curitiba, Brazil, where a large Ukrainian diaspora is.

The memorial house of Ivan Kotlyarevsky in Poltava. The writer and social activist has pioneered the vernacular poetry in Ukrainian literature. At a time when there was still serfdom, he wrote a burlesque Aeneas-travesty ("Енеїда", 1798), in which the gods, Trojans and Romans occur as Cossacks.

Rushnyk, Ukrainian embroidery

Dissemination pattern

A collection of traditional Ukrainian Easter Eggs - pysanky. The design motifs on pysanky date back to early Slavic cultures.

Ukrainian Welcome Dance Pryvit.

Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced by Christianity, the dominant religion in the country.^[283] Gender roles also tend to be more traditional, and grandparents play a greater role in bringing up children, than in the West.^[323] The culture of Ukraine has also been influenced by its eastern and western neighbours, reflected in its architecture, music and art.

The Communist era had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of Ukraine.^[324] In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism state policy in the Soviet Union when he promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organisations". This greatly stifled creativity. During the 1980s glasnost (openness) was introduced and Soviet artists and writers again became free to express themselves as they wanted.^[325]

The tradition of the Easter egg, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine.^[326] In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains in 2000 was built the museum of Pysanka which won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action.

Weaving and embroidery

Artisan textile arts play an important role in Ukrainian culture,^[327] especially in Ukrainian wedding traditions. Ukrainian embroidery, weaving and lace-making are used in traditional folk dress and in traditional celebrations. Ukrainian embroidery varies depending on the region of origin^[328] and the designs have a long history of motifs, compositions, choice of colours and types of stitches.^[329] Use of color is very important and has roots in Ukrainian folklore. Embroidery motifs found in different parts of Ukraine are preserved in the Rushnyk Museum in Pereiaslav-Khmelnytskyi.

National dress is woven and highly decorated. Weaving with handmade looms is still practised in the village of Krupove, situated in Rivne Oblast. The village is the birthplace of two famous personalities in the scene of national crafts fabrication. Nina Myhailivna^[330] and Uliana Petrivna^[331] with international recognition. To preserve this traditional knowledge the village is planning to open a local weaving centre, a museum and weaving school.

Literature

The history of Ukrainian literature dates back to the 11th century, following the Christianisation of the Kievan Rus'.^[332] The writings of the time were mainly liturgical and were written in Old Church Slavonic. Historical accounts of the time were referred to as chronicles, the most significant of which was the Primary Chronicle.^[333]^[g] Literary activity faced a sudden decline during the Mongol invasion of Rus'.^[332]
Ukrainian literature again began to develop in the 14th century, and was advanced significantly in the 16th century with the introduction of print and with the beginning of the Cossack era, under both Russian and Polish dominance.^[332] The Cossacks established an independent society and popularized a new kind of epic poems, which marked a high point of Ukrainian oral literature.^[333] These advances were then set back in the 17th and early 18th centuries, when publishing in the Ukrainian language was outlawed and prohibited. Nonetheless, by the late 18th century modern literary Ukrainian finally emerged.^[332]

Ivan Kotlyarevsky (1769–1838)	Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861)	Ivan Franko (1856–1916)	Mykhailo Kotsiubynsky (1864–1913)	Lesya Ukrainka (1871–1913)

The 19th century initiated a vernacular period in Ukraine, led by Ivan Kotliarevsky's work Eneyida, the first publication written in modern Ukrainian. By the 1830s, Ukrainian romanticism began to develop, and the nation's most renowned cultural figure, romanticist poet-painter Taras Shevchenko emerged. Where Ivan Kotliarevsky is considered to be the father of literature in the Ukrainian vernacular; Shevchenko is the father of a national revival.^[334]

Then, in 1863, use of the Ukrainian language in print was effectively prohibited by the Russian Empire.^[50] This severely curtailed literary activity in the area, and Ukrainian writers were forced to either publish their works in Russian or release them in Austrian controlled Galicia. The ban was never officially lifted, but it became obsolete after the revolution and the Bolsheviks' coming to power.^[333]

Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the early Soviet years, when nearly all literary trends were approved (the most important literature figures of that time were Mykola Khvylovy, Valerian Pidmohylny, Mykola Kulish, Mykhayl Semenko and some others). These policies faced a steep decline in the 1930s, when prominent representatives as well as many others were killed by NKVD (as part of Great Purge). In general around 223 writers were repressed (so called The Executed Renaissance).^[335] This repressions were part of Stalin's implemented policy of socialist realism. The doctrine did not necessarily repress the Ukrainian language, but it required writers to follow a certain style in their works. In post-Stalinist times literary activities continued to be somewhat limited under the Communist Party, and it was not until Ukraine gained its independence in 1991 when writers were free to express themselves as they wished.^[332]

Architecture

Kamianets-Podilskyi Castle - one of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine

The Vorontsov Palace, at the foot of the Crimean Mountains, an example of gothic revival architecture/Moorish Revival architecture in Ukraine, the southern facade of the building has a strikingly Moorish Revival architecture appearance.

St Andrew's Church in Kiev an example of Baroque

St. Michael's Golden-Domed Cathedral in Kiev, an example of Ukrainian architecture

The Lviv Opera and Ballet Theatre; the architecture of Western Ukraine has been greatly influenced by its long history as part of Austria-Hungary and Polish Republic

Central Department store in Kyiv, modern architecture example.

Ukrainian architecture is a term that describes the motifs and styles that are found in structures built in modern Ukraine, and by Ukrainians worldwide. These include initial roots which were established in the Eastern Slavic state of Kievan Rus'. After the 12th century, the distinct architectural history continued in the principalities of Galicia-Volhynia. During the epoch of the Zaporozhian Cossacks, a new style unique to Ukraine was developed under the western influences of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the union with the Tsardom of Russia, architecture in Ukraine began to develop in different directions, with many structures in the larger eastern, Russian-ruled area built in the styles of Russian architecture of that period, whilst the western Galicia was developed under Austro-Hungarian architectural influences, in both cases producing fine examples. Ukrainian national motifs would finally be used during the period of the Soviet Union and in modern independent Ukraine.

