In Mahayana Buddhism, bodhicitta, ("enlightenment-mind" or "the thought of awakening"), is the mind (citta) that is aimed at awakening (bodhi), with wisdom and compassion for the benefit of all sentient beings. Bodhicitta is the defining quality of the Mahayana bodhisattva (a being striving towards Buddhahood) and the act of giving rise to bodhicitta (bodhicittotpāda) is what makes a bodhisattva a bodhisattva. The Daśabhūmika Sūtra explains that the arising of bodhicitta is the first step in the bodhisattva's career.
Etymology
Etymologically, the word is a combination of the Sanskrit words bodhi and citta. Bodhi means "awakening" or "enlightenment". Citta derives from the Sanskrit root cit, and means "that which is conscious" (i.e., mind or consciousness). Bodhicitta may be translated as "awakening mind" or "mind of enlightenment". It is also sometimes translated as "the thought of enlightenment."
Definition
Indian sources
The term bodhicitta is defined and explained in different ways by different Mahayana Buddhist sources. According to Paul Williams, the basic meaning of bodhicitta in Indian sources (such as Atisha'sBodhipathapradipa)
is the lofty motivation to "strive to bring a complete end to all the
sufferings of others along with their own suffering...This bodhicitta
results from deep compassion (karuna) for the suffering of others."
According to the Bodhisattvabhumi, the bodhisattva who gives rise to bodhicitta thinks thus:
"O
may I obtain supreme and perfect Enlightenment, promote the good of all
beings, and establish them in the final and complete nirvana and in the
Buddha-knowledge!"
Thus, according to the Bodhisattvabhumi, bodhicitta has two objects of thought or themes (alambana): bodhi and the good of the living beings (sattv-ārtha).
According to Indian sources, the bodhicitta aspiration provides incalculable merit (such as good rebirths, a weakening of the defilements, increased mindfulness and luck). Bodhicitta is what makes someone a Mahayana bodhisattva, a child of the Buddha. Thus, the Indian Buddhist author Shantideva (8th century) writes in his Bodhicaryavatara:
Those
who long to transcend the hundreds of miseries of existence, who long
to relieve creatures of their sorrows, who long to enjoy many hundreds
of joys, must never abandon bodhicitta.
When bodhicitta has arisen in him, a wretch, captive in the prison of
existence, he is straightway hailed son of the Sugatas [the Buddhas], to
be revered in the worlds of gods and men.
According to Paul Williams, bodhicitta in early Mahāyāna works was less well defined and meant a "certain state of mind" characteristic of a bodhisattva. According to Ulrich Pagel, numerous Mahāyāna sūtras, like the Bodhisattvapiṭaka, see the arising of bodhicitta (bodhicittotpāda) as an ongoing process which must be constantly refurbished (rather than as a static event).
the aspiration to bring about the welfare of all sentient
beings and to attain buddhahood for their sake - is really the
distilled essence, the squeeze juice, of all the Buddha's teachings,
because ultimately, the Buddha's intention is to lead all sentient
beings to perfect enlightenment.
Some modern East Asian authors on Buddhism, such as D.T. Suzuki and M. Anesaki,
define bodhicitta as an immanent inner awakening. For example, Anesaki
writes that bodhicitta is "the primordial essence of our mind, which in
itself consists in the supreme bodhi."
According to Zoketsu Norman Fischer,
bodhicitta is a spontaneous wish to attain enlightenment motivated by
great compassion for all sentient beings, accompanied by a falling away
of the attachment to the illusion of an inherently existing self.
Fischer adds that bodhicitta, along with the mind of great compassion (mahakaruna), motivates one to attain enlightenment Buddhahood,
as quickly as possible and benefit infinite sentient beings through
their emanations and other skillful means. Bodhicitta is a felt need to
replace others' suffering with bliss. Since the ultimate end of
suffering is nirvana, bodhicitta necessarily involves a motivation to help others to awaken (to find bodhi).
Types and stages of bodhicitta
Mahayana Buddhist thinkers also developed different models which described different forms and levels of bodhicitta.
