Human factors and ergonomics (commonly referred to as human factors)
is the application of psychological and physiological principles to the
(engineering and) design of products, processes, and systems. The goal
of human factors is to reduce human error, increase productivity, and
enhance safety and comfort with a specific focus on the interaction
between the human and the thing of interest.
It is not simply changes or amendments to the work environment but
encompasses theory, methods, data and principles all applied in the
field of ergonomics.
The field is a combination of numerous disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, engineering, biomechanics, industrial design, physiology, anthropometry, interaction design, visual design, user experience, and user interface design.
In research, human factors employs the scientific method to study human
behavior so that the resultant data may be applied to the four primary
goals. In essence, it is the study of designing equipment, devices and
processes that fit the human body and its cognitive abilities. The two terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially synonymous.
The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics or human factors as follows:
Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design to optimize human well-being and overall system performance.
Human factors is employed to fulfill the goals of occupational health and safety and productivity. It is relevant in the design of such things as safe furniture and easy-to-use interfaces to machines and equipment.
Proper ergonomic design is necessary to prevent repetitive strain injuries and other musculoskeletal disorders, which can develop over time and can lead to long-term disability.
Human factors and ergonomics is concerned with the "fit" between
the user, equipment, and environment or "fitting a job to a person".
It accounts for the user's capabilities and limitations in seeking to
ensure that tasks, functions, information, and the environment suit that
user.
To assess the fit between a person and the used technology, human
factors specialists or ergonomists consider the job (activity) being
done and the demands on the user; the equipment used (its size, shape,
and how appropriate it is for the task), and the information used (how
it is presented, accessed, and changed). Ergonomics draws on many
disciplines in its study of humans and their environments, including
anthropometry, biomechanics, mechanical engineering, industrial engineering, industrial design, information design, kinesiology, physiology, cognitive psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, and space psychology.
Etymology
The term ergonomics (from the Greek ἔργον, meaning "work", and νόμος, meaning "natural law") first entered the modern lexicon when Polish scientist Wojciech Jastrzębowski used the word in his 1857 article Rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy, opartej na prawdach poczerpniętych z Nauki Przyrody (The Outline of Ergonomics; i.e. Science of Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the Natural Science). The French scholar Jean-Gustave Courcelle-Seneuil,
apparently without knowledge of Jastrzębowski's article, used the word
with a slightly different meaning in 1858. The introduction of the term
to the English lexicon is widely attributed to British psychologist Hywel Murrell, at the 1949 meeting at the UK's Admiralty, which led to the foundation of The Ergonomics Society. He used it to encompass the studies in which he had been engaged during and after World War II.
The expression human factors is a predominantly North American
term which has been adopted to emphasize the application of the same
methods to non-work-related situations. A "human factor" is a physical
or cognitive property of an individual or social behavior
specific to humans that may influence the functioning of technological
systems. The terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" are essentially
synonymous.
Domains of specialization
Ergonomics comprise three main fields of research: physical, cognitive and organizational ergonomics.
There are many specializations within these broad categories.
Specializations in the field of physical ergonomics may include visual
ergonomics. Specializations within the field of cognitive ergonomics may
include usability, human–computer interaction, and user experience engineering.
Some specializations may cut across these domains: Environmental ergonomics is concerned with human interaction with the environment as characterized by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, light. The emerging field of human factors in highway safety
uses human factor principles to understand the actions and capabilities
of road users – car and truck drivers, pedestrians, cyclists, etc. –
and use this knowledge to design roads and streets to reduce traffic collisions.
Driver error is listed as a contributing factor in 44% of fatal
collisions in the United States, so a topic of particular interest is
how road users gather and process information about the road and its
environment, and how to assist them to make the appropriate decision.
New terms are being generated all the time. For instance, "user
trial engineer" may refer to a human factors professional who
specializes in user trials.
Although the names change, human factors professionals apply an
understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and
working methods to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity.
According to the International Ergonomics Association, within the discipline of ergonomics there exist domains of specialization.
Physical ergonomics
Physical ergonomics: the science of designing user interaction with equipment and workplaces to fit the user.
Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomy, and some of the
anthropometric, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as they
relate to physical activity. Physical ergonomic principles have been widely used in the design
of both consumer and industrial products. Risk factors such as
localized mechanical pressures, force and posture in a sedentary office
environment lead to injuries attributed to an occupational environment.