The great churches of the Rus', built after the adoption of Christianity in 988, were the first examples of monumental architecture in the East Slavic lands. The architectural style of the Kievan state, which quickly established itself, was strongly influenced by the Byzantine. Early Eastern Orthodox churches were mainly made of wood, with the simplest form of church becoming known as a cell church. Major cathedrals often featured scores of small domes, which led some art historians to take this as an indication of the appearance of pre-Christian pagan Slavic temples.

Several examples of these churches survive to this day; however, during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, many were externally rebuilt in the Ukrainian Baroque style (see below). Examples include the grand St. Sophia of Kiev – the year 1017 is the earliest record of foundation laid, Church of the Saviour at Berestove – built from 1113 to 1125 and St. Cyril's Church, circa 12th-century. All can still be found in the Ukrainian capital. Several buildings were reconstructed during the late-19th century, including the Assumption Cathedral in Volodymyr-Volynskyi, built in 1160 and reconstructed in 1896–1900, the Paraskevi church in Chernihiv, built in 1201 with reconstruction done in the late 1940s, and the Golden gates in Kiev, built in 1037 and reconstructed in 1982. The latter's reconstruction was criticised by some art and architecture historians as a revivalist fantasy. Unfortunately little secular or vernacular architecture of Kievan Rus' has survived.

As Ukraine became increasingly integrated into the Russian Empire, Russian architects had the opportunity to realise their projects in the picturesque landscape that many Ukrainian cities and regions offered. St. Andrew's Church of Kiev (1747–1754), built by Bartolomeo Rastrelli, is a notable example of Baroque architecture, and its location on top of the Kievan mountain made it a recognisable monument of the city. An equally notable contribution of Rasetrelli was the Mariyinsky Palace, which was built to be a summer residence to Russian Empress Elizabeth. During the reign of the last Hetman of Ukraine, Kirill Razumovsky, many of the Cossack Hetmanate's towns such as Hlukhiv, Baturyn and Koselets had grandiose projects built by Andrey Kvasov. Russia, winning successive wars over the Ottoman Empire and its vassal Crimean Khanate, eventually annexed the whole south of Ukraine and Crimea. Renamed New Russia, these lands were to be colonised, and new cities such as the Nikolayev, Odessa, Kherson and Sevastopol were founded. These would contain notable examples of Imperial Russian architecture.

In 1934, the capital of Soviet Ukraine moved from Kharkiv to Kiev. During the preceding years, the city was seen as only a regional centre, and hence received little attention. All of that was to change, but at a great price. By this point, the first examples of Stalinist architecture were already showing, and, in light of the official policy, a new city was to be built on top of the old one. This meant that much-admired examples such as the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery were destroyed. Even the St. Sophia Cathedral was under threat. Also, the Second World War contributed to the wreckage. After the war, a new project for the reconstruction of central Kiev transformed the Khreshchatyk avenue into a notable example of Stalinism in Architecture. However, by 1955, the new politics of architecture once again promptly stopped the project from fully being realised.

The task for modern Ukrainian architecture is diverse application of modern aesthetics, the search for an architect's own artistic style and inclusion of the existing historico-cultural environment. An example of modern Ukrainian architecture is the reconstruction and renewal of the Maidan Nezalezhnosti in central Kiev, despite the limit set by narrow space within the plaza, the engineers were able to blend together the uneven landscape and also use underground space to set a new shopping centre.

A major project, which may take up most of the 21st century, is the construction of the Kiev City-Centre on the Rybalskyi Peninsula, which, when finished, will include a dense skyscraper park amid the picturesque landscape of the Dnieper.^[336]

Music

Mykola Lysenko is widely believed to be the father of Ukrainian classical music

Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a long history and many influences. From traditional folk music, to classical and modern rock, Ukraine has produced several internationally recognised musicians including Kirill Karabits, Okean Elzy and Ruslana. Elements from traditional Ukrainian folk music made their way into Western music and even into modern jazz.

Ukraine found itself at the crossroads of Asia and Europe and this is reflected within the music in a perplexing mix of exotic melismatic singing with chordal harmony which does not always easily fit the rules of traditional Western European harmony. The most striking general characteristic of authentic ethnic Ukrainian folk music is the wide use of minor modes or keys which incorporate augmented 2nd intervals. This is an indication that the major-minor system developed in Western European music did not become as entrenched or as sophisticated in Ukraine. However, during the Baroque period, music was an important discipline for those that had received a higher education in Ukraine. It had a place of considerable importance in the curriculum of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. Much of the nobility was well versed in music with many Ukrainian Cossack leaders such as (Mazepa, Paliy, Holovatyj, Sirko) being accomplished players of the kobza, bandura or torban.

In the course of the 18th century in the Russian Empire court musicians were typically trained at the music academy in Hlukhiv, and largely came from Ukraine. Notable performers of the era include Tymofiy Bilohradsky who later studied lute under Sylvius Leopold Weiss in Dresden, his daughter Yelyzaveta who was a famous operatic soprano, and Oleksiy Rozumovsky, a court bandurist and the morganatic husband of Empress Elizabeth. The first dedicated musical academy was set up in Hlukhiv, Ukraine in 1738 and students were taught to sing, play violin and bandura from manuscripts. As a result many of the earliest composers and performers within the Russian empire were ethnically Ukrainian, having been born or educated in Hlukhiv, or had been closely associated with this music school. See: Dmytro Bortniansky, Maksym Berezovsky and Artemiy Vedel.

Cossack Mamay playing kobza

Ukrainian classical music falls into three distinct categories defined by whether the composer was of Ukrainian ethnicity living in Ukraine, a composer of non-Ukrainian ethnicity who was born or at some time was a citizen of Ukraine, or an ethnic Ukrainian living outside of Ukraine within the Ukrainian diaspora. The music of these three groups differs considerably, as do the audiences for whom they cater.

