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Sir Isaiah Berlin OM CBE FBA (6 June 1909 – 5 November 1997) was a Latvian-born British social and political theorist, philosopher and historian of ideas. Although he became increasingly averse to writing for publication, his improvised lectures and talks were sometimes recorded and transcribed, and many of his spoken words were converted into published essays and books, both by himself and by others, especially his principal editor from 1974, Henry Hardy.
Born in Riga (now capital of Latvia, then a part of the Russian empire) in 1909, he moved to Petrograd, Russia, at the age of six, where he witnessed the revolutions of 1917. In 1921 his family moved to the UK, and he was educated at St Paul's School, London, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 1932, at the age of twenty-three, Berlin was elected to a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. In addition to his own prolific output, he translated works by Ivan Turgenev from Russian into English and, during World War II, worked for the British Diplomatic Service. From 1957 to 1967 he was Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory at the University of Oxford. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1963 to 1964. In 1966, he played a critical role in creating Wolfson College, Oxford, and became its founding President. Berlin was appointed a CBE in 1946, knighted in 1957, and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1971. He was President of the British Academy from 1974 to 1978. He also received the 1979 Jerusalem Prize for his lifelong defence of civil liberties, and on 25 November 1994 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws at the University of Toronto, for which occasion he prepared a "short credo" (as he called it in a letter to a friend), now known as "A Message to the Twenty-First Century", to be read on his behalf at the ceremony.
An annual Isaiah Berlin Lecture is held at the Hampstead Synagogue, at Wolfson College, Oxford, at the British Academy, and in Riga. Berlin's work on liberal theory and on value pluralism, as well as his opposition to Marxism and Communism, has had a lasting influence. In its obituary of the scholar, the Independent stated that:
Sir Isaiah Berlin
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Berlin in 1983
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| Born | 6 June 1909 |
| Died | 5 November 1997 (aged 88)
Oxford, England
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| Alma mater | Corpus Christi College, Oxford |
| Era | 20th-century philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | |
| Institutions | |
| Doctoral students | |
| Other notable students | |
Main interests
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Notable ideas
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Sir Isaiah Berlin OM CBE FBA (6 June 1909 – 5 November 1997) was a Latvian-born British social and political theorist, philosopher and historian of ideas. Although he became increasingly averse to writing for publication, his improvised lectures and talks were sometimes recorded and transcribed, and many of his spoken words were converted into published essays and books, both by himself and by others, especially his principal editor from 1974, Henry Hardy.
Born in Riga (now capital of Latvia, then a part of the Russian empire) in 1909, he moved to Petrograd, Russia, at the age of six, where he witnessed the revolutions of 1917. In 1921 his family moved to the UK, and he was educated at St Paul's School, London, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford. In 1932, at the age of twenty-three, Berlin was elected to a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. In addition to his own prolific output, he translated works by Ivan Turgenev from Russian into English and, during World War II, worked for the British Diplomatic Service. From 1957 to 1967 he was Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory at the University of Oxford. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1963 to 1964. In 1966, he played a critical role in creating Wolfson College, Oxford, and became its founding President. Berlin was appointed a CBE in 1946, knighted in 1957, and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1971. He was President of the British Academy from 1974 to 1978. He also received the 1979 Jerusalem Prize for his lifelong defence of civil liberties, and on 25 November 1994 he received the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws at the University of Toronto, for which occasion he prepared a "short credo" (as he called it in a letter to a friend), now known as "A Message to the Twenty-First Century", to be read on his behalf at the ceremony.
An annual Isaiah Berlin Lecture is held at the Hampstead Synagogue, at Wolfson College, Oxford, at the British Academy, and in Riga. Berlin's work on liberal theory and on value pluralism, as well as his opposition to Marxism and Communism, has had a lasting influence. In its obituary of the scholar, the Independent stated that:
Isaiah Berlin was often described, especially in his old age, by means of superlatives: the world's greatest talker, the century's most inspired reader, one of the finest minds of our time [...]. [T]here is no doubt that he showed in more than one direction the unexpectedly large possibilities open to us at the top end of the range of human potential.