Physical ergonomics is important in the medical field, particularly to
those diagnosed with physiological ailments or disorders such as arthritis (both chronic and temporary) or carpal tunnel syndrome.
Pressure that is insignificant or imperceptible to those unaffected by
these disorders may be very painful, or render a device unusable, for
those who are. Many ergonomically designed products are also used or
recommended to treat or prevent such disorders, and to treat
pressure-related chronic pain.
One of the most prevalent types of work-related injuries is
musculoskeletal disorder. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMDs)
result in persistent pain, loss of functional capacity and work
disability, but their initial diagnosis is difficult because they are
mainly based on complaints of pain and other symptoms.
Every year, 1.8 million U.S. workers experience WRMDs and nearly
600,000 of the injuries are serious enough to cause workers to miss
work.
Certain jobs or work conditions cause a higher rate of worker
complaints of undue strain, localized fatigue, discomfort, or pain that
does not go away after overnight rest. These types of jobs are often
those involving activities such as repetitive and forceful exertions;
frequent, heavy, or overhead lifts; awkward work positions; or use of
vibrating equipment.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has found
substantial evidence that ergonomics programs can cut workers'
compensation costs, increase productivity and decrease employee
turnover.
Mitigation solutions can include both short term and long term
solutions. Short and long term solutions involve awareness training,
positioning of the body, furniture and equipment and ergonomic
exercises. Sit-stand stations and computer accessories that provide soft
surfaces for resting the palm as well as split keyboards are
recommended. Additionally, resources within the HR department can be
allocated to provide assessments to employees to ensure the above listed
criteria is met.
Therefore, it is important to gather data to identify jobs or work
conditions that are most problematic, using sources such as injury and
illness logs, medical records, and job analyses.
Ergonomically correct Keyboard
Innovative workstations that are being tested include: sit-stand
desks, treadmill desks, pedal devices and cycle ergometers. In multiple
studies these new workstations resulted in decreased waist circumference
and psychological well being, however a significant number of
additional studies have seen no marked improvement in health outcomes.
Cognitive ergonomics
Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as
perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect
interactions among humans and other elements of a system.
(Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled
performance, human reliability, work stress and training as these may
relate to human-system and Human-Computer Interaction
design.) Epidemiological studies show a correlation between the time
one spends sedentary and their cognitive function such as lowered mood
and depression.
Organizational ergonomics
Organizational
ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of socio-technical
systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and
processes. (Relevant topics include communication, crew resource management, work design, work systems, design of working times, teamwork, participatory design, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management.)
History of the field
In ancient societies
Some
have stated that human ergonomics began with Australopithecus
Prometheus (also known as “little foot”), a primate who created handheld
tools out of different types of stone, clearly distinguishing between
tools based on their ability to perform designated tasks. The foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid within the context of the culture of Ancient Greece.
A good deal of evidence indicates that Greek civilization in the 5th
century BC used ergonomic principles in the design of their tools, jobs,
and workplaces. One outstanding example of this can be found in the
description Hippocrates gave of how a surgeon's workplace should be designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged. The archaeological record also shows that the early Egyptian dynasties made tools and household equipment that illustrated ergonomic principles.
In industrial societies
Bernardino
Ramazzini was one of the first people to systematically study the
illness that resulted from work earning himself the nickname “father of
occupational medicine”. In the late 1600s and early 1700s Ramazzini
visited many worksites where he documented the movements of laborers and
spoke to them about their ailments. He then published “De Morbis
Artificum Diatriba” (italian for Diseases of Workers) which detailed
occupations, common illnesses, remedies. In the 19th century, Frederick Winslow Taylor pioneered the "scientific management"
method, which proposed a way to find the optimum method of carrying out
a given task. Taylor found that he could, for example, triple the
amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incrementally reducing the
size and weight of coal shovels until the fastest shoveling rate was
reached. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth expanded Taylor's methods in the early 1900s to develop the "time and motion study".
They aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and
actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of
motions in bricklaying from 18 to 4.5, allowing bricklayers to increase their productivity from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.
However, this approach was rejected by Russian researchers who focused on the well being of the worker. At the First Conference on Scientific Organization of Labour (1921) Vladimir Bekhterev and Vladimir Nikolayevich Myasishchev
criticised Taylorism. Bekhterev argued that "The ultimate ideal of the
labour problem is not in it [Taylorism], but is in such organisation of
the labour process that would yield a maximum of efficiency coupled with
a minimum of health hazards, absence of fatigue and a guarantee of the
sound health and all round personal development of the working people."