According to the Bodhisattvabhumi, there are two main stages of the development of bodhicitta:
a kind of bodhicitta which can be lost
the permanent kind of bodhicitta which cannot be lost and leads directly to enlightenment.
Furthermore, according to Shantideva, there are two types of bodhicitta:
bodhicitta which is a mere wish or aspiration (bodhipranidhicitta)
active bodhicitta (bodhiprasthanacitta) which consists of actually practicing the path in line with one's intent
In Tibetan Buddhism
A common Tibetan Buddhist distinction is that between relative and absolute (or ultimate) bodhicitta. Relative bodhicitta is a state of mind in which the practitioner works for the good of all beings as if it were their own. Absolute bodhicitta is the wisdom of shunyata
(śunyatā, a Sanskrit term often translated as "emptiness", though the
alternatives "vast expanse" or "openness" or "spaciousness" probably
convey the idea better to Westerners). The concept of śunyatā in Buddhism also implies freedom from attachments.
In his book Words of My Perfect Teacher, the Tibetan Buddhist teacher Patrul Rinpoche describes three degrees of bodhicitta:
King-like bodhicitta, in which a bodhisattva primarily
seeks his own benefit but who recognizes that his benefit depends
crucially on that of his kingdom and his subjects.
Boatman-like bodhicitta, in which a bodhisattva ferries his passengers across the river and simultaneously, of course, ferries himself as well
Shepherd-like bodhicitta, who makes sure that all his sheep arrive safely ahead of him and places their welfare above his own.
According to Patrul Rinpoche, the way of the shepherd bodhisattva is the best and highest way.
Some bodhicitta practices emphasize the absolute (e.g. vipaśyanā), while others emphasize the relative (e.g. metta), but both aspects are seen in all Mahāyāna practice as essential to enlightenment, especially in the Tibetan practices of tonglen and lojong.
Without the absolute, the relative can degenerate into pity and
sentimentality, whereas the absolute without the relative can lead to
nihilism and lack of desire to engage other sentient beings for their
benefit.
Practice
Mahāyāna Buddhist practice focuses on the Bodhisattva-ideal, which begins with the arousing of bodhicitta.
Mahāyāna teaches that the broader motivation of achieving one's own
enlightenment "in order to help all sentient beings" is the best
possible motivation one can have for any action, whether it be working
in one's vocation, teaching others, or even making an incense offering.
The Six Perfections (Pāramitās)
of Buddhism only become true "perfections" when they are done with the
motivation of bodhicitta. Thus, the action of giving (Skt. dāna) can be done in a mundane sense, or it can be a pāramitā if it is conjoined with bodhicitta. Bodhicitta is the primary positive factor to be cultivated.
Cultivation
The Mahāyāna tradition provides specific methods for the intentional cultivation of both absolute and relative bodhicitta. This cultivation is considered to be a fundamental aspect of the path to Buddhahood.
Practitioners of the Mahāyāna make it their primary goal to develop
genuine uncontrived bodhicitta, which remains within their mindstreams
continuously without having to rely on conscious effort. This is
assisted by numerous methods, contemplation, rituals and meditations,
such as: relying on a spiritual friend, taking refuge in the three jewels, and contemplating the defects of samsara
(cyclic existence), the benefits of arousing bodhicitta (as well as the
downsides of abandoning it), and developing spiritual qualities such as
faith (sraddha), mindfulness and wisdom (prajña).
Tibetan Methods
Among the many methods for developing uncontrived bodhicitta given in Tibetan Mahāyāna teachings are:
A. So as to arouse Bodhicitta, the main aspect, the Four Immeasurables (Brahmavihara) contemplation and practice:
Others as equal to self: Exchanging self and others: (Tonglen) the Sending and Receiving while breathing practice,
Others as more important: Viewing all other sentient beings as
having been our mothers in infinite past lives, and feeling gratitude
for the many occasions on which they have taken care of us.
C. So as to apply Bodhicitta and achieve enlightenment:
In Lojong's 59 slogans, Point Two: The main practice, which is training in absolute and relative bodhicitta.
