In 2012 alone, the Palace of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, hosted more than 10,000 intergovernmental meetings. The city hosts the highest number of International organizations in the world.
The field of international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides.
International relations (IR) or international affairs (IA) — commonly also referred to as international studies (IS), global studies (GS), or global affairs (GA) — is the study of interconnectedness of politics, economics and law on a global level. Depending on the academic institution, it is either a field of political science, an interdisciplinary academic field similar to global studies, or an entirely independent academic discipline in which students take a variety of internationally focused courses in social science and humanities disciplines. In all cases, the field studies relationships between political entities (polities) such as sovereign states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), other non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs), and the wider world-systems produced by this interaction. International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative, because it analyses and formulates the foreign policy of a given state.
As political activity, international relations dates from the time of the Greek historian Thucydides (c. 460–395 BC), and, in the early 20th century, became a discrete academic field (no. 5901 in the 4-digit UNESCO Nomenclature) within political science. In practice, international relations and international affairs forms a separate academic program or field from political science, and the courses taught therein are highly interdisciplinary.
For example, international relations draws from the fields of politics, economics, international law, communication studies, history, demography, geography, sociology, anthropology, criminology, psychology, and gender studies. The scope of international relations encompasses issues such as globalization, diplomatic relations, state sovereignty, international security, ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, global finance, terrorism, and human rights.
History
The history of international relations can be traced back to thousands of years ago; Barry Buzan and Richard Little, for example, consider the interaction of ancient Sumerian city-states, starting in 3,500 BC, as the first fully-fledged international system.
The official portraits of King Władysław IV dressed according to French, Spanish and Polish fashion reflects the complex politics of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth during the Thirty Years' War
The history of international relations based on sovereign states and many more types are often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, a stepping stone in the development of the modern state system. Prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order. Contrary to popular belief, Westphalia still embodied layered systems of sovereignty, especially within the Holy Roman Empire. More than the Peace of Westphalia, the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 is thought to reflect an emerging norm that sovereigns had no internal equals within a defined territory and no external superiors as the ultimate authority within the territory's sovereign borders.
The centuries of roughly 1500 to 1789 saw the rise of the independent, sovereign states, the institutionalization of diplomacy and armies. The French Revolution added to this the new idea that not princes or an oligarchy, but the citizenry of a state, defined as the nation, should be defined as sovereign. Such a state in which the nation is sovereign would thence be termed a nation-state (as opposed to a monarchy or a religious state). The term republic increasingly became its synonym. An alternative model of the nation-state was developed in reaction to the French republican concept by the Germans and others, who instead of giving the citizenry sovereignty, kept the princes and nobility, but defined nation-statehood in ethnic-linguistic terms, establishing the rarely if ever fulfilled ideal that all people speaking one language should belong to one state only. The same claim to sovereignty was made for both forms of nation-state. (In Europe today, few states conform to either definition of nation-state: many continue to have royal sovereigns, and hardly any are ethnically homogeneous.)
The particular European system supposing the sovereign equality of states was exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonialism and the "standards of civilization". The contemporary international system was finally established through decolonization during the Cold War. However, this is somewhat over-simplified. While the nation-state system is considered "modern", many states have not incorporated the system and are termed "pre-modern".
Further, a handful of states have moved beyond insistence on full sovereignty, and can be considered "post-modern". The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of these different types of states is disputed. "Levels of analysis" is a way of looking at the international system, which includes the individual level, the domestic state as a unit, the international level of transnational and intergovernmental affairs, and the global level.
What is explicitly recognized as international relations theory was not developed until after World War I, and is dealt with in more detail below. IR theory, however, has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other social sciences. The use of capitalizations of the "I" and "R" in international relations aims to distinguish the academic discipline of international relations from the phenomena of international relations. Many cite Sun Tzu's The Art of War (6th century BC), Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War (5th century BC), Chanakya's Arthashastra (4th century BC), as the inspiration for realist theory, with Hobbes' Leviathan and Machiavelli's The Prince providing further elaboration.