Okean Elzy is one of the most popular modern-day Ukrainian rock bands

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Dyuakuyu tobi (Дякую тобі) by Okean Elzy

The first category is closely tied with the Ukrainian national school of music spearheaded by Mykola Lysenko. It includes such composers as Kyrylo Stetsenko, Mykola Leontovych, Levko Revutsky, Borys Lyatoshynsky and Mykola Vilinsky. Most of their music contains Ukrainian folk figures and are composed to Ukrainian texts. On the other hand, the second category is of particular importance and international visibility, because of the large percentage of ethnic minorities in urban Ukraine. This category includes such composers as Franz Xavier Mozart, Isaak Dunayevsky, Rheinhold Gliere, Yuliy Meitus and Sergei Prokofiev, performers Volodymyr Horovyts, David Oistrakh, Sviatoslav Richter and Isaac Stern. The music of these composers rarely contains Ukrainian folk motives and more often is written to the texts of Russian or Polish poets. Whilst the third category includes a number of prominent individuals who are often not part of the mainstream Ukrainian culture but who have made a significant impact on music in Ukraine, while living outside of its borders. These include historic individuals such as: Bortniansky, Berezovsky, Vedel and Tuptalo and Titov. It also contains "Soviet" composers such as Mykola Roslavets and Isaak Dunayevsky who were born in Ukraine but who moved to other cultural centres within the Soviet Union. In North America there is Mykola Fomenko, Yuriy Oliynyk, Zinoviy Lavryshyn and Wasyl Sydorenko.

Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced pop music, in its various forms, that has been growing in popularity in Ukraine. One of the most important and truly original musicians to come out of Ukraine in recent years is the ultra avant-garde folk singer and harmonium player Mariana Sadovska. Ukrainian pop and folk music arose with the international popularity of groups like Vopli Vidoplyasova, Viy and Okean Elzy.

Cinema

Ukraine has had an influence on the history of the cinema. Ukrainian directors Alexander Dovzhenko, often cited as one of the most important early Soviet filmmakers, as well as being a pioneer of Soviet montage theory, Dovzhenko Film Studios, and Sergei Parajanov, Armenian film director and artist who made significant contributions to Ukrainian, Armenian and Georgian cinema. He invented his own cinematic style, Ukrainian poetic cinema, which was totally out of step with the guiding principles of socialist realism.

Kira Muratova

Other important directors including Kira Muratova, Larisa Shepitko, Sergei Bondarchuk, Leonid Bykov, Yuri Ilyenko, Leonid Osyka, Ihor Podolchak with his Delirium and Maryna Vroda. Many Ukrainian actors have achieved international fame and critical success, including: Vera Kholodnaya, Bohdan Stupka, Milla Jovovich, Olga Kurylenko, Renata Litvinova, Mila Kunis.

Despite a history of important and successful productions, the industry has often been characterised by a debate about its identity and the level of Russian and European influence. Ukrainian producers are active in international co-productions and Ukrainian actors, directors and crew feature regularly in Russian (Soviet in past) films. Also successful films have been based on Ukrainian people, stories or events, including Battleship Potemkin, Man with a Movie Camera, Everything Is Illuminated. The highest-grossing film ever is Avatar with £5.2 million in 2009.

Ukrainian State Film Agency owns National Oleksandr Dovzhenko Film Centre, film copying laboratory and archive, takes part in hosting of the Odessa International Film Festival, and Molodist is the only one FIAPF accredited International Film Festival held in Ukraine; competition program is devoted to student, first short and first full feature films from all over the world. Held annually in October.

Media

Ukrayinska Pravda^[337] founded by Georgiy Gongadze in April, 2000 (the day of the Ukrainian constitutional referendum). Published mainly in Ukrainian with selected articles published in or translated to Russian and English, the newspaper is tailored towards the general readership with some particular emphasis placed on the hot issues of the politics of Ukraine. The Ukrainian government has at times reportedly exerted pressure on the publication to restrict access to freedom of information.
Freedom of the press in Ukraine is considered to be among the freest of the post-Soviet states other
than the Baltic states. Freedom House classifies the Internet in Ukraine as "free" and the press as "partly free". Press freedom has significantly improved since the Orange Revolution of 2004. However, in 2010 Freedom House perceived "negative trends in Ukraine".

Kyiv dominates the media sector in Ukraine: the Kyiv Post is Ukraine's leading English-language newspaper. National newspapers Den, Mirror Weekly, tabloids, such as The Ukrainian Week or Focus (Russian), and television and radio are largely based there, although Lviv is also a significant national media centre. The National News Agency of Ukraine, Ukrinform was founded here in 1918. The Ukraine publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover. Sanoma publishing Ukrainian editions of such magazines as Esquire, Harpers Bazaar and National Geographic Magazine. BBC Ukrainian started its broadcasts in 1992.

Ukrainians listen to radio programming, such as Radio Ukraine or Radio Liberty, largely commercial, on average just over two-and-a-half hours a day.

The first official broadcast took place in Kiev on 1 February 1939, television in Ukraine was introduced in 1951. The most watched television channels in Ukraine are commercial Inter and 1+1. Network covers 99.7 percent of Ukraine's territory (according the channel's own information). Inter is among the top-rated networks in Ukraine, competing with such as 1+1 media, StarLightMedia Group, which operates 6 TV channels, 5 Kanal and TVi. 5 Kanal, controlled by Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko, is the most popular news channel in Ukraine.^[338] Ukraine's First National publicly television corporation works closely and provides broadcasting for Euronews and Hromadske.TV, an Internet television station in Ukraine that started to operate on 22 November 2013. Aside from web portals and search engines, the most popular websites are Vk, YouTube, Wikipedia, Facebook, Livejournal, EX.UA and Odnoklassniki.^[337]

Sport

Ukrainian footballer Andriy Shevchenko celebrates a goal against Sweden at Euro 2012

Ukraine national basketball team (yellow) versus Serbia during EuroBasket 2013.

Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet emphasis on physical education. Such policies left Ukraine with hundreds of stadia, swimming pools, gymnasia and many other athletic facilities.^[339] The most popular sport is football. The top professional league is the Vyscha Liha ("premier league"). The two most successful teams in the Vyscha Liha are rivals FC Dynamo Kyiv and FC Shakhtar Donetsk. Although Shakhtar is the reigning champion of the Vyscha Liha, Dynamo Kyiv has been much more successful historically, winning two UEFA Cup Winners' Cups, one UEFA Super Cup, a record 13 USSR Championships and a record 12 Ukrainian Championships; while Shakhtar only won six Ukrainian championships and one and last UEFA Cup.^[340] Ukraine co-hosted UEFA Euro 2012 alongside Poland.