Myasishchev rejected Frederick Taylor's proposal to turn man into a
machine. Dull monotonous work was a temporary necessity until a
corresponding machine can be developed. He also went on to suggest a new
discipline of "ergology" to study work as an integral part of the
re-organisation of work. The concept was taken up by Myasishchev's
mentor, Bekhterev, in his final report on the conference, merely
changing the name to "ergonology"
In aviation
Prior to World War I,
the focus of aviation psychology was on the aviator himself, but the
war shifted the focus onto the aircraft, in particular, the design of
controls and displays, and the effects of altitude and environmental
factors on the pilot. The war saw the emergence of aeromedical research
and the need for testing and measurement methods. Studies on driver
behavior started gaining momentum during this period, as Henry Ford
started providing millions of Americans with automobiles. Another major
development during this period was the performance of aeromedical
research. By the end of World War I, two aeronautical labs were
established, one at Brooks Air Force Base, Texas and the other at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base outside of Dayton, Ohio.
Many tests were conducted to determine which characteristic
differentiated the successful pilots from the unsuccessful ones. During
the early 1930s, Edwin Link
developed the first flight simulator. The trend continued and more
sophisticated simulators and test equipment were developed. Another
significant development was in the civilian sector, where the effects of
illumination on worker productivity were examined. This led to the
identification of the Hawthorne Effect, which suggested that motivational factors could significantly influence human performance.
World War II marked the development of new and complex machines and weaponry, and these made new demands on operators' cognition.
It was no longer possible to adopt the Tayloristic principle of
matching individuals to preexisting jobs. Now the design of equipment
had to take into account human limitations and take advantage of human
capabilities. The decision-making, attention, situational awareness and
hand-eye coordination of the machine's operator became key in the
success or failure of a task. There was substantial research conducted
to determine the human capabilities and limitations that had to be
accomplished. A lot of this research took off where the aeromedical
research between the wars had left off. An example of this is the study
done by Fitts and Jones (1947), who studied the most effective
configuration of control knobs to be used in aircraft cockpits.
Much of this research transcended into other equipment with the
aim of making the controls and displays easier for the operators to use.
The entry of the terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" into the modern
lexicon date from this period. It was observed that fully functional
aircraft flown by the best-trained pilots, still crashed. In 1943 Alphonse Chapanis, a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, showed that this so-called "pilot error"
could be greatly reduced when more logical and differentiable controls
replaced confusing designs in airplane cockpits. After the war, the Army
Air Force published 19 volumes summarizing what had been established
from research during the war.
In the decades since World War II, human factors has continued to flourish and diversify. Work by Elias Porter and others within the RAND Corporation
after WWII extended the conception of human factors. "As the thinking
progressed, a new concept developed—that it was possible to view an
organization such as an air-defense, man-machine system as a single
organism and that it was possible to study the behavior of such an
organism. It was the climate for a breakthrough." In the initial 20 years after the World War II, most activities were done by the "founding fathers": Alphonse Chapanis, Paul Fitts, and Small.
During the Cold War
The beginning of the Cold War
led to a major expansion of Defense supported research laboratories.
Also, many labs established during WWII started expanding. Most of the
research following the war was military-sponsored. Large sums of money
were granted to universities to conduct research. The scope of the
research also broadened from small equipments to entire workstations and
systems. Concurrently, a lot of opportunities started opening up in the
civilian industry. The focus shifted from research to participation
through advice to engineers in the design of equipment. After 1965, the
period saw a maturation of the discipline. The field has expanded with
the development of the computer and computer applications.
The Space Age created new human factors issues such as weightlessness and extreme g-forces. Tolerance of the harsh environment of space and its effects on the mind and body were widely studied.
Information age
The dawn of the Information Age has resulted in the related field of human–computer interaction (HCI). Likewise, the growing demand for and competition among consumer goods and electronics has resulted in more companies and industries including human factors in their product design. Using advanced technologies in human kinetics,
body-mapping, movement patterns and heat zones, companies are able to
manufacture purpose-specific garments, including full body suits,
jerseys, shorts, shoes, and even underwear.
Present-day
Ergonomic evaluation in virtual environment
In physical ergonomics, digital tools and advanced software allow
analysis of a workplace. An employee's movements are recorded using a
motion capture tool and imported into an analyzing system. To detect
hazardous postures and movements, traditional risk assessment methods
are implemented in the software – for example, as in the ViveLab
ergonomic assessment software RULA and NASA-OBI.