Similarly, liberalism draws upon the work of Kant and Rousseau, with the work of the former often being cited as the first elaboration of democratic peace theory. Though contemporary human rights is considerably different from the type of rights envisioned under natural law, Francisco de Vitoria, Hugo Grotius and John Locke offered the first accounts of universal entitlement to certain rights on the basis of common humanity. In the 20th century, in addition to contemporary theories of liberal internationalism, Marxism has been a foundation of international relations.
Study of international relations
Flags of the member states of the United Nations
International relations as a distinct field of study began in Britain. IR emerged as a formal academic discipline in 1919 with the founding of the first IR professorship: the Woodrow Wilson Chair at Aberystwyth, University of Wales (now Aberystwyth University), hold by Alfred Eckhard Zimmern and endowed by David Davies. Georgetown University's Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service is the oldest international relations faculty in the United States, founded in 1919. In the early 1920s, the London School of Economics' department of international relations was founded at the behest of Nobel Peace Prize winner Philip Noel-Baker: this was the first institute to offer a wide range of degrees in the field. This was rapidly followed by establishment of IR at universities in the US and in Geneva, Switzerland. The creation of the posts of Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at LSE and at Oxford gave further impetus to the academic study of international relations. Furthermore, the International History department at LSE developed a focus on the history of IR in the early modern, colonial and Cold War periods.
The first university entirely dedicated to the study of IR was the Graduate Institute of International Studies (now the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies), which was founded in 1927 to form diplomats associated to the League of Nations. The Committee on International Relations at the University of Chicago was the first to offer a graduate degree, in 1928. The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, a collaboration between Tufts University and Harvard, opened its doors in 1933 as the first graduate-only school of international affairs in the United States. In 1965, Glendon College and the Norman Paterson School of International Affairs were the first institutions in Canada to offer an undergraduate and a graduate program in international studies and affairs, respectively. In 2012, Ramon Llull University initiated the first International Relations degree in Barcelona, the favourite city fully in English.
Theory
Normative theory
In the academic discipline of international relations, Smith, Baylis & Owens (2008) make the case that the normative position or normative theory is to make the world a better place, and that this theoretical worldview aims to do so by being aware of implicit assumptions and explicit assumptions that constitute a non-normative position and align or position the normative towards the loci of other key socio-political theories such as political liberalism, Marxism, political constructivism, political realism, political idealism and political globalization.
Epistemological theory
IR theories are roughly divided into one of two epistemological
camps: "positivist" and "post-positivist". Positivist theories aim to
replicate the methods of the natural sciences by analysing the impact of
material forces. They typically focus on features of international
relations such as state interactions, size of military forces, balance
of powers etc. Post-positivist epistemology rejects the idea that the
social world can be studied in an objective and value-free way. It
rejects the central ideas of neo-realism/liberalism, such as rational choice theory, on the grounds that the scientific method cannot be applied to the social world and that a "science" of IR is impossible.
A key difference between the two positions is that while positivist theories, such as neo-realism, offer causal explanations (such as why and how power is exercised), post-positivist theories focus instead on constitutive questions, for instance what is meant by "power"; what makes it up, how it is experienced and how it is reproduced. Often, post-positivist theories explicitly promote a normative approach to IR, by considering ethics. This is something which has often been ignored under "traditional" IR as positivist theories make a distinction between "facts" and normative judgments, or "values".
During the late 1980s and the 1990s, debate between positivists and post-positivists became the dominant debate and has been described as constituting the Third "Great Debate" (Lapid 1989).
Positivist theories
Realism
Realism focuses on state security and power above all else. Early realists such as E. H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau
argued that states are self-interested, power-seeking rational actors,
who seek to maximize their security and chances of survival.
Cooperation between states is a way to maximize each individual state's
security (as opposed to more idealistic reasons). Similarly, any act of
war must be based on self-interest, rather than on idealism. Many
realists saw World War II as the vindication of their theory.