Sergey Bubka held the record in the Pole vault from 1993 to 2014; with great strength, speed and gymnastic abilities, he was voted the world's best athlete on several occasions.^[341]^[342]
Many Ukrainians also played for the Soviet national football team, most notably Ihor Belanov and Oleh Blokhin, winners of the prestigious Golden Ball Award for the best football player of the year.
This award was only presented to one Ukrainian after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Andriy Shevchenko, the current captain of Ukraine. The national team made its debut in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and reached the quarterfinals before losing to eventual champions, Italy. Ukrainians also fared well in boxing, where the brothers Vitali and Wladimir Klitschko have held world heavyweight championships.

Basketball is becoming popular in Ukraine over the past years as well. In 2011, Ukraine was granted a right to organize EuroBasket 2015, two years later Ukraine national basketball team finished 6th in EuroBasket 2013 and qualified to FIBA World Cup for the first time in its history. Euroleague participant Budivelnyk Kyiv is the strongest professional basketball club in Ukraine.

Ukraine made its Olympic debut at the 1994 Winter Olympics. So far, Ukraine has been much more successful in Summer Olympics (115 medals in five appearances) than in the Winter Olympics (five medals in four appearances). Ukraine is currently ranked 35th by number of gold medals won in the All-time Olympic Games medal count, with every country above it, except for Russia, having more appearances.^{[citation needed]}

Cuisine

Ukrainian borscht soup with smetana

Traditional Ukrainian Paska for Easter

The traditional Ukrainian diet includes chicken, pork, beef, fish and mushrooms. Ukrainians also tend to eat a lot of potatoes, grains, fresh and pickled vegetables. Popular traditional dishes include varenyky (boiled dumplings with mushrooms, potatoes, sauerkraut, cottage cheese or cherries), borsch (soup made of beets, cabbage and mushrooms or meat), holubtsy (stuffed cabbage rolls filled with rice, carrots and meat) and pierogi (dumplings filled with boiled potatoes and cheese or meat). Ukrainian specialties also include Chicken Kiev and Kiev Cake. Ukrainians drink stewed fruit, juices, milk, buttermilk (they make cottage cheese from this), mineral water, tea and coffee, beer, wine and horilka.^[343]

Will Small Nuclear Reactor Development Eliminate the Need for Solar and Wind Power?

May 15, 2014

Original link: http://solarthermalmagazine.com/2014/05/15/will-small-nuclear-reactor-development-eliminate-need-solar-wind-power/

The Need for Solar and Wind Power – WASHINGTON, May 15, 2014 . ( Solar Thermal Magazine) – Hopes that “small modular reactors” (SMRs) will save the dying nuclear power industry in the United States and avert climate change are unfounded. What is far more likely to happen if the U.S. scales up SMRs is that they will choke off the funding and policies that have allowed renewable energy to expand at record levels, while SMRs will suffer all of the same woes that have plagued large nuclear reactors, according to a major new report issued today by nuclear financing expert Dr. Mark Cooper.

In his paper, “The Economic Failure of Nuclear Power and the Development of a Low-Carbon Electricity Future: Why Small Modular Reactors Are Part of the Problem, Not the Solution,” Dr. Cooper notes:

Scaling up of SMRs would soak up financing for wind and solar power: “While each individual reactor would be smaller, the idea of creating an assembly line for SMR technology would require a massive financial commitment. If two designs and assembly lines are funded to ensure competition, by 2020 an optimistic cost scenario suggests a cost of more than $72 billion; a more realistic level would be over $90 billion. This massive commitment reinforces the traditional concern that nuclear power will crowd out the alternatives. Compared to U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimates of U.S. spending on generation over the same period, these huge sums are equal to: three-quarters of the total projected investment in electricity generation; and substantially more than the total projected investment in renewables.”
Costs of SMRs will be higher than large reactors, not lower: “Even industry executives and regulators believe the SMR technology will have costs that are substantially higher than the failed “nuclear renaissance” technology on a per unit of output. The higher costs result from: lost economies of scale in containment structures, dedicated systems for control, management and emergency response, and the cost of licensing and security; operating costs between one-fifth and one-quarter higher; and decommissioning costs between two and three times as high.”
Focusing on SMRs would heighten the growing war between nuclear power and renewables: “The physical and institutional infrastructure to support an active 21^st century electricity system is markedly different from and antithetical to the passive, one-way grid on which nuclear relies. In response, even though nuclear technologies have received 10 times as much subsidy on a life cycle basis, nuclear advocates attack the much smaller and more productive subsidies received by renewables. To save nuclear power they propose to jerry-rig markets with above-market prices to increase nuclear profits and remove the regulatory institutions that have allowed alternatives to enter the electricity resource mix.”
The private marketplace is already rejecting SMRs: “Two of the leading U.S. developers have announced they are throttling back on the development of SMR technology because they cannot find customers (Westinghouse) or major investors (Babcock and Wilcox). The harsh judgment of the marketplace on SMR technology is well-founded.”

Dr. Cooper said:

Large reactors have never been economically competitive and there is no reason to be believe that smaller reactors will fare any better. Giving nuclear power a central role in climate change policy would not only drain away resources from the more promising alternatives, it would undermine the effort to create the physical and institutional infrastructure needed to support the emerging electricity systems based on renewables, distributed generation and intensive system and demand management. My paper shows that nuclear power – whether the reactor is large of small – is among the least attractive climate change policy options (too costly, too slow, and too uncertain) and is likely to remain so for the foreseeable future.

According to Dr. Cooper, cost escalation provides half of the explanation for the economic failure of nuclear power. The other half is provided by the superior economics of alternatives. In the 1980s nuclear could not compete with coal and natural gas. Today it cannot compete with gas and a number of renewable resources.

The full text of this news release and the Cooper paper are available online at http://bit.ly/smrstudy.

ABOUT DR. COOPER

Dr. Mark Cooper is senior fellow for economic analysis at the Institute for Energy and the Environment, Vermont Law School, and author of “Policy Challenges of Nuclear Reactor Construction, Cost Escalation and Crowding Out Alternatives” (2009). Less than a year ago, he released a widely cited July 2013 report identifying the 38 most at-risk reactors in the United States. (For details, see “Renaissance in Reverse: Competition Pushes Aging U.S. Nuclear Reactors to the Brink of Economic Abandonment,” at http://216.30.191.148/atriskreactors.html.)