Early life
Plaque marking what was once Berlin's childhood home (designed by Mikhail Eisenstein)
in Riga, engraved in Latvian, English, and Hebrew with the tribute "The
British philosopher Sir Isaiah Berlin lived in this house 1909–1915"
The Angliyskaya Embankment in Saint Petersburg, where Berlin lived as a child during the Russian Revolutions
Born on 6 June 1909, Berlin was the only surviving child of a wealthy Jewish family, the son of Mendel Berlin, a timber trader (and a direct descendant of Shneur Zalman, founder of Chabad Hasidism), and his wife Marie, née Volshonok. His family owned a timber company, one of the largest in the Baltics, as well as forests in Russia, from where the timber was floated down the Daugava river to its sawmills in Riga. As his father, who was the head of the Riga Association of Timber Merchants,
worked for the company in its dealings with Western companies, he was
fluent not only in Yiddish, Russian and German, but also French and
English. His Russian-speaking mother, Marie (Musya) Volshonok, was also fluent in Yiddish and Latvian. Isaiah Berlin spent his first six years in Riga, and later lived in Andreapol (a small timber town near Pskov, effectively owned by the family business) and Petrograd (now St Petersburg). In Petrograd, the family lived first on Vasilevsky Island
and then on Angliiskii Prospekt on the mainland. On Angliiskii
Prospekt, they shared their building with other tenants, including
Rimsky-Korsakov's daughter, an assistant Minister of Finnish affairs and
Princess Emeretinsky. With the onset of the October Revolution of 1917,
the fortunes of the building's tenants were rapidly reversed, with both
the Princess Emeretinsky and Rimsky-Korsakov's daughter soon being made
to stoke the building's stoves and sweep the yards.[15] Berlin witnessed the February and October Revolutions
both from his apartment windows and from walks in the city with his
governess, where he recalled the crowds of protesters marching on the Winter Palace Square.
One particular childhood memory of the February Revolution marked his life-long opposition to violence, with Berlin saying:
Well I was seven and a half and something, and then I was – did I tell you the terrible sight of the policeman being dragged – not policeman, a sharp shooter from the rooftop – being dragged away by a lynching bee […] In the early parts of the revolution, the only people who remained loyal to the Tsar was the police, the Pharaon, I've never seen [the term] Pharaon in the histories of the Russian Revolution. They existed, and they did sniping from the rooftops or attics. I saw a man like that, a Pharaon […]. That's not in the books, but it is true. And they sniped at the revolutionaries from roofs or attics and things. And this man was dragged down, obviously, by a crowd, and was being obviously taken to a not very agreeable fate, and I saw this man struggling in the middle of a crowd of about twenty […] [T]hat gave me a permanent horror of violence which has remained with me for the rest of my life.
Feeling increasingly oppressed by life under Bolshevik
rule where the family was identified as bourgeoisie, the family left
Petrograd, on 5 October 1920, for Riga, but encounters with
anti-Semitism and difficulties with the Latvian authorities convinced
them to leave, and they moved to Britain in early 1921 (Mendel in
January, Isaiah and Marie at the beginning of February), when Berlin was
eleven. In London, the family first stayed in Surbiton where he was sent to Arundel House for preparatory school, then within the year they bought a house in Kensington, and six years later in Hampstead
.
Berlin's native language
was Russian, and his English was virtually nonexistent at first, but he
reached proficiency in English within a year at around the age of 12.
In addition to Russian and English, Berlin was fluent in French, German
and Italian, and knew Hebrew, Latin, and Ancient Greek. Despite his
fluency in English, however, in later life Berlin's Oxford English
accent would sound increasingly Russian in its vowel sounds.
Whenever he was described as an English philosopher, Berlin always
insisted that he was not an English philosopher, but would forever be a
Russian Jew: "I am a Russian Jew from Riga, and all my years in England
cannot change this. I love England, I have been well treated here, and I
cherish many things about English life, but I am a Russian Jew; that is
how I was born and that is who I will be to the end of my life."