Realists argue that the need for survival requires state leaders to distance themselves from traditional morality. Realism taught American leaders to focus on interests rather than on ideology, to seek peace through strength, and to recognize that great powers can coexist even if they have antithetical values and beliefs.
Thucydides, the author of Peloponnesian War is considered to be the founding father of the realist school of political philosophy, although Ned Lebow has argued that seeing Thucydides as a realist is a misinterpretation of more complex political message within Thucydides' work. Amongst others, philosophers like Machiavelli, Hobbes and Rousseau are considered to have contributed to the Realist philosophy. However, while their work may support realist doctrine, it is not likely that they would have classified themselves as realists in this sense. Political realism believes that politics, like society, is governed by objective laws with roots in human nature. To improve society, it is first necessary to understand the laws by which society lives. The operation of these laws being impervious to our preferences, persons will challenge them only at the risk of failure. Realism, believing as it does in the objectivity of the laws of politics, must also believe in the possibility of developing a rational theory that reflects, however imperfectly and one-sidedly, these objective laws. It believes also, then, in the possibility of distinguishing in politics between truth and opinion—between what is true objectively and rationally, supported by evidence and illuminated by reason, and what is only a subjective judgment, divorced from the facts as they are and informed by prejudice and wishful thinking.
Placing realism under positivism is far from unproblematic however. E. H. Carr's "What is History" was a deliberate critique of positivism, and Hans Morgenthau's aim in "Scientific Man vs Power Politics" was to demolish any conception that international politics/power politics can be studied scientifically. Morgenthau's belief in this regard is part of the reason he has been classified as a "classical realist" rather than a realist.
Major theorists include E. H. Carr, Robert Gilpin, Joanne Gowa, Charles Kindleberger, Stephen Krasner, Hans Morgenthau, and Kenneth Waltz.
Liberalism
According to liberalism, individuals are basically good and capable
of meaningful cooperation to promote positive change. Liberalism views
states, nongovernmental organizations, and intergovernmental
organizations as key actors in the international system. States have
many interests and are not necessarily unitary and autonomous, although
they are sovereign. Liberal theory stresses interdependence among
states, multinational corporations, and international institutions.
Theorists such as Hedley Bull
have postulated an international society in which various actors
communicate and recognize common rules, institutions, and interests.
Liberals also view the international system as anarchic since there is
no single overarching international authority and each individual state
is left to act in its own self-interest. Liberalism is historically
rooted in the liberal philosophical traditions associated with Adam Smith
and Immanuel Kant that posit that human nature is basically good and
that individual self-interest can be harnessed by society to promote
aggregate social welfare. Individuals form groups and later, states;
states are generally cooperative and tend to follow international norms.
Liberal international relations theory arose after World War I in response to the inability of states to control and limit war in their international relations. Early adherents include Woodrow Wilson and Norman Angell, who argued that states mutually gained from cooperation and that war was so destructive as to be essentially futile.
Liberalism was not recognized as a coherent theory as such until it was collectively and derisively termed idealism by E. H. Carr. A new version of "idealism" that focused on human rights as the basis of the legitimacy of international law was advanced by Hans Köchler.
Major theorists include Montesquieu, Immanuel Kant, Robert Keohane, Michael W. Doyle, Francis Fukuyama, and Helen Milner.
Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism
seeks to update liberalism by accepting the neorealist presumption that
states are the key actors in international relations, but still
maintains that non-state actors (NSAs) and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) matter. Proponents argue that states will cooperate irrespective of relative gains, and are thus concerned with absolute gains.
This also means that nations are, in essence, free to make their own
choices as to how they will go about conducting policy without any international organizations blocking a nation's right to sovereignty.
Neoliberal institutionalism, an approach founded by Robert Keohane and
Joseph Nye, emphasize the important role of international institutions
in maintaining an open global trading regime.
Prominent neoliberal institutionalists are Christina Davis, Judith L. Goldstein, G. John Ikenberry, Robert Keohane, Lisa Martin, and Joseph Nye.