SOURCE Mark Cooper, Vermont Law School, South Royalton, VT

Wednesday, August 20, 2014

Nano 'yarn' next step in biomedical implants

Wednesday, 20 August 2014 Tim Dean
ABC

Original link: http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2014/08/20/4067171.htm

Researchers have created a biofuel cell made from carbon nanotubes that generate energy from blood glucose (iStockphoto: theasis)

Imagine a pacemaker or bionic ear that doesn't require batteries but is powered by your very own cells.

That could be the future of biomedical implants once biofuel cells come to fruition, says an international team of scientists, who have taken the technology one step closer to reality.

The researchers have created a biofuel cell made from carbon nanotubes that generate energy from blood glucose.

The advance improves the power output and the lifetime of biofuel cells, they report in the journal Nature Communications.

Unlike batteries, which store chemical energy, conventional fuel cells convert a fuel such as hydrogen or methanol into electricity.

Biofuel cells, which have been in development since the 1960s, employ the same principle except they use biological enzymes to convert glucose into electricity inside the body.

However, there have been a number of serious technical hurdles that have impaired their performance, says study co-author Professor Gordon Wallace from the University of Wollongong.

One of the challenges is "immobilising" the enzyme that converts the fuel into electricity and making it stick to the electrodes of the fuel cell, rather than diffusing through the cell and into the fuel.

Another challenge is keeping the immobilised enzyme active for long periods of time.

"This is because the electrodes, like anything implanted in the body, tend to get fouled and performance drops off quite quickly with time," says Wallace.

This has resulted in low power densities of only a few milliwatts per centimetre squared and a lifetime of only a few days, which is insufficient for practical use.

To tackle these problems Wallace and his colleagues turned to carbon nanotubes, which are microscopic cylinders made from long strings of interconnected carbon atoms.

They used a form of multi-walled carbon nanotube "yarn" to construct a microscopic structure for the biofuel cell.

"This provides an environment that gives stability to the enzymes and an environment that occludes the types of things that can poison the enzyme, therefore degrading its performance over time," says Wallace.

The end result was a biofuel cell with an extended lifetime and a higher power density 2.2 milliwatts per square centimetre.

"In terms of the power density it's a factor of two or three above what we were getting. That's probably not staggering, but it is significant," says Wallace.

"What is more significant is the length of time we can operate these biofuel cells for."

Repair nerve damage

The researchers are aiming to develop the carbon nanotube yarn biofuel cells to power an implant that will help regenerate nerve damage.

"Our initial target is for peripheral nerve repair, whether that's a finger or other limbs."

The idea is to implant the conduit in the area where the nerves need to be regenerated, and the biofuel cells will produce a tiny electric current to stimulate nerve growth without requiring batteries or an external power source.

Wallace and his collaborators are also working on improving the power output and lifetime of biofuel cells even further.

"That then opens them up to powering all sorts of implants, not just this temporary power supply to repair a damaged area, but a power supply that will be able to service in an ongoing prosthetic, like the vagus nerve stimulators for epilepsy or for chronic pain management."

The ultimate goal is to boost output and longevity to the point that biofuel cells can power a broad range of biomedical implants.

"If you can think of any type of device that is implantable that requires energy, this would be a great way to power it so you don't have to go in and change the batteries all the time," says Wallace.

Psychiatrists split on whether to ditch DSM

Tuesday 19 August 2014 3:40PM

Original link: http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/futuretense/the-psychiatrists-are-revolting/5680842

Image: Critics of The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Illness say psychiatry has for too long been practiced in an unscientific manner. (Getty Images/ Photodisc)

How much do we really know about the causes of mental illness and how it should be treated? As Antony Funnell reports, there’s a growing rift within the field of psychiatry over the effectiveness of traditional mental health treatment, with some practitioners declaring it’s time to throw out the diagnostic handbook and start again from scratch.

There has long been a contradiction at the heart of psychiatry.

While the profession is staffed with doctors (a medical degree being the very basic prerequisite), psychiatrists have, over the past century or so, shown very little interest in the discipline of biology. Although they dispense medications, their system of diagnosis is unlike any other in the field of medicine.

To understand the difference is to understand why psychiatry is currently experiencing a global schism.

As some people have said, the brain has not read the text. So we really need to try to find alternative ways of conducting research to take advantage of the explosion of knowledge that we're getting about how the brain works.

Dr Gary Greenberg, psychotherapist and author

Led by the powerful US National Institute of Mental Health, practitioners across the world are in open revolt, demanding that the practice be brought into the modern world and be anchored not in conjecture but in contemporary science.

‘There are many practitioners, including psychiatrists, who wonder about the sanity and the soundness of the enterprise in general,’ says Dr Gary Greenberg, a practicing psychotherapist and trenchant critic.

The essential problem with traditional psychiatric practice, according to its detractors, is its over reliance on ‘symptom-based’ diagnosis. That is, the diagnosis of psychiatric conditions based almost exclusively on clinical observations.

Under the current system, a standard consultation goes something like this: the psychiatrist talks with a patient about his or her problems and then uses the substance of that verbal exchange to identify the underlying cause of the patient’s mental illness.

Then, in order to prescribe treatment, the symptoms exhibited by the patient are matched to a set of pre-determined psychiatric labels, for example depression or ADHD—attention deficit hyperactivity disorder—and medication is dispensed accordingly.

Those labels—or ‘disorders’, as they’re known—are listed in a book called the DSM, The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Illness, which is published by the American Psychiatric Association, and is often referred to as the ‘psychiatrist’s Bible’. Though it’s an American publication, it heavily influences the practice of psychiatry and affiliated mental health professions around the world.

However, critics charge that treating people according to their mental health symptoms makes as much sense as a physician prescribing the same medication to everyone with chest pain, regardless of whether that pain is the result of heartburn, a simple muscle spasm or the beginnings of a massive myocardial infarction.

In other words, it makes no sense at all. The symptom doesn't necessarily tell you anything about the specifics of the underlying cause.

‘The problem here is the problem of the map and the terrain,’ says Dr Greenberg, author of several books on psychiatric practice including Manufacturing Depression and The Book of Woe: The Making of the DSM and the Unmaking of Psychiatry.