A. Absolute Bodhicitta
Slogan 2. Regard all dharmas as dreams; although experiences may seem solid, they are passing memories.
Slogan 3. Examine the nature of unborn awareness.
Slogan 4. Self-liberate even the antidote.
Slogan 5. Rest in the nature of alaya, the essence, the present moment.
Slogan 6. In post-meditation, be a child of illusion.
B.Relative Bodhicitta
Slogan 7. Sending and taking should be practiced alternately. These two should ride the breath (aka. practice Tonglen).
Slogan 8. Three objects, three poisons,
three roots of virtue—the 3 objects are friends, enemies and neutrals.
The 3 poisons are craving, aversion and indifference. The 3 roots of
virtue are the remedies.
Slogan 9. In all activities, train with slogans.
Slogan 10. Begin the sequence of sending and taking with yourself.
When only realizing Śūnyatā,
the practitioner might not benefit others, so the Mahayana path unites
emptiness and compassion, this keeps from falling into the two limits
and remaining on the middle way. Traditionally, Bodhisattvas practice
mediative concentration at the beginning toward attaining the noble
one's wisdom level, then the main practice becomes benefiting others
spontaneously, unlike other paths that might discontinue benefiting
others.
All the conducive causes and auspicious conditions should be
complete for bodhicitta to properly arise. After continued training,
these qualities can arise in the mind without contrivance.
The two main traditions in taking the Bodhicitta vows are: 1) Nagarjuna's profound view chariot and, 2) Asanga's vast conduct chariot. After which this is guarded with what to avoid, and what to adopt.
The practice can be divided into three parts: 1) mind training,
2) arousing bodhicitta, and 3) training in what to adopt and what to
avoid. These can be called the 1) preliminary practice, 2) main
practice, and 3) concluding practice. The preliminary practice is
training in the four boundless qualities. The main practice is arousing
Bodhicitta and taking vows. The concluding practice is training in what
to adopt and guarding without fail against what to avoid.
Tibetan
Buddhists maintain that there are two main ways to cultivate
Bodhichitta, the "Seven Causes and Effects" that originates from
Maitreya and was taught by Atisha, and "Exchanging Self and Others,"
taught by Shantideva and originally by Manjushri.
According to Tsongkhapa the seven causes and effects are thus:
recognizing all beings as your mothers;
recollecting their kindness;
the wish to repay their kindness;
love;
great compassion;
wholehearted resolve;
bodhichitta.
According to Pabongka Rinpoche the second method consists of the following meditations:
how self and others are equal;
contemplating the many faults resulting from self-cherishing;
contemplating the many good qualities resulting from cherishing others;
the actual contemplation on the interchange of self and others;
with these serving as the basis, the way to meditate on giving and taking (tonglen).
Universality
The
practice and realization of bodhicitta are independent of sectarian
considerations, since they are fundamentally a part of the human
experience. Bodhisattvas are not only recognized in the Theravāda school
of Buddhism, but in all other religious traditions and among those of no formal religious tradition. The present fourteenth Dalai Lama, for instance, regarded Mother Teresa as one of the greatest modern bodhisattvas.
Homeschooling constitutes the education of about 3.4% of U.S. students (approximately two million students) as of 2012.
The number of homeschoolers in the United States has increased
significantly over the past few decades since the end of the 20th
century. In the United States, the Supreme Court has ruled that parents
have a fundamental right to direct the education of their children.
The right to homeschool is not frequently questioned in court, but the
amount of state regulation and help that can or should be expected
continues to be subject to legal debate.
Originally,
homeschooling in the United States was practiced mainly underground or
in rural areas. In the 1970s, several books called attention to
homeschooling, and more families began to homeschool their children. As of 2012, about 1.8 million students were homeschooled. In 2016, this number rose to 2.3 million.