Regime theory
Regime theory
is derived from the liberal tradition that argues that international
institutions or regimes affect the behaviour of states (or other
international actors). It assumes that cooperation is possible in the
anarchic system of states, indeed, regimes are by definition, instances
of international cooperation.
While realism predicts that conflict should be the norm in international relations, regime theorists say that there is cooperation despite anarchy. Often they cite cooperation in trade, human rights and collective security among other issues. These instances of cooperation are regimes. The most commonly cited definition of regimes comes from Stephen Krasner, who defines regimes as "principles, norms, rules, and decision-making procedures around which actor expectations converge in a given issue-area".
Not all approaches to regime theory, however, are liberal or neoliberal; some realist scholars like Joseph Grieco have developed hybrid theories which take a realist based approach to this fundamentally liberal theory. (Realists do not say cooperation never happens, just that it is not the norm; it is a difference of degree).
Post-positivist/reflectivist theories
International society theory (the English school)
International society theory, also called the English School, focuses
on the shared norms and values of states and how they regulate
international relations. Examples of such norms include diplomacy,
order, and international law.
Unlike neo-realism, it is not necessarily positivist. Theorists have
focused particularly on humanitarian intervention, and are subdivided
between solidarists, who tend to advocate it more, and pluralists, who
place greater value in order and sovereignty. Nicholas Wheeler is a
prominent solidarist, while Hedley Bull and Robert H. Jackson are perhaps the best known pluralists.
Social constructivism
Social constructivism encompasses a broad range of theories that aim to address questions of ontology, such as the structure-and-agency debate, as well as questions of epistemology,
such as the "material/ideational" debate that concerns the relative
role of material forces versus ideas. Constructivism is not a theory of
IR in the manner of neo-realism, but is instead a social theory
which is used to better explain the actions taken by states and other
major actors as well as the identities that guide these states and
actors.
Constructivism in IR can be divided into what Ted Hopf (1998) calls "conventional" and "critical" constructivism. Common to all varieties of constructivism is an interest in the role that ideational forces play. The most famous constructivist scholar, Alexander Wendt, noted in a 1992 article in International Organization —and later in his 1999 book Social Theory of International Politics—that "anarchy is what states make of it". By this he means that the anarchical structure that neo-realists claim governs state interaction is in fact a phenomenon that is socially constructed and reproduced by states.
For example, if the system is dominated by states that see anarchy as a life or death situation (what Wendt terms a "Hobbesian" anarchy) then the system will be characterized by warfare. If on the other hand anarchy is seen as restricted (a "Lockean" anarchy) then a more peaceful system will exist. Anarchy in this view is constituted by state interaction, rather than accepted as a natural and immutable feature of international life as viewed by neo-realist IR scholars.
Prominent social constructivist IR scholars are Rawi Abdelal, Michael Barnett, Mark Blyth, Martha Finnemore, Peter A. Hall, Ted Hopf, Margaret Keck, Elizabeth Kier, Kathleen McNamara, Kathryn Sikkink and Alexander Wendt.
Feminism
Feminist IR considers the ways that international politics affects
and is affected by both men and women and also at how the core concepts
that are employed within the discipline of IR (e.g. war, security, etc.)
are themselves gendered. Feminist IR has not only concerned itself with
the traditional focus of IR on states, wars, diplomacy and security,
but feminist IR scholars have also emphasized the importance of looking
at how gender shapes the current global political economy. In this
sense, there is no clear cut division between feminists working in IR
and those working in the area of International Political Economy (IPE).
From its inception, feminist IR has also theorized extensively about men
and, in particular, masculinities. Many IR feminists argue that the
discipline is inherently masculine in nature. For example, in her
article "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals"
Signs (1988), Carol Cohn claimed that a highly masculinized culture
within the defense establishment contributed to the divorcing of war
from human emotion.