‘The DSM is a map. The question is, is it mapping anything real? Or are the people who are using it engaging in a kind of self-contained exercise, not unlike, to be a little bit provocative about it, going down the rabbit hole with Alice into an alternate reality.’

Dr Greenberg and other critics are demanding a re-emphasis in psychiatry in favour of a more biologically-based assessment procedure, having long accused the authors of the DSM of failing to appreciate developments in neuroscience and medical technology.

While he says an increasing number of psychiatrists personally view the manual with disdain—or even outright contempt—he says it continues to have an ongoing influence over the profession and, crucially, over mental health research.

‘In the US and around the world, who gets treatment and who gets special services in schools and who gets special treatment in the courts, and all sorts of really important policy decisions and distributions of funds are made based on the DSM,’ says Dr Greenberg.

‘So there's a disconnect between the extent to which the DSM truly represents the reality of mental suffering on the one hand and the power that it has on the other.’

Read more: What happens when Asperger's no longer exists?

In April 2013, Dr Greenberg and other detractors were given a decisive boost to their reform campaign when the head of the National Institute of Mental Health in the United States came out publicly against the DSM and its symptom-based diagnostic approach.

‘Patients with mental disorders deserve better,’ declared Thomas Insel, whose organisation is the world’s largest funder of psychiatric research. He then announced that the NIMH would begin redirecting its money toward projects that involved a greater understanding of genetics and the use of modern medical technologies.

‘All of the [current] diagnoses are done according to presenting symptoms, but we increasingly know a lot about genetics and neural circuits and we know that the symptoms don't map very well onto those genetics and neural circuits,’ says Professor Bruce Cuthbert, the director of the NIMH’s Division of Adult Translational Research and Treatment Development. ‘So we are finding that for research purposes, the DSM is not serving us very well,’

‘As some people have said, the brain has not read the text. So we really need to try to find alternative ways of conducting research to take advantage of the explosion of knowledge that we're getting about how the brain works.’

The reason the current debate about the primacy of the DSM is important is that for all the good psychiatry has done over the years, it's also been responsible for incredible harm.

Oxford psychiatric professor Tom Burns acknowledges as much in his newly released book Our Necessary Shadow: The Nature and Meaning of Psychiatry, taking readers back to some of the questionable, and arguably unscientific, psychiatric practices of the recent past. Practices like ‘recovered memory’ and lobotomy.

It’s a desire to be more specific about the cause of mental problems and thereby avoid mistreatments that appears to be driving the current push against the DSM.

Dr Greenberg argues that a failure to anchor psychiatric disorders in evidence-based research has led to the manipulation of diagnoses over time in order to suit funding priorities, the demands of the big pharmaceutical companies and social fashion. The most prominent example of the latter being the psychiatric profession’s attitude toward homosexuality.

‘Homosexuality is a special case in the sense that the disorder pathologised what we now think of as a political problem,’ he says. ‘It turned it into a medical problem. I don't know that there are too many of those. There are a few of them still in the DSM that may in subsequent years look like they were just an attempt to diagnose dissent. But the larger question, whether or not we are going to look back in 50 or 100 years and say, “Oh my God, what were those people thinking”, I think they are going to think that about every disorder in the DSM, frankly.’

Another less political, but still controversial disorder, Asperger syndrome, has also come and gone from the DSM in recent decades as the fluid and open nature of psychiatric diagnosis has changed. According to Professor Cuthbert, even prescribed disorders that once looked more solid and promising are now beginning to fail their purpose.

‘If you have depression, for instance, you can have Anhedonia, which means you fail to find pleasure in your usual things, you may have sleeping problems, eating problems, social withdrawal. You may feel tense and jittery. All of these different things may have different ways of expressing themselves in the brain. So trying to come up with a treatment for depression is very difficult,’ he says. ‘It's like saying, “well, we are going to fix your car without specifying exactly which part of the car you're going to fix.”’

At Stanford University in California, Assistant Professor Amit Etkin has been at the forefront of efforts to begin building a more scientific basis for psychiatric diagnoses.

Using what's called fMRI, or functional magnetic resonance imagining, Dr Etkin has been working to measure the activity of the brain and link it to particular behaviour.

‘Any time when you think about somebody who has a mental illness, you have to think about what is it that we are trying to do, what organ are we trying to effect when we talk with them, when we give them medications. Fundamentally, that organ is the brain,’ says Dr Etkin. ‘The MRI machine takes pictures of the brain every two seconds or so, and from that you can see what brain activity did at different points.’

While Etkin is convinced that modern medical technology is the key to better psychiatric practice, he says he understands why the profession has taken so long to adapt. Because the brain, he points out, is an extremely complicated organ and unlike any other in the human body. He also acknowledges that even his own neuroscientific work is really only at the beginning of a very long process of discovery.

Related: We need to talk about my big brother

However, according to Dr Etkin, the future of psychiatry has no option but to pursue a more
evidence-based diagnostic approach, because the traditional approach, he says, has clearly run its course.

‘We are no further along now than we were several decades ago. We don't have any new treatments that dramatically decrease the morbidity and mortality associated with psychiatric disorders. Medications have not been created for any new targets in the past several decades. In fact, those that we have created have really only been discovered by chance. That is, serendipity revealed itself and somebody said, “well, maybe this is useful for depression or schizophrenia.”’

‘So it has been a gradual process of realising that there has to be another way. Any ability we're going to have for new treatments is going to have to come out of neuroscience.’

It seems some of that message is getting through.

In 2007, in an attempt to deal with already growing unrest within the psychiatric community, the American Psychiatric Association announced an extensive review of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It set up a review taskforce under the chairmanship of Professor David Kupfer from the University of Pittsburgh.

That taskforce led to the publication last May of the DSM-5, the first major revision of the manual in 20 years.

‘Many of us were in a sense picked, and I certainly was involved in picking many people who were both clinicians and also, if you will, neuroscientists,’ says Professor Kupfer, who uses the word ‘iterative’ to describe his new version. He says the manual will be modified in future on a much more frequent and regular basis.

‘We've talked about this as a living document, but it's living in the sense that we believe that we would change parts of it where there is new science and new clinical evidence to change it,’ he says. ‘What we want to do is to set up a process by which perhaps every five years we might make appropriate changes to improve the criteria so that diagnoses might be more easily made. This is also an opportunity for us to include any of the neuroscience findings that reach a level of reliability and replication that they can help clinicians to make a more appropriate diagnosis.’