In virtual space, a biomechanically accurate model represents the
worker. The body structure, sex, age and demographic group of the
mannequin is adjustable to correspond to the properties of the employee.
The software provides several different evaluations such as
reachability test, spaghetti diagram, or visibility analysis.
With these tools, ergonomists are able to redesign a workstation in a
virtual environment and test it in iterations until the result is
satisfactory.
Human factors organizations
Formed in 1946 in the UK, the oldest professional body for human factors specialists and ergonomists is The Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, formally known as the Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors and before that, The Ergonomics Society.
The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society
(HFES) was founded in 1957. The Society's mission is to promote the
discovery and exchange of knowledge concerning the characteristics of
human beings that are applicable to the design of systems and devices of
all kinds.
The Association of Canadian Ergonomists - l'Association canadienne d'ergonomie (ACE) was founded in 1968.
It was originally named the Human Factors Association of Canada (HFAC),
with ACE (in French) added in 1984, and the consistent, bilingual title
adopted in 1999. According to it 2017 mission statement, ACE unites
and advances the knowledge and skills of ergonomics and human factors
practitioners to optimise human and organisational well-being.
The International Ergonomics Association
(IEA) is a federation of ergonomics and human factors societies from
around the world. The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance
ergonomics science and practice, and to improve the quality of life by
expanding its scope of application and contribution to society. As of
September 2008, the International Ergonomics Association has 46
federated societies and 2 affiliated societies.
Related organizations
The Institute of Occupational Medicine
(IOM) was founded by the coal industry in 1969. From the outset the IOM
employed an ergonomics staff to apply ergonomics principles to the
design of mining machinery and environments. To this day, the IOM
continues ergonomics activities, especially in the fields of musculoskeletal disorders; heat stress and the ergonomics of personal protective equipment
(PPE). Like many in occupational ergonomics, the demands and
requirements of an ageing UK workforce are a growing concern and
interest to IOM ergonomists.
The International Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) is a professional organization for mobility engineering
professionals in the aerospace, automotive, and commercial vehicle
industries. The Society is a standards development organization for the
engineering of powered vehicles of all kinds, including cars, trucks,
boats, aircraft, and others. The Society of Automotive Engineers has
established a number of standards used in the automotive industry and
elsewhere. It encourages the design of vehicles in accordance with
established human factors principles. It is one of the most influential
organizations with respect to ergonomics work in automotive design. This society regularly holds conferences which address topics spanning all aspects of human factors and ergonomics.
Practitioners
Human
factors practitioners come from a variety of backgrounds, though
predominantly they are psychologists (from the various subfields of industrial and organizational psychology, engineering psychology, cognitive psychology, perceptual psychology, applied psychology, and experimental psychology)
and physiologists. Designers (industrial, interaction, and graphic),
anthropologists, technical communication scholars and computer
scientists also contribute. Typically, an ergonomist will have an undergraduate degree in psychology, engineering, design or health sciences, and usually a master's degree or doctoral degree
in a related discipline. Though some practitioners enter the field of
human factors from other disciplines, both M.S. and PhD degrees in Human
Factors Engineering are available from several universities worldwide.
Ergonomics and the Sedentary Workplace
Contemporary offices did not exist until the 1830s with, Wojciech Jastrzębowsk’s seminal book on MSDergonomics following in 1857 and the first published study of posture appearing in 1955s.
As the American workforce began to shift towards sedentary
employment, the prevalence of [WMSD/cognitive issues/ etc..] began to
rise. In 1900, 41% of the US workforce was employed in agriculture but
by 2000 that had dropped to 1.9% This coincides with an increase in growth in desk-based employment (25% of all employment in 2000) and the surveillance of non-fatal workplace injuries by OSHA and Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1971
.0-1.5 and occurs in a sitting or reclining position. Adults older
than 50 years report spending more time sedentary and for adults older
than 65 years this is often 80% of their awake time. Multiple studies
show a dose-response relationship between sedentary time and all-cause
mortality with an increase of 3% mortality per additional sedentary hour
each day.
High quantities of sedentary time without breaks is correlated to
higher risk of chronic disease, obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2
diabetes and cancer.
Currently, there is a large proportion of the overall workforce who is employed in low physical activity occupations.
Sedentary behavior, such as spending long periods of time in seated
positions poses a serious threat for injuries and additional health
risks.