Feminist IR emerged largely from the late 1980s onwards. The end of the Cold War and the re-evaluation of traditional IR theory during the 1990s opened up a space for gendering International Relations. Because feminist IR is linked broadly to the critical project in IR, by and large most feminist scholarship has sought to problematize the politics of knowledge construction within the discipline - often by adopting methodologies of deconstructivism associated with postmodernism/poststructuralism. However, the growing influence of feminist and women-centric approaches within the international policy communities (for example at the World Bank and the United Nations) is more reflective of the liberal feminist emphasis on equality of opportunity for women.
Prominent scholars include Carol Cohn, Cynthia Enloe, Charlotte Hooper, Sara Ruddick, J. Ann Tickner and Jacqui True.
Marxism
Marxist
and Neo-Marxist theories of IR reject the realist/liberal view of state
conflict or cooperation; instead focusing on the economic and material
aspects. It makes the assumption that the economy trumps other concerns;
allowing for the elevation of class as the focus of study. Marxists
view the international system as an integrated capitalist system in
pursuit of capital accumulation. Thus, colonialism brought in sources for raw materials and captive markets for exports, while decolonialization brought new opportunities in the form of dependence.
A prominent derivative of Marxian thought is critical international relations theory which is the application of "critical theory" to international relations. Early critical theorists were associated with the Frankfurt School which followed Marx's concern with the conditions that allow for social change and the establishment of rational institutions. Their emphasis on the "critical" component of theory was derived significantly from their attempt to overcome the limits of positivism. Modern-day proponents such as Andrew Linklater, Robert W. Cox and Ken Booth focus on the need for human emancipation from the nation-state. Hence, it is "critical" of mainstream IR theories that tend to be both positivist and state-centric.
Further linked in with Marxist theories is dependency theory and the core–periphery model, which argue that developed countries, in their pursuit of power, appropriate developing states through international banking, security and trade agreements and unions on a formal level, and do so through the interaction of political and financial advisors, missionaries, relief aid workers, and MNCs on the informal level, in order to integrate them into the capitalist system, strategically appropriating undervalued natural resources and labor hours and fostering economic and political dependence.
Marxist theories receive little attention in the United States. It is more common in parts of Europe and is one of the more important theoretic contributions of Latin American academia to the study of global networks.
Leadership theories
Interest group perspective
Interest group
theory posits that the driving force behind state behaviour is
sub-state interest groups. Examples of interest groups include political
lobbyists,
the military, and the corporate sector. Group theory argues that
although these interest groups are constitutive of the state, they are
also causal forces in the exercise of state power.
Strategic perspective
Strategic perspective is a theoretical
approach that views individuals as choosing their actions by taking
into account the anticipated actions and responses of others with the
intention of maximizing their own welfare.
Inherent bad faith model
The "inherent bad faith model" of information processing is a theory in political psychology that was first put forth by Ole Holsti to explain the relationship between John Foster Dulles' beliefs and his model of information processing. It is the most widely studied model of one's opponent.
A state is presumed to be implacably hostile, and contra-indicators of
this are ignored. They are dismissed as propaganda ploys or signs of
weakness. Examples are John Foster Dulles' position regarding the Soviet Union, or Israel's initial position on the Palestinian Liberation Organization.
Post-structuralist theories
Post-structuralist theories of IR developed in the 1980s from postmodernist studies in political science.
Post-structuralism explores the deconstruction of concepts
traditionally not problematic in IR (such as "power" and "agency") and
examines how the construction of these concepts shapes international
relations. The examination of "narratives" plays an important part in
poststructuralist analysis; for example, feminist poststructuralist
work has examined the role that "women" play in global society and how
they are constructed in war as "innocent" and "civilians". Rosenberg's article "Why is there no International Historical Sociology"
was a key text in the evolution of this strand of international
relations theory. Post-structuralism has garnered both significant
praise and criticism, with its critics arguing that post-structuralist
research often fails to address the real-world problems that
international relations studies is supposed to contribute to solving.
Levels of analysis
Systemic level concepts
International relations are often viewed in terms of levels of analysis. The systemic level concepts are those broad concepts that define and shape an international milieu, characterized by anarchy. Focusing on the systemic level of international relations is often, but
not always, the preferred method for neo-realists and other
structuralist IR analysts.