However, he cautions against presuming that the DSM will change dramatically any time soon.

‘What we've done is prepared DSM-5 in a much more flexible framework than was available previously. Even in the one year since the DSM-5 has been published, there have been a number of scientific advances in autism and some of the other major disorders which I think are signals to us that in a few years, as these advances get really tested clinically, we will be able to make that first iteration of DSM-5.1—something that incorporates more neuroscience than what we have now.’

So are the critics convinced?

‘In my mind DSM-5 is really not much different than DSM-4, in practice very few things have changed in the DSM,’ replies Dr Etkin, while acknowledging that the manual is moving in what he believes is the right direction. ‘It's probably not of no use, but it's probably not the ultimate answer.’

Future directions for psychiatry
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Dr Greenberg, however, still has significant doubts. Claims that this new version of the DSM is helping to move psychiatry toward a more rigorous scientific approach are dubious, he says.

‘Without wanting to impugn the integrity of the people who make that claim, it is a circumscribed claim about science, especially medical science. It may be wrong for us laypeople to expect that scientists really know what they're talking about, that they can point to the data. But I think we do expect that, and there are many fields in which they can.’

‘In psychiatry, the problem is that there is no external reference. No psychiatrist will tell you that he or she thinks that the disorders listed in the DSM are valid. They will not claim that because they know it's not true. Now, if you accept that you can create a document full of disorders that are just convenient labels and you define them well enough, then you can do science with that. There's no question about that. You can do rigorous inquiry using statistics. But that doesn't necessarily mean that at the end of the day you've proved anything. You may have simply made an argument about something that doesn't exist.’

‘So the problem isn't that they are sloppy or that it's unscientific in that sense. The problem is that it isn't what we expect science to do, which is to expose, reveal and understand the bedrock reality of the world in which we live.’

10 Transitional Ancestors of Human Evolution

Tyler G. March 18, 2013

Original link: http://listverse.com/2013/03/18/10-transitional-ancestors-of-human-evolution/

The evolution from our closest non-human ancestor to present day humans is one with many transitions. Some of these transitions are widely agreed upon by the scientific community while others are shrouded in frustrating darkness. Below are the ten species that have added the most to our lineage, some adding seemingly simple advances like walking on two legs and chewing food differently to mastering fire and dominating every other species on Earth.

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

6-7 mya

The beginnings of our lineage away from the Great Apes really start with the separation from chimpanzees, our closest non-hominin relative. This lineage split occurred around 5.4 mya (million years ago), and many scientists believe S. tchadensis is that transition. A distorted skull was found in the Djurab Desert of Chad in 2001 and was dated to around 6-7 mya. By looking at the way the skull attaches to the skeleton it can be inferred that S. tchadensis was bipedal, possibly a sign showing they left the trees and began walking upright. The controversy begins when looking at the size of the braincase, in S. tchadensis only about 350 cc (cubic centimeters) versus the chimpanzees 390 cc brain. Furthermore, scientists argue the skull was so fragmented and distorted that it shouldn’t be a hominin (species closer to humans than chimps) but possibly produced chimps or gorillas (a split occurring about 6.4 mya).

Kenyanthropus platyops

3.5 mya

Found at Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1999, K. platyops changed the way paleoanthropologists viewed our ancestral tree. The skull was dated to around 3.5 mya and supported a 400 cc brain, a bit bigger than chimpanzees but only a third the size of modern humans (around 1200 cc). One of the most significant changes is in its name. Platyops means flat face, a subtle morphology shift indicating a change in jaw usage meaning K. platyops found a different ecological niche. The size of the molar teeth point to a species that chewed its food, coupled with the different jaw usage shows K. platyops was adapting to changes it encountered. Again controversy comes into play with some saying K. platyops shouldn’t belong to its own genus but actually belongs to the Autralopithecus genus.

Australopithecus afarensis

3.0-3.9 mya

In 1974 at Hadar, Ethiopia researchers discovered about 40% of a skeleton came to be known as “Lucy.” Lucy was an incredible find because there were so many bones to examine instead of the typical skull or bone fragments. The skeleton suggests a female of 64 lbs and a height of 3 ft 7 in that walked upright. This can be shown from the pelvis resembling a modern human and a tibia/femur design supporting bipedal locomotion. From the waste up Lucy looked and acted like an ape, with her ~440 cc brain and long arms, but from the waist down was human. This may have supported a life of spending the day on the ground and the night sleeping in the trees.

Another find was Selam, a skull and skeleton fragments from a three year old female dating back to 3.3 mya. The skull had a brain capacity of 330 cc which suggests a total adult capacity of about 440 cc; quite a bit slower than a chimpanzee. One of the biggest differences between humans and other mammals is our incredibly large brains in relation to our body size. When a human baby is born it is totally reliant on the mother for everything, with suckling and grasping being its only real attributes. It takes about 25 years for our brains to become fully developed while chimpanzees are complete by age 3. This may be due to the new information required to learn with the advent of bipedalism and the way of life that comes along with it.

Another interesting difference between chimps and humans is the presence of the lunate sulcus in chimps. This divides the occipital lobe (involved in sight) from the rest of the brain. Modern humans don’t have this sulcus while our brains have a large neocortex larger than our occipital lobe, it turns out Selam’s brain was heading in that direction. When a plaster cast of the skull was made scientists found the lunate sulcus was moving back, making smaller the occipital lobe and expanding the neocortex. This suggests Selam could have had greater reasoning skills and more control of motor functions.

Paranthropus boisei

1.4-2.3 mya

The genus Paranthropus had fairly small braincases, about 500-550 cc or 44% that of modern humans. They were bipeds, roughly the same size as the Australopithecus genus, but what separated these guys from the rest was their face and mouth. They had very large faces with a significant narrowing of the skull above their brow line. P. boisei, also known as “Nutcracker Man,” had teeth four times the size of modern humans with a tremendously thick layer of enamel dwarfing any hominin found. Complimenting these gigantic teeth were massive jaw muscles connected to a bony crest on top of the skull. This allowed P. boisei to have a diet of harsh, tough foods like nuts, seeds, and ground tubers. Researchers believe the advantage of eating tubers made it easier to meet the caloric requirements raised by a larger brain.