The United States Department of Education estimates that 1.5
million K–12 students were homeschooled in the United States in 2007
(with a confidence interval
of 1.3 million to 1.7 million), constituting nearly three percent of
students. The National Home Education Research Institute estimates this
number to be 1.92 million. This was up from 13,000 in 1973, 20,000 in the early 1980s, 93,000 in 1983, 275,000 in 1990, 1 million in 1997, 850,000 in 1999, 1.4 million in 2003, and 1.92 million in 2007.
In these estimations, students were defined as being homeschooled if
their parents reported them as being schooled at home instead of at a
public or private school for at least part of their education, and if
their part-time enrollment in public or private school did not exceed 35
hours a week, and excluded students who were schooled at home primarily
because of a temporary illness.
About four out of five homeschoolers were homeschooled only, while
about one out of five homeschoolers was also enrolled in public or
private school for 25 hours or less per week. In 2007, 16% of
homeschooled students attended a public or private school on a part-time
basis.
Increasing numbers of homeschoolers partook in private school,
public school, and home partnerships. Homeschool families use them to
help teach difficult subjects, such as foreign languages and sciences.
In addition, many families do partnerships to help their children
compete in academics and athletics with non-homeschooled children. Some
students take one or two classes at traditional school campuses while
others spend several days per week on campuses designed to educate
part-time students.
Motivations for homeschooling in the US (2011-2012)
Motivation
Percentage of parents
A concern about the school environment
91%
A desire to provide religious instruction
64%
A desire to provide moral instruction
77%
A dissatisfaction with academic instruction at other schools
74%
Provide a nontraditional approach to education
44%
Child has special needs
16%
Child has a physical or mental health problem
15%
Other reasons
37%
Motivations regarded as most important for homeschooling in the United States as of 2007
Parents give many different reasons for homeschooling their children.
In the 2003 and 2007 NHES, parents were asked whether particular
reasons for homeschooling their children applied to them. The three
reasons selected by parents of more than two-thirds of students were
concern about the school
environment, to provide religious or moral instruction, and
dissatisfaction with the academic instruction available at other
schools. From 2003 to 2007, the percentage of students whose parents
reported homeschooling to provide religious or moral instruction
increased from 72 percent to 83 percent. In 2007, the most common reason
parents gave as the most important was a desire to provide religious or
moral instruction (36 percent of students). Typically the religious
belief being represented is evangelical Christian.
This reason was followed by a concern about the school environment
(such as safety, drugs, or negative peer pressure) (21 percent),
dissatisfaction with academic instruction (17 percent), and "other
reasons" including family time, finances, travel, and distance (14
percent). Other reasons include more flexibility in educational practices and family core stability for children with learning disabilities
or prolonged chronic illnesses, or for children of missionaries,
military families, or families who move often, as frequently as every
two years.
Some parents want more opportunities for their children to socialize with a wide range of ages, to travel more, to do more field trips, to visit museums, to do outdoor education,
to attend concerts, to visit work places, to tour government buildings,
to seek mentorships, and to study nature outside. A homeschooling
family can typically do more field trips and visit more places than
traditional schools.
Although many parents cite wanting to provide religious or moral
instruction as one of the primary reasons for homeschooling, research
has shown that young adults who were homeschooled are not significantly
more likely to be religious than demographically similar peers who went
to private or public school. Analysis by Baylor University
sociologist Jeremy Uecker of data from the National Study of Youth and
Religion revealed that homeschooled young adults were no more religious
than other young adults from the same demographic profile who attended
public or private school.
In addition, results from the Cardus Education Survey in 2011 found
that homeschooled young adults attended religious services with roughly
the same frequency as their peers who attended a private, Protestant
school, although homeschoolers attended church more often than their
Catholic school peers. Milton Gaither, a Professor of Education at Messiah College
who has extensively studied homeschooling, concludes that,
"homeschooling itself will not automatically produce adults who share
the conservative political, religious and moral beliefs of their
parents."
For decades the source of debate was focused on whether it was legal for parents to withhold their children from school and educate them in a home setting, pitting homeschooling advocates against those in favor of organized public schools.
Since the late 1980s, the focus on the legality of homeschooling
in general is no longer in serious debate but legal questions have
shifted to whether homeschooling communities can access state school
funds, facilities, and resources. There are also legal questions over
the degree of control that a state can exercise on homeschooling
families regarding areas like curricula and standardized testing.
In 2008, a three-judge panel of the California Court of Appeals
ruled unanimously that children must be taught by a credentialed tutor
or person with a teaching credential. The court stated that "It is clear
that the education of the children at their home, whatever the quality
of that education, does not qualify for the private full-time day school
or credentialed tutor exemptions from compulsory education in a public
full-time day school." The court rejected the parent's reliance on Yoder's holding regarding religious choice.
However, in March 2008, the court agreed to rehear the case and vacated
its prior decision. In August 2008, the court issued a new decision
unanimously reversing its earlier decision and the Court further stated
that homeschooling was legal in California.
U.S. Supreme Court precedent
In the United States, homeschooling is lawful in all fifty states. The U.S. Supreme Court has never ruled on homeschooling specifically, but in Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972)
it supported the rights of Amish parents to keep their children out of
public schools for religious reasons. The Court has ruled, however, that
parents have a fundamental right
to "establish a home and bring up children" along with the right to
"worship God according to the dictates of [their] own conscience." This combination of rights is the basis for calling homeschooling a fundamental right under the Supreme Court's concept of liberty protected by the Due Process Clause. Laws that restrict fundamental rights are subject to strict scrutiny, the highest standard, if the law is challenged in the courts.
In Runyon v. McCrary the Court analyzed its prior rulings on educational choice:
In Meyer v. Nebraska, 262 U.S. 390, the Court held that the liberty protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment
includes the right "to acquire useful knowledge, to marry, establish a
home and bring up children," id., at 399, and, concomitantly, the right
to send one's children to a private school that offers specialized
training - in that case, instruction in the German language. In Pierce v. Society of Sisters, 268 U.S. 510, the Court applied "the doctrine of Meyer v. Nebraska,"
id., at 534, to hold unconstitutional an Oregon law requiring the
parent, guardian, or other person having custody of a child between 8
and 16 years of age [427 U.S. 160, 177] to send that child to public
school on pain of criminal liability. The Court thought it "entirely
plain that the [statute] unreasonably interferes with the liberty of
parents and guardians to direct the upbringing and education of children
under their control." Id., at 534-535. In Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205, the Court stressed the limited scope of Pierce,
pointing out that it lent "no support to the contention that parents
may replace state educational requirements with their own idiosyncratic
views of what knowledge a child needs to be a productive and happy
member of society" but rather "held simply that while a State may
posit [educational] standards, it may not pre-empt the educational
process by requiring children to attend public schools." Id., at 239 (WHITE, J., concurring).
In the 1988 case Murphy v. State of Arkansas, the court summarized is legal position:
The Court has repeatedly stressed that while parents have
a constitutional right to send their children to private schools and a
constitutional right to select private schools that offer specialized
instruction, they have no constitutional right to provide their children
with private school education unfettered by reasonable government
regulation...Indeed, the Court in Pierce expressly acknowledged
"the power of the State reasonably to regulate all schools, to inspect,
supervise and examine them, their teachers and pupils..."
Additionally, in Meyer v. Nebraska, the U.S. Supreme Court's majority opinion stated that the liberty protected by the Due Process Clause
"without doubt...denotes not merely freedom from bodily restraint but
also the right of the individual to contract, to engage in any of the
common occupations of life, to acquire useful knowledge, to marry, establish a home and bring up children,
to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience, and
generally to enjoy those privileges long recognized...as essential to
the orderly pursuit of happiness by free men." In Meyer, the Court held
that a 1919 Nebraska law prohibiting the teaching of foreign languages
to school children before high school unconstitutionally violated the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Many other Court rulings have established or supported the right of parents to provide home education.
Only a short time after compulsory attendance laws became common
in the United States, Oregon adopted a statute outlawing private
schools. The U.S. Supreme Court struck down the state law as
unconstitutional in its 1925 ruling in Pierce v. Society of Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary, 268 U.S. 510 (1925).