Sovereignty
Preceding the concepts of interdependence and dependence,
international relations relies on the idea of sovereignty. Described in Jean Bodin's
"Six Books of the Commonwealth" in 1576, the three pivotal points
derived from the book describe sovereignty as being a state, that the
sovereign power(s) have absolute power over their territories, and that
such a power is only limited by the sovereign's "own obligations towards
other sovereigns and individuals".
Such a foundation of sovereignty permits, is indicated by a sovereign's
obligation to other sovereigns, interdependence and dependence to take
place. While throughout world history there have been instances of
groups lacking or losing sovereignty, such as African nations prior to
Decolonization or the occupation of Iraq during the Iraq War, there is still a need for sovereignty in terms of assessing international relations.
Power
The concept of Power in international relations can be described as
the degree of resources, capabilities, and influence in international
affairs. It is often divided up into the concepts of hard power and soft power, hard power relating primarily to coercive power, such as the use of force, and soft power commonly covering economics, diplomacy and cultural influence. However, there is no clear dividing line between the two forms of power.
National interest
Perhaps the most significant concept behind that of power and sovereignty, national interest
is a state's action in relation to other states where it seeks to gain
advantage or benefits to itself. National interest, whether aspirational
or operational, is divided by core/vital and peripheral/non-vital
interests. Core or vital interests constitute the things which a country
is willing to defend or expand with conflict such as territory,
ideology (religious, political, economic), or its citizens. Peripheral
or non-vital are interests which a state is willing to compromise. For
example, in the German annexation of the Sudetenland in 1938 (a part of Czechoslovakia) under the Munich Agreement,
Czechoslovakia was willing to relinquish territory which was considered
ethnically German in order to preserve its own integrity and
sovereignty.
Non-state actors
In
the 21st century, the status-quo of the international system is no
longer monopolized by states alone. Rather, it is the presence of
non-state actors, who autonomously act to implement unpredictable
behaviour to the international system. Whether it is transnational corporations, liberation movements, non-governmental agencies, or international organizations,
these entities have the potential to significantly influence the
outcome of any international transaction. Additionally, this also
includes the individual person as while the individual is what
constitutes the states collective entity, the individual does have the
potential to also create unpredicted behaviours. Al-Qaeda,
as an example of a non-state actor, has significantly influenced the
way states (and non-state actors) conduct international affairs.
Power blocs
The existence of power blocs in international relations is a significant factor related to polarity. During the Cold War,
the alignment of several nations to one side or another based on
ideological differences or national interests has become an endemic
feature of international relations. Unlike prior, shorter-term blocs,
the Western and Soviet blocs sought to spread their national ideological
differences to other nations. Leaders like U.S. President Harry S. Truman under the Truman Doctrine believed it was necessary to spread democracy whereas the Warsaw Pact
under Soviet policy sought to spread communism. After the Cold War, and
the dissolution of the ideologically homogeneous Eastern bloc still
gave rise to others such as the South-South Cooperation movement.
Polarity
Polarity in international relations refers to the arrangement of
power within the international system. The concept arose from bipolarity
during the Cold War, with the international system dominated by the conflict between two superpowers,
and has been applied retrospectively by theorists. However, the term
bipolar was notably used by Stalin who said he saw the international
system as a bipolar one with two opposing powerbases and ideologies.
Consequently, the international system prior to 1945 can be described as
multipolar, with power being shared among Great powers.
Empires of the world in 1910
The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 had led to unipolarity, with the United States as a sole superpower, although many refuse to acknowledge the fact. China's continued rapid economic growth (in 2010 it became the world's second-largest economy), combined with the respectable international position they hold within political spheres and the power that the Chinese Government exerts over their people (consisting of the largest population in the world), resulted in debate over whether China is now a superpower or a possible candidate in the future. However, China's strategic force unable of projecting power beyond its region and its nuclear arsenal of 250 warheads (compared to 7700 of the United States) mean that the unipolarity will persist in the policy-relevant future.
Several theories of international relations draw upon the idea of polarity. The balance of power was a concept prevalent in Europe prior to the First World War, the thought being that by balancing power blocs it would create stability and prevent war. Theories of the balance of power gained prominence again during the Cold War, being a central mechanism of Kenneth Waltz's Neorealism. Here, the concepts of balancing (rising in power to counter another) and bandwagonning (siding with another) are developed.
Robert Gilpin's Hegemonic stability theory also draws upon the idea of polarity, specifically the state of unipolarity. Hegemony is the preponderance of power at one pole in the international system, and the theory argues this is a stable configuration because of mutual gains by both the dominant power and others in the international system. This is contrary to many neorealist arguments, particularly made by Kenneth Waltz, stating that the end of the Cold War and the state of unipolarity is an unstable configuration that will inevitably change.
The case of Gilpin proved to be correct and Waltz's article titled "The Stability of a Bipolar World" was followed in 1999 by William Wohlforth's article titled "The Stability of a Unipolar World".
Waltz's thesis can be expressed in power transition theory, which states that it is likely that a great power would challenge a hegemon after a certain period, resulting in a major war. It suggests that while hegemony can control the occurrence of wars, it also results in the creation of one. Its main proponent, A. F. K. Organski, argued this based on the occurrence of previous wars during British, Portuguese, and Dutch hegemony.
Interdependence
Many
advocate that the current international system is characterized by
growing interdependence; the mutual responsibility and dependency on
others. Advocates of this point to growing globalization,
particularly with international economic interaction. The role of
international institutions, and widespread acceptance of a number of
operating principles in the international system, reinforces ideas that
relations are characterized by interdependence.
Dependency
Dependency theory is a theory most commonly associated with Marxism, stating that a set of core states exploit a set of weaker periphery states for their prosperity. Various versions of the theory suggest that this is either an inevitability (standard dependency theory), or use the theory to highlight the necessity for change (Neo-Marxist).
Systemic tools of international relations
- Diplomacy is the practice of communication and negotiation between representatives of states. To some extent, all other tools of international relations can be considered the failure of diplomacy. Keeping in mind, the use of other tools are part of the communication and negotiation inherent within diplomacy. Sanctions, force, and adjusting trade regulations, while not typically considered part of diplomacy, are actually valuable tools in the interest of leverage and placement in negotiations.
- Sanctions are usually a first resort after the failure of diplomacy, and are one of the main tools used to enforce treaties. They can take the form of diplomatic or economic sanctions and involve the cutting of ties and imposition of barriers to communication or trade.
- War, the use of force, is often thought of as the ultimate tool of international relations. A popular definition is that given by Clausewitz, with war being "the continuation of politics by other means". There is a growing study into "new wars" involving actors other than states. The study of war in international relations is covered by the disciplines of "war studies" and "strategic studies".
- The mobilization of international shame can also be thought of as a tool of international relations. This is attempting to alter states' actions through 'naming and shaming' at the international level. This is mostly done by the large human rights NGOs such as Amnesty International (for instance when it called Guantanamo Bay a "Gulag"), or Human Rights Watch. A prominent use of was the UN Commission on Human Rights 1235 procedure, which publicly exposes state's human rights violations. The current UN Human Rights Council has yet to use this mechanism
- The allotment of economic and/or diplomatic benefits such as the European Union's enlargement policy; candidate countries are only allowed to join if they meet the Copenhagen criteria.
- The mutual exchange of ideas, information, art, music and language among nations through cultural diplomacy has also been recognized by governments as an important tool in the development of international relations.
Unit-level concepts in international relations
As
a level of analysis the unit level is often referred to as the state
level, as it locates its explanation at the level of the state, rather
than the international system.
Regime type
It
is often considered that a state's form of government can dictate the
way that a state interacts with others in the international relation.
Democratic peace theory is a theory that suggests that the nature of democracy means that democratic countries will not go to war with each other. The justifications for this are that democracies externalize their norms and only go to war for just causes, and that democracy encourages mutual trust and respect.
Communism justifies a world revolution, which similarly would lead to peaceful coexistence, based on a proletarian global society.
Revisionism/status quo
States can be classified by whether they accept the international status quo,
or are revisionist—i.e., want change. Revisionist states seek to
fundamentally change the rules and practices of international relations,
feeling disadvantaged by the status quo. They see the international
system as a largely western creation which serves to reinforce current
realities. Japan
is an example of a state that has gone from being a revisionist state
to one that is satisfied with the status quo, because the status quo is
now beneficial to it.
Religion
Religion
can have an effect on the way a state acts within the international
system. Different theoretical perspectives treat it in somewhat
different fashion. One dramatic example is the Thirty Years' War (1618–48) that ravaged much of Europe. Religion is visible as an organizing principle particularly for Islamic states, whereas secularism sits at the other end of the spectrum, with the separation of state and religion being responsible for the liberal international relations theory. Events since the September 11 attacks in the United States, the role of Islam in terrorism, and the strife in the Middle East
have made it a major topic. There are many different types of
religions. One being Confucianism, which is China's major world view
(Alexander, 1998).
Individual or sub-unit level concepts
The
level beneath the unit (state) level can be useful both for explaining
factors in international relations that other theories fail to explain,
and for moving away from a state-centric view of international
relations.
- Psychological factors in international relations – Evaluating psychological factors in international relations comes from the understanding that a state is not a "black box" as proposed by realism, and that there may be other influences on foreign policy decisions. Examining the role of personalities in the decision making process can have some explanatory power, as can the role of misperception between various actors. A prominent application of sub-unit level psychological factors in international relations is the concept of Groupthink, another is the propensity of policymakers to think in terms of analogies.
- Bureaucratic politics – Looks at the role of the bureaucracy in decision making, and sees decisions as a result of bureaucratic in-fighting, and as having been shaped by various constraints.
- Religious, ethnic, and secessionist groups – Viewing these aspects of the sub-unit level has explanatory power with regards to ethnic conflicts, religious wars, transnational diaspora (diaspora politics) and other actors which do not consider themselves to fit with the defined state boundaries. This is particularly useful in the context of the pre-modern world of weak states.
- Science, technology and international relations – How science and technology impact global health, business, environment, technology, and development.
- International political economy, and economic factors in international relations
- International political culturology – Looks at how culture and cultural variables impact in international relations
- Personal relations between leaders
Institutions in international relations
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International institutions form a vital part of contemporary international relations. Much interaction at the system level is governed by them, and they outlaw some traditional institutions and practices of international relations, such as the use of war (except in self-defense).
Generalist inter-state organizations
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an international organization that describes itself as a "global association of governments facilitating co-operation in international law, international security, economic development,
and social equity"; It is the most prominent international institution.
Many of the legal institutions follow the same organizational structure
as the UN.
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is an international organization consisting of 57 member states. The organisation attempts to be the collective voice of the Muslim world (Ummah) and attempts to safeguard the interests and ensure the progress and well-being of Muslims.
Other
Other generalist inter-state organizations include:
- BRICS
- SAARC
- African Union
- Association of Southeast Asian Nations
- Arab League
- Commonwealth of Independent States
- Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations
- Council of Europe
- Eurasian Economic Union
- European Union
- G8
- G20
- League of Nations
- Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
- Organization of American States
- ECOWAS
Economic institutions
The World Bank headquarters in Washington, D.C.
- Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
- Asian Development Bank
- African Development Bank
- Eurasian Development Bank
- European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
- Bank of International Settlements
- Inter-American Development Bank
- International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
- International Monetary Fund
- Islamic Development Bank
- New Development Bank
- Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation
- World Bank
- World Trade Organization
International legal bodies
Human rights
Legal
Regional security arrangements
- United Nations Security Council
- Collective Security Treaty Organization
- Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific
- GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development
- Maritime security regime
- NATO
- Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
- Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
- South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
- Union of South American Nations