Education
Berlin was educated at St Paul's School
in London, where he made astonishing feats in the school's Junior
Debating Society and the School Union Society. The rapid, even flow of
his ideas, the succession of confident references to authors whom most
of his contemporaries had never heard, left them mildly stupefied. Yet
there was no backlash, no resentment at these breathless marathons,
because Berlin's essential modesty and good manners eliminated jealousy
and disarmed hostility.
After leaving St Paul's, Berlin applied to Balliol College, Oxford, but was denied admission after a chaotic interview. Berlin decided to apply again, only to a different college: Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Berlin was admitted and commenced his literae humaniores degree.
He graduated in 1928, taking first-class honours in his final
examinations and winning the John Locke Prize for his performance in the
philosophy papers, in which he outscored A. J. Ayer. He subsequently took another degree at Oxford in philosophy, politics and economics, again taking first-class honours after less than a year on the course. He was appointed a tutor in philosophy at New College, Oxford, and soon afterwards was elected to a prize fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford, the first unconverted Jewish to achieve this fellowship at All Souls.
While still a student, he befriended Ayer (with whom he was to share a lifelong amicable rivalry), Stuart Hampshire, Richard Wollheim, Maurice Bowra, Stephen Spender, Inez Pearn, J. L. Austin and Nicolas Nabokov. In 1940, he presented a philosophical paper on other minds to a meeting attended by Ludwig Wittgenstein
at Cambridge University. Wittgenstein rejected the argument of his
paper in discussion but praised Berlin for his intellectual honesty and
integrity. Berlin was to remain at Oxford for the rest of his life,
apart from a period working for British Information Services in New York
from 1940 to 1942, and for the British embassies in Washington, DC, and
Moscow from then until 1946. Prior to this service, however, Berlin was
barred from participation in the British war effort as a result of his
being born in Latvia, and because his left arm had been damaged at birth. In April 1943 he wrote a confidential analysis of members of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee for the Foreign Office; he described Senator Arthur Capper from Kansas as a solid, stolid, 78-year-old reactionary from the corn belt, who is the very voice of Mid-Western "grass root" isolationism.
For his services, he was appointed a CBE in the 1946 New Year Honours. Meetings with Anna Akhmatova in Leningrad
in November 1945 and January 1946 had a powerful effect on both of
them, and serious repercussions for Akhmatova (who immortalised the
meetings in her poetry).
Personal life
In 1956 Berlin married Aline Halban, née
de Gunzbourg (1915–2014) who was the former wife of an Oxford colleague
and a former winner of the ladies' golf championship of France. She was
from an exiled half Russian-aristocratic and half ennobled-Jewish
banking and petroleum family (her mother was Yvonne Deutsch de la
Meurthe, granddaughter of Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe) based in Paris.
The Berlin Quadrangle, Wolfson College
He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959. He was instrumental in the founding, in 1966, of a new graduate college at Oxford University: Wolfson College.
The college was founded to be a centre of academic excellence which,
unlike many other colleges at Oxford, would also be based on a strong
egalitarian and democratic ethos. Berlin was a member of the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute at Oxford University. As later revealed, when he was asked to evaluate the academic credentials of Isaac Deutscher, Isaiah Berlin argued against a promotion, because of the profoundly pro-communist militancy of the candidate.
Berlin died in Oxford on 5 November 1997, aged 88. He is buried there in Wolvercote Cemetery. On his death, the obituarist of The Independent
wrote: "he was a man of formidable intellectual power with a rare gift
for understanding a wide range of human motives, hopes and fears, and a
prodigiously energetic capacity for enjoyment – of life, of people in
all their variety, of their ideas and idiosyncrasies, of literature, of
music, of art". The front page of The New York Times
concluded: "His was an exuberant life crowded with joys – the joy of
thought, the joy of music, the joy of good friends. ... The theme that
runs throughout his work is his concern with liberty and the dignity of
human beings .... Sir Isaiah radiated well-being."