The Court held that a state may not prohibit a parent from satisfying a
compulsory attendance requirement by sending their children to private
school. This case has frequently been cited by other courts in support
of the proposition that parents have a right to satisfy compulsory
attendance requirements through home instruction. Parents' right to
homeschool their children has clearly been established through
subsequent court decisions to such an extent that any statute attempting
to forbid it entirely would certainly be struck down on constitutional
or other grounds.
Every state has some form of a compulsory attendance law that
requires children in a certain age range to spend a specific amount of
time being educated.
Laws and regulations
Homeschooling laws can be divided into three categories:
In some states, homeschooling requirements are based on its
treatment as a type of private school (e.g. California, Indiana, and
Texas).
In those states, homeschools are generally required to comply with the
same laws that apply to other (usually non-accredited) schools.
In other states, homeschool requirements are based on the unique
wording of the state's compulsory attendance statute without any
specific reference to "homeschooling" (New Jersey and Maryland, for
example). In those states, the requirements for homeschooling are set by
the particular parameters of the compulsory attendance statute.
In other states (Maine, New Hampshire, and Iowa, for example)
homeschool requirements are based on a statute or group of statutes that
specifically applies to homeschooling, although statutes often refer to
homeschooling using other nomenclature (in Virginia, for example, the
statutory nomenclature is "home instruction"; in South Dakota, it is
"alternative instruction"; in Iowa, it is "competent private
instruction"). In these states, the requirements for homeschooling are
set out in the relevant statutes.
While every state has some requirements, there is great diversity in
the type, number, and level of burden imposed. No two states treat
homeschooling in exactly the same way. Generally, the burden is less in
states in category one above. Furthermore, many states offer more than
one option for homeschooling with different requirements applying to
each option.
State requirements
Most
states do not require any notice of intent. A few states require the
filing of a notice with local school officials. In conformity with the
general trend to ease requirements, only two states, Rhode Island and
Massachusetts, still require parents to obtain approval prior to
homeschooling. More stringent requirements even include the need to have a credentialed teacher supervise the homeschooled child's education.
Some states require homeschool students to be enrolled in public
schools. Some states allow homeschool students to enroll in public
schools but do not require them to do so. Some states prohibit
homeschool students from enrolling in public schools.
Proponents of heavier requirements
argue that they are necessary for the societal goal of an educated
public that is prepared to participate in democratic society. No
scientific studies, however, indicate that heavier requirements produce
better results. In general, standardized test scores in states with high
requirements are no better than in states with lower requirements
casting doubt on the wisdom of placing high requirements on
homeschooling since higher requirements create higher administrative
costs.
The 2014 Freedom in the 50 States study by the Mercatus Center
ranks the fifty states by their homeschooling laws including:
curriculum control, notification requirements, recordkeeping
requirements, standardized testing, and teacher qualifications. The
study finds states such as Alaska, Oklahoma, and Kansas as the freest
states for homeschooling while ranking Ohio, Maryland, and Massachusetts
at the bottom.
Alabama
Alabama
Code § 16-1-11.1 states that "the State of Alabama has no compelling
interest to burden by license or regulation nonpublic schools, which
include private, church, parochial, and religious schools offering
educational instruction in grades K-12, as well as home-based schools
and home-schooled students."
Homeschoolers in Alabama have the option to use a private or
church school or to use a private tutor; however since 2014, parents
have been recognized as being able to homeschool on their own,
independently from a church or private cover, and without needing to
meet the qualifications listed under the private tutor option. While homeschool is currently distinguished from private and religious schools in both § 16-1-11.1 and § 16-1-11.2, the Alabama State Department of Education (ALSDE) has further clarified that a cover school is not required.
As Alabama generally does not regulate homeschool, requirements
are few. Children enrolled in an Alabama public school must be formally
withdrawn, which can be done at any time.
Parents should also notify the local school district of intent to
homeschool to confirm that the student is enrolled and that the parent
is in compliance with Alabama Code § 16-28-15; however, the ALSDE notes that neither they nor any other agency is authorized to verify that this has been done.
Parents are also expected to keep an attendance register, though a
parent not using a cover would not need to report this to the ALSDE or
any other agency.
The ALSDE has stated that any such reporting requirements "tend to lend
themselves to a brick and mortar facility rather than a home school
environment."
If using a church or private school, parents would also need to comply
with any policies set for by that school, and private tutors would need
to comply with any requirements set forth by state law and the ALSDE.
California
In
California homeschoolers must either a) be part of a public
homeschooling program through independent study or a charter school, b)
use a credentialed tutor or c) enrol their children in a qualified
private school. Such private schools may be formed by the parents in
their own home, or parents may use a number of private schools that
offer some kind of independent study or distance learning options. All
persons who operate private schools in California, including parents
forming schools just for their own children, must file an annual
affidavit with the Department of Education. They must offer certain
courses of study (generally similar to the content required in public
schools, but requiring less detailed curricula than those that public
schools must follow) and must keep attendance records, but are otherwise
not subject to any state oversight.
There is no requirement in California that any private school
teachers, whether the school is large or small, must have state
credentials, although all teachers must be capable of teaching. This
principle was recently challenged. A homeschooling family in Southern
California had satisfactorily resolved a lower court case concerning
parenting issues, but the children's court-appointed attorneys wanted
the court of appeals to make a ruling on the topic of homeschooling. On
February 28, 2008, the California Court of Appeals issued a ruling that
effectively made homeschooling (except for tutoring by certified
teachers) illegal in the state of California.
Since the lower case was not about homeschooling, the legal
representation of the family and its school, Sunland Christian School,
requested a rehearing.
The court granted the petition for rehearing, and unanimously reversed
itself, deciding that non-credentialed parents could homeschool their
children under California law.
Ohio
The law in Ohio that excuses students from compulsory attendance is the Ohio Administrative Code, Chapter 3301-34. Under this law, home education
is defined as education that is directed by the parent/guardian of the
child. The purpose of the law is to ensure that parent rights to homeschool their children are not violated. Before the homeschooling process begins, the parent/guardian must notify the superintendent in his/her child's school district.
Some school districts have forms that they use. As long as the
following information is provided in a letter or other form of
notification, parents do not have to use the school district forms.
Information that must be provided in a form of notification to
the superintendent before homeschooling begins includes: the school
year, name of parent, and address (telephone is optional), child's birth date, parent signature
guaranteeing that the subjects listed in the Ohio Administrative Code
are part of homeschooling, outline of the curriculum that the parent
plans to cover in the next year, a list of materials that the parent
plans to use, parent signature guaranteeing that the child will be in
home education for 900 hours during the upcoming school year, and
finally assurance that the home instructor has a high school diploma or the equivalence of a high school diploma. Parents must also send an academic assessment
to the superintendent from the previous school year. The academic
assessment report needs to be one of two things: either the results of a
nationally normed, standardized test or a written portfolio.
The portfolio should include samples of the student's work. The
superintendent must notify the parents within fourteen days of his/her
decision.
Texas
Before 1985, the legality of homeschooling was undefined in Texas State law.
As such, homeschooling parents interpreted the lack of prohibition as
giving them the right to homeschool, while school districts interpreted
it as prohibitive. The requirements were clarified in the landmark case
"Leeper vs. Arlington Independent School District
(AISD)", which put in place clear standards and guidelines for defining
a homeschool and removed any doubt about the legality of homeschooling
in the State.
The Texas Education Agency
(TEA) has no authority to regulate homeschools. TEA considers
homeschools to be equivalent to unaccredited private schools; TEA states
that private schools are not required to be accredited, and it has no
authority to regulate those, either. The only requirements within state
law are:
State law requires that a school, regardless of type 1) must
teach reading, spelling, grammar, mathematics and "good citizenship"
(typically civics). 2) The curriculum must be in visual form 3) must be taught in a bona fide manner (which means there must be a real intent to actually provide education).