Unfortunately, even though some workplaces make an effort to provide a
well designed environment for sedentary employees, any employee who is
performing large amounts of sitting will likely suffer discomfort.
There are existing conditions that would predispose both individuals and
populations to an increase in prevalence of living sedentary
lifestyles, including: socioeconomic determinants, education levels,
occupation, living environment, age (as mentioned above) and more.
A study published by the Iranian Journal of Public Health examined
socioeconomic factors and sedentary lifestyle effects for individuals in
a working community. The study concluded that individuals who reported
living in low income environments were more inclined to living sedentary
behavior compared to those who reported being of high socioeconomic
status.
Individuals who achieve less education are also considered to be a high
risk group to partake in sedentary lifestyles, however, each community
is different and has different resources available that may vary this
risk.
Often times, larger worksites are associated with increased
occupational sitting.Those who work in environments that are classified
as business and office jobs are typically more exposed to sitting and
sedentary behavior while in the workplace. Additionally, occupations
that are full-time, have schedule flexibility, are also included in that
demographic, and are more likely to sit often throughout their workday.
Ergonomics Policy Implementation:
Obstacles surrounding better ergonomic features to sedentary
employees include cost, time, effort and for both companies and
employees. The evidence above helps establish the importance of
ergonomics in a sedentary workplace; however missing information from
this problem is enforcement and policy implementation. As a modernized
workplace becomes more and more technology based more jobs are becoming
primarily seated, therefore leading to a need to prevent chronic
injuries and pain. This is becoming easier with the amount of research
around ergonomic tools saving money companies by limiting the number of
days missed from work and workers comp cases. The way to ensure that corporations prioritize these health outcomes for their employees is through policy and implementation.
Nationwide there are no policies that are currently in place,
however a handful of big companies and states have taken on cultural
policies to insure the safety of all workers. For example, the state of
Nevada risk management department has established a set of ground rules
for both agencies responsibilities and employees responsibilities.
The agency responsibilities include evaluating workstations, using
risk management resources when necessary and keeping OSHA records. To see specific workstation ergonomic policies and responsibilities click here.
Methods
Until
recently, methods used to evaluate human factors and ergonomics ranged
from simple questionnaires to more complex and expensive usability labs. Some of the more common human factors methods are listed below:
- Ethnographic analysis: Using methods derived from ethnography, this process focuses on observing the uses of technology in a practical environment. It is a qualitative and observational method that focuses on "real-world" experience and pressures, and the usage of technology or environments in the workplace. The process is best used early in the design process.
- Focus Groups are another form of qualitative research in which one individual will facilitate discussion and elicit opinions about the technology or process under investigation. This can be on a one-to-one interview basis, or in a group session. Can be used to gain a large quantity of deep qualitative data, though due to the small sample size, can be subject to a higher degree of individual bias. Can be used at any point in the design process, as it is largely dependent on the exact questions to be pursued, and the structure of the group. Can be extremely costly.
- Iterative design: Also known as prototyping, the iterative design process seeks to involve users at several stages of design, to correct problems as they emerge. As prototypes emerge from the design process, these are subjected to other forms of analysis as outlined in this article, and the results are then taken and incorporated into the new design. Trends among users are analyzed, and products redesigned. This can become a costly process, and needs to be done as soon as possible in the design process before designs become too concrete.
- Meta-analysis: A supplementary technique used to examine a wide body of already existing data or literature to derive trends or form hypotheses to aid design decisions. As part of a literature survey, a meta-analysis can be performed to discern a collective trend from individual variables.
- Subjects-in-tandem: Two subjects are asked to work concurrently on a series of tasks while vocalizing their analytical observations. The technique is also known as "Co-Discovery" as participants tend to feed off of each other's comments to generate a richer set of observations than is often possible with the participants separately. This is observed by the researcher, and can be used to discover usability difficulties. This process is usually recorded.
- Surveys and questionnaires: A commonly used technique outside of human factors as well, surveys and questionnaires have an advantage in that they can be administered to a large group of people for relatively low cost, enabling the researcher to gain a large amount of data. The validity of the data obtained is, however, always in question, as the questions must be written and interpreted correctly, and are, by definition, subjective. Those who actually respond are in effect self-selecting as well, widening the gap between the sample and the population further.
- Task analysis: A process with roots in activity theory, task analysis is a way of systematically describing human interaction with a system or process to understand how to match the demands of the system or process to human capabilities. The complexity of this process is generally proportional to the complexity of the task being analyzed, and so can vary in cost and time involvement. It is a qualitative and observational process. Best used early in the design process.