Homo habilis

1.6-2.5 mya

A fitting first member of our own genus, H. habilis was the first on our ancestral path to use stones as tools, an attribute giving them the name “Handy Men.” They began breaking the long bones of animals to get to the marrow inside facilitating their diet consisting of a variety of meats. Their thumbs were broader than before adding to the dexterity inherent to modern humans, possibly advancing their stone tool making. Members of this species stood between 3-4 feet tall, had less of a snout and more of a nose, and an elevated forehead different from the sloped morphology of the Australopithecus and Paranthropus genus before them. Their brain’s were about 510 cc or 43% of modern humans with an expansion of the frontal lobe, the area dealing with rational thought and problem solving.

H. habilis may have been so successful due to climate change occurring at such a rapid rate. In a span of only thousands of years large lakes would become desert which would then become lakes again. This is thought to have sped up brain development because adaptations had to be made in order for the Homo genus to continue on.

Homo ergaster

1.5-1.8 mya

H. ergaster had a dramatically increased brain than any species before it, measuring in at 850 cc or 71% that of modern humans. They may have been the first to harness fire, had a multitude of stone tools that were more sophisticated and becoming more unique. The species had a smaller, flatter face with teeth and jaws smaller than before. The males and females weren’t structurally as different, less sexual dimorphism, which all species before did not have. There is also evidence of an early form of symbolic or linguistic communication.

Homo erectus

0.4-1.8 mya

In 1984 Richard Leakey came across a skeleton near Lake Turkana, Kenya belonging to an 8-11 year old male from 1.6 mya. The boy was 5 ft 3 in tall with wide hips and long, thin arms. He was part of the H. erectus species which is characterized by making tools, controlling fire, and living in small groups. Group living was an important manifestation due to its societal implications. There is speculative evidence supporting the link between cooking and fire building with group living. H. erectus was totally on the ground now so they needed fire to keep predators away, with this need for protection came a reliance on each other for safety which garnered an advantage to those who protected others. Some argue this is why human babies can easily have numerous caregivers since our ancestors took turns raising the young in a tribal manner. This also instilled the skill to read into others and ascertain a “good” person from a “bad” person. Some of the most compelling evidence of communal living came from a male H. erectus skull with no teeth from old age. Since he wouldn’t have been able to chew his food researchers suggest he was fed by others or possibly had others chew his food for him. This shows a caring for others and a transition of the brain from only caring about self-preservation to the well fare of the group.

The brain of Turkana Boy was 900 cc, two times the size of chimps and 75% the size of modern humans. There is also evidence showing Turkana Boy had a fully modern Broca’s Area which controls memory, executive functions, and motor actions of speech. This was a dramatic jump in brain volume and capability which could have accounted for the increase in intellect and possibly speech usage. The problem with bigger brains is more energy needed to support it; luckily H. erectus had an answer for that. Having the ability to run on two legs was much more efficient than on four. Along with two legs they also had much less body hair than ever before which allowed for sweating. These two combined meant H. erectus could efficiently chase down four legged prey to the point of exhaustion while H. erectus could sweat to stay cool. This greatly increased hunting which provided meat, containing fats and proteins, to support the caloric intake needed for their brains.

Homo heidelbergensis

0.2-0.6 mya

Religion is a trait humans have possessed throughout all of civilization, but civilization only really goes back about 10,000 years. There is evidence pointing to H. heidelbergensis burying their dead together with a ceremony involved. In Northern Spain at the Pit of Bones there are many skeletal remains found in a deep cave indicating H. heidelbergensis dropped them down the pit in some sort of ritual. Scientists have also found a pink quartz hand axe buried along with them indicating a possible offering to a sort of god or a belief in a life after death.

There is evidence showing the brain volume to be 1100-1400 cc, larger than that of modern humans. Researchers believe H. heidelbergensis was capable of planning, symbolic behavior, and was the first species to build substantial shelters. There are some scientists that believe this species gave rise to both the Neanderthals and modern humans simply by traveling. About 300,000 to 400,000 years ago H. heidelbergensis traveled out of Africa and moved to what is now Europe, these ancestors became H. neanderthalensis while those who stayed in Africa developed into H. sapiens.

Homo neanderthalensis

0.03-0.3 mya

If there was one species of hominin that should have scared modern humans it was the Neanderthals. This species had brains slightly larger than H. sapiens, had thicker bodies, and were mostly carnivorous in their diets. Their Broca’s area of the brain was thoroughly human which indicates speech was possible. They may have had smaller parietal and temporal lobes which indicates thinking patterns, memory, and their ability to manipulate objects was less advanced than H. sapiens.

Neanderthals had only a few, simple tools such as heavy spears or knives to kill game. This meant they had to get close to their prey in order to kill it, resulting in shortened life spans and many skeletons found with fractures and breaks. The diet was extremely meat heavy with little to no evidence suggesting any kind of vegetable intake. In all the environments found the diet is the same, suggesting low ability to adapt to their environment. A possible cause of extinction could have been the climate swings indicative of Europe around 30,000 years ago mixed with their low adaptability or H. sapiens presence could have pushed them to areas where life was too difficult.

Homo sapiens

0.2 mya-Present

We have finally reached the pinnacle of human evolution, characterized by adaptability, sophisticated tool making, and the harnessing of fire. It is difficult to look back and think that by some indications we almost didn’t make it. Around 140,000 years ago Africa experienced a mega drought that made most of the tropical areas uninhabitable. This forced H. sapiens to the coasts and by some estimates dwindled down to only about 600 breeding individuals. This is where the greatest evolutionary gift of mankind comes in, adaptability. Homo sapiens started living off the sea, eating berries, hunting in the grasslands, and living in nearby caves. Technology began to increase by making fire-hardened, diverse tools designed for specific functions. They started caring about appearance as seen through shells with holes in them for necklaces and painted their bodies.

H. sapiens began traveling to Europe where they might have met the Neanderthals. H. sapiens had varying advantages such as slimmer bodies requiring less caloric intake, developed projectile weapons making hunting safer and more efficient, adaptation widened their ecological niche, and culture allowed H. sapiens to pass beneficial knowledge to future generations.

Tyler G. is an Oregonian with a love for the outdoors, anything science, and all kinds of twentieth century literature.

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