The curriculum may be of any type of media provided it is in visual
form (e.g., textbooks, workbooks, and computer-based including via the
Internet), can be obtained from any source desired, and does not have to
be provided or approved by the state or the local school district prior
to use.
State law does not specify any minimum number of days in a year, or
hours in a day, that must be met for non-public schools. Nor does it
mandate a specific time of the day during which classes must be held,
thus potentially removing penalization for violating compulsory
attendance laws that cover public schoolers.
State law does not require standardized testing for other than public school students.
State law does not restrict homeschool families from combining into
one group setting for educational purposes. (However, homeschool
advocates such as Texas Home School Coalition (THSC)
caution that whenever more than three children outside the family are
involved, problems could arise with local zoning ordinances, and a state
license for child care may be required.)
State law does not require registration or annual filings for non-public schools.
State law does not require any teacher credentials, or proven
capability for non-public schools (though private schools are permitted
to require such as a condition of employment); the lack of required
credentials or proven capability is intended to allow parents to teach
their own children.
State law requires notification only if the child was previously in a
public school and is withdrawn; the notification required is merely a
letter notifying the school district of the parent(s)' intent, and only
one letter is required at the initial decision to withdraw the child
from public school and homeschool instead (annual letters are not
required). Parents who homeschool from day one, and never enroll their
children at a public school, are not required to give any notice.
Homeschool students may enroll in public schools, but they are not required to do so.
Virginia
To teach children at home, the teaching parent must meet at least one of the following criteria:
Possess a valid high school diploma (or a higher degree, such as
can be obtained through a university), which must be submitted to the
district's superintendent—a GED does not fulfill this requirement
Hold a valid teacher's certificate as approved by the state
Provide a distance or correspondence curriculum approved by the Superintendent of Public Instruction
Provide evidence that they, as the teaching parent, can meet the Virginia Standards of Learning objectives
The teaching parent must annually inform the district of their intent
to instruct children at home. The children must have all state-mandated
vaccinations required of students in public education, with the
exception of those who have a religious objection to vaccinations and
have completed a notarized Certificate of Religious Exemption Form CRE
1.
(This is a different from the religious exemption from public school
attendance that is guaranteed by law in Virginia Code §22.1-254 when the
tenets of that family's faith prohibits them from attending school).
Part-time enrollment in public school is rare, but allows for
home-instructed students to take some classes (often higher level math
and science or electives like foreign language that parents don't feel
confident teaching). A homeschooled student may or may not be eligible
to play sports for the school in their area, depending on the school.
Other options not governed by the above include home instruction by a certified tutor with a valid Virginia Board of Education
teaching license and religious exemptions. The latter, unique to
Virginia, is due to a family's irreconcilable religious difference with a
public education. This often relates to science and social studies,
which may teach information contrary to the beliefs of a particular
family. If parents present sufficient evidence that a child's family has
religious backing that attending school is abhorrent to their faith,
and fill out the proper forms, none of the above is required to instruct
a child at home.
At the end of each year, the district must be provided with
written documentation that the student has made academic progress. This
could be through a letter from an educator holding a master's degree or
higher in education who has evaluated the achievement of the student
through the submission of a portfolio or through a report card or
transcript from an accredited program (i.e., a community college or
correspondence program employed as the primary curriculum). If these are
not available, the use of some form of "nationally normed standardized
achievement test" is required.
The scores attained must be at or above the twenty-third percentile.
Some tests that may be used include the "Stanford Achievement Test, the
Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS), the California Achievement
Tests (CAT), the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS-TAP), Science Research
Associates (SRA), or the Woodcock-Johnson Educational Battery."
Because homeschoolers do not receive a diploma from the state of
Virginia, one of the major struggles faced is entering community college
or higher education. Those who do correspondence curricula get diplomas
from the program, while others get GEDs.
Children who receive home instruction are not required to take the SOL
examinations, which may contribute to the inability to obtain a diploma
accredited by the state. However, this does not stop many homeschooled
students in Virginia from going to college and studying a wide variety
of subjects. It just means that there is a lot of consideration given
to scores on achievement tests like the SATs