Thought
Though like Our Lord
and Socrates he does not publish much, he thinks and says a great deal
and has had an enormous influence on our times
—Maurice Bowra on Isaiah Berlin's publishing record.
Lecturing and composition
Berlin
did not enjoy writing, and his published work (including both his
essays and books) was produced by means of conversational dictation to a
tape-recorder, or through the transcription of his improvised lectures
and talks from recorded tapes. The work of transcribing his spoken word
often placed a strain on his secretaries. This method of dictation even extended to his letters, which were produced by speaking to a Grundig
tape recorder, often while simultaneously in conversation with his
friends, and then transcribed with difficulty by his secretary, who at
times would inadvertently include his jokes and laughter into the
transcribed text itself.
The results are a darting and leaping style of thought, which literally
reflected his own conversation, and the ornate grammar and punctuation
which was contained in his everyday speech.
"Two Concepts of Liberty"
Berlin is popularly known for his essay "Two Concepts of Liberty",
delivered in 1958 as his inaugural lecture as Chichele Professor of
Social and Political Theory at Oxford. The essay, with its analytical
approach to the definition of political concepts, reintroduced the
methods of analytic philosophy
to the study of political philosophy. Spurred by his background in
philosophy of language, Berlin argued for a nuanced and subtle
understanding of our political terminology, where what was superficially
understood as a single concept could mask a plurality of different uses
and therefore meanings. Berlin argued that these multiple and differing
concepts, otherwise masked by rhetorical conflations, showed the
plurality and incompatibility of human values, and the need for us to
distinguish and trade off analytically between, rather than conflate,
them if we are to avoid disguising underlying value-conflicts. The two
concepts are 'negative freedom', or freedom from interference, which
Berlin derived from the British tradition, and 'positive freedom', or
freedom as self-mastery, which asks not what we are free from, but what
we are free to do. Berlin points out that these two different
conceptions of liberty can clash with each other.
Counter-Enlightenment
Berlin's lectures on the Enlightenment and its critics (especially Giambattista Vico, Johann Gottfried Herder, Joseph de Maistre and Johann Georg Hamann, to whose views Berlin referred as the Counter-Enlightenment) contributed to his advocacy of an irreducibly pluralist ethical ontology. In Three Critics of the Enlightenment, Berlin argues that Hamann was one of the first thinkers to conceive of human cognition as language – the articulation and use of symbols. Berlin saw Hamann as having recognised as the rationalist's Cartesian
fallacy the notion that there are "clear and distinct" ideas "which can
be contemplated by a kind of inner eye", without the use of language – a
recognition greatly sharpened in the 20th century by Wittgenstein's private language argument.
Value pluralism
For Berlin, values are creations of mankind, rather than products of
nature waiting to be discovered. He argued, on the basis of the
epistemic and empathetic access we have to other cultures across
history, that the nature of mankind is such that certain values – the
importance of individual liberty, for instance – will hold true across
cultures, and this is what he meant by objective pluralism. Berlin's
argument was partly grounded in Wittgenstein's later theory of language, which argued that inter-translatability was supervenient
on a similarity in forms of life, with the inverse implication that our
epistemic access to other cultures entails an ontologically contiguous
value-structure. With his account of value pluralism, he proposed the
view that moral values may be equally, or rather incommensurably, valid
and yet incompatible, and may, therefore, come into conflict with one
another in a way that admits of no resolution without reference to
particular contexts of a decision. When values clash, it may not be that
one is more important than the other: keeping a promise may conflict
with the pursuit of truth; liberty may clash with social justice.
Moral conflicts are "an intrinsic, irremovable element in human life".
"These collisions of values are of the essence of what they are and what
we are."
For Berlin, this clashing of incommensurate values within, no less than
between, individuals, constitutes the tragedy of human life. Alan Brown
suggests, however, that Berlin ignores the fact that values are
commensurable in the extent to which they contribute to the human good.