- Think aloud protocol: Also known as "concurrent verbal protocol", this is the process of asking a user to execute a series of tasks or use technology, while continuously verbalizing their thoughts so that a researcher can gain insights as to the users' analytical process. Can be useful for finding design flaws that do not affect task performance, but may have a negative cognitive effect on the user. Also useful for utilizing experts to better understand procedural knowledge of the task in question. Less expensive than focus groups, but tends to be more specific and subjective.
- User analysis: This process is based around designing for the attributes of the intended user or operator, establishing the characteristics that define them, creating a persona for the user. Best done at the outset of the design process, a user analysis will attempt to predict the most common users, and the characteristics that they would be assumed to have in common. This can be problematic if the design concept does not match the actual user, or if the identified are too vague to make clear design decisions from. This process is, however, usually quite inexpensive, and commonly used.
- "Wizard of Oz": This is a comparatively uncommon technique but has seen some use in mobile devices. Based upon the Wizard of Oz experiment, this technique involves an operator who remotely controls the operation of a device to imitate the response of an actual computer program. It has the advantage of producing a highly changeable set of reactions, but can be quite costly and difficult to undertake.
- Methods analysis is the process of studying the tasks a worker completes using a step-by-step investigation. Each task in broken down into smaller steps until each motion the worker performs is described. Doing so enables you to see exactly where repetitive or straining tasks occur.
- Time studies determine the time required for a worker to complete each task. Time studies are often used to analyze cyclical jobs. They are considered "event based" studies because time measurements are triggered by the occurrence of predetermined events.
- Work sampling is a method in which the job is sampled at random intervals to determine the proportion of total time spent on a particular task. It provides insight into how often workers are performing tasks which might cause strain on their bodies.
- Predetermined time systems are methods for analyzing the time spent by workers on a particular task. One of the most widely used predetermined time system is called Methods-Time-Measurement (MTM). Other common work measurement systems include MODAPTS and MOST. Industry specific applications based on PTS are Seweasy,MODAPTS and GSD as seen in paper: Miller, Doug, Towards Sustainable Labour Costing in UK Fashion Retail (5 February 2013). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2212100 or doi:10.2139/ssrn.2212100 .
- Cognitive walkthrough: This method is a usability inspection method in which the evaluators can apply user perspective to task scenarios to identify design problems. As applied to macroergonomics, evaluators are able to analyze the usability of work system designs to identify how well a work system is organized and how well the workflow is integrated.
- Kansei method: This is a method that transforms consumer's responses to new products into design specifications. As applied to macroergonomics, this method can translate employee's responses to changes to a work system into design specifications.
- High Integration of Technology, Organization, and People (HITOP): This is a manual procedure done step-by-step to apply technological change to the workplace. It allows managers to be more aware of the human and organizational aspects of their technology plans, allowing them to efficiently integrate technology in these contexts.
- Top modeler: This model helps manufacturing companies identify the organizational changes needed when new technologies are being considered for their process.
- Computer-integrated Manufacturing, Organization, and People System Design (CIMOP): This model allows for evaluating computer-integrated manufacturing, organization, and people system design based on knowledge of the system.
- Anthropotechnology: This method considers analysis and design modification of systems for the efficient transfer of technology from one culture to another.
- Systems analysis tool (SAT): This is a method to conduct systematic trade-off evaluations of work-system intervention alternatives.
- Macroergonomic analysis of structure (MAS): This method analyzes the structure of work systems according to their compatibility with unique sociotechnical aspects.
- Macroergonomic analysis and design (MEAD): This method assesses work-system processes by using a ten-step process.
- Virtual manufacturing and response surface methodology (VMRSM): This method uses computerized tools and statistical analysis for workstation design.
Weaknesses
Problems
related to measures of usability include the fact that measures of
learning and retention of how to use an interface are rarely employed
and some studies treat measures of how users interact with interfaces as
synonymous with quality-in-use, despite an unclear relation.
Although field methods can be extremely useful because they are
conducted in the users' natural environment, they have some major
limitations to consider. The limitations include:
- Usually take more time and resources than other methods
- Very high effort in planning, recruiting, and executing compared with other methods
- Much longer study periods and therefore requires much goodwill among the participants
- Studies are longitudinal in nature, therefore, attrition can become a problem.