"The Hedgehog and the Fox"
"The Hedgehog and the Fox", a title referring to a fragment of the ancient Greek poet Archilochus,
was one of Berlin's most popular essays with the general public,
reprinted in numerous editions. Of the classification that gives the
essay its title, Berlin once said "I never meant it very seriously. I
meant it as a kind of enjoyable intellectual game, but it was taken
seriously."
Berlin expands upon this idea to divide writers and thinkers into
two categories: hedgehogs, who view the world through the lens of a
single defining idea (examples given include Plato),
and foxes, who draw on a wide variety of experiences and for whom the
world cannot be boiled down to a single idea (examples given include William Shakespeare: "There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, Than are dreamt in our philosophy". Hamlet 1.5 167–168).
Positive liberty
Berlin promoted the notion of "positive liberty" in the sense of an intrinsic link between positive freedom and participatory, Athenian-style, democracy.
There is a contrast with "negative liberty." Liberals in the
English-speaking tradition call for negative liberty, meaning a realm of
private autonomy from which the state is legally excluded. In contrast
French liberals ever since the French Revolution
more often promote “positive liberty”—that is, liberty insofar as it is
tethered to collectively defined ends. Thewy praise the state as the
state as an essential tool to emancipate the people.
Other work
Berlin's lecture "Historical Inevitability" (1954) focused on a controversy in the philosophy of history.
Given the choice, whether one believes that "the lives of entire
peoples and societies have been decisively influenced by exceptional
individuals" or, conversely, that whatever happens occurs as a result of
impersonal forces oblivious to human intentions, Berlin rejected both
options and the choice itself as nonsensical. Berlin is also well known
for his writings on Russian intellectual history, most of which are
collected in Russian Thinkers (1978; 2nd ed. 2008) and edited, as most of Berlin's work, by Henry Hardy
(in the case of this volume, jointly with Aileen Kelly). Berlin also
contributed a number of essays on leading intellectuals and political
figures of his time, including Winston Churchill, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Chaim Weizmann.
Eighteen of these character sketches were published together as
"Personal Impressions" (1980; 2nd ed., with four additional essays,
1998; 3rd ed., with a further ten essays, 2014).
Commemoration
A
number of commemorative events for Isaiah Berlin are held at Oxford
University, as well as scholarships given out in his name, including the
Wolfson Isaiah Berlin Clarendon Scholarship, The Isaiah Berlin Visiting
Professorship, and the annual Isaiah Berlin Lectures. The Berlin
Quadrangle of Wolfson College, Oxford, is named after him. The Isaiah
Berlin Association of Latvia was founded in 2011 to promote the ideas
and values of Sir Isaiah Berlin, in particular by organising an annual
Isaiah Berlin day and lectures in his memory. At the British Academy, the Isaiah Berlin lecture series has been held since 2001. Many volumes from Berlin's personal library were donated to Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Beer Sheva
and form part of the Aranne Library collection. The Isaiah Berlin Room,
on the third floor of the library, is a replica of his study at the
University of Oxford. There is also the Isaiah Berlin Society which takes place at his alma mater of St Paul's School.
The society invites world famous academics to share their research into
the answers to life's great concerns and to respond to students'
questions. In the last few years they have hosted: A.C. Grayling, Brad
Hooker, Jonathan Dancy, John Cottingham, Tim Crane, Arif Ahmed, Hugh
Mellor and David Papineau.
Published works
Apart from Unfinished Dialogue, all books/editions listed from 1978 onwards are edited (or, where stated, co-edited) by Henry Hardy, and all but Karl Marx
are compilations or transcripts of lectures, essays, and letters.
Details given are of first and latest UK editions, and current US
editions. Most titles are also available as e-books. The twelve titles
marked with a '+' are available in the US market in revised editions
from Princeton University Press, with additional material by Berlin, and (except in the case of Karl Marx) new forewords by contemporary authors; the 5th edition of Karl Marx is also available in the UK.
- +Karl Marx: His Life and Environment, Thornton Butterworth, 1939. 5th ed., Karl Marx, 2013, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15650-7.
- The Age of Enlightenment: The Eighteenth-Century Philosophers, New American Library, 1956. Out of print. Second edition (2017) available online only.
- +The Hedgehog and the Fox: An Essay on Tolstoy's View of History, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 1953. 2nd ed., 2014, Phoenix. ISBN 978-1-7802-2843-3. 2nd US ed., Princeton University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-1-4008-4663-4.
- Four Essays on Liberty, Oxford University Press, 1969. Superseded by Liberty.
- Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas, Chatto and Windus, 1976. Superseded by Three Critics of the Enlightenment.
- Russian Thinkers (edited by Henry Hardy and Aileen Kelly), Hogarth Press, 1978. 2nd ed. (revised by Henry Hardy), Penguin, 2008. ISBN 978-0-14-144220-4.
- +Concepts and Categories: Philosophical Essays, Hogarth Press, 1978. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6552-0. 2nd ed., 2013, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15749-8.
- +Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas, Hogarth Press, 1979. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6690-9. 2nd ed., 2013, Princeton University Press.
- +Personal Impressions, Hogarth Press, 1980. 2nd ed., Pimlico, 1998. ISBN 978-0-7126-6601-5. 3rd ed., 2014, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15770-2.
- +The Crooked Timber of Humanity: Chapters in the History of Ideas, John Murray, 1990. 2nd ed., Pimlico, 2013. ISBN 978-1-8459-5208-2. 2nd ed., 2013, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15593-7.
- The Magus of the North: J. G. Hamann and the Origins of Modern Irrationalism, John Murray, 1993. Superseded by Three Critics of the Enlightenment.
- +The Sense of Reality: Studies in Ideas and their History, Chatto & Windus, 1996. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-7367-9. 2nd ed., 2019, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-18287-2.
- The Proper Study of Mankind: An Anthology of Essays (edited by Henry Hardy and Roger Hausheer) [a one-volume selection from the whole of Berlin's work], Chatto & Windus, 1997. 2nd ed., Vintage, 2013. ISBN 978-0-0995-8276-2.
- +The Roots of Romanticism (lectures delivered in 1965), Chatto & Windus, 1999. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6544-5. 2nd ed., 2013, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15620-0.
- +Three Critics of the Enlightenment: Vico, Hamann, Herder, Pimlico, 2000. 2nd ed., 2013. ISBN 978-1-8459-5213-6. 2nd ed., 2013, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15765-8.
- +The Power of Ideas, Chatto & Windus, 2000. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6554-4. 2nd ed., 2013, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15760-3.
- +Freedom and Its Betrayal: Six Enemies of Human Liberty (lectures delivered in 1952), Chatto & Windus, 2002. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6842-2. 2nd ed., 2014, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11499-6.
- Liberty [revised and expanded edition of Four Essays On Liberty], Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-924989-3.
- The Soviet Mind: Russian Culture under Communism, Brookings Institution Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8157-2155-0. 2nd ed., Brookings Classics, 2016. ISBN 978-0-8157-2887-0.
- Flourishing: Letters 1928–1946, Chatto & Windus, 2004. Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-3565-3.
- +Political Ideas in the Romantic Age: Their Rise and Influence on Modern Thought (1952), Chatto & Windus, 2006. ISBN 0-7011-7909-0. Pimlico, ISBN 978-1-84413-926-2. 2nd ed., 2014, Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12695-1.
- (with Beata Polanowska-Sygulska) Unfinished Dialogue, Prometheus, 2006. ISBN 978-1-59102-376-0.
- Enlightening: Letters 1946–1960 (edited by Henry Hardy and Jennifer Holmes), Chatto & Windus, 2009. ISBN 978-0-7011-7889-5. Pimlico, ISBN 978-1-8441-3834-0.
- Building: Letters 1960–1975 (edited by Henry Hardy and Mark Pottle), Chatto & Windus, 2013. ISBN 978-0-701-18576-3.
- Affirming: Letters 1975–1997 (edited by Henry Hardy and Mark Pottle), Chatto & Windus, 2015. ISBN 978-1-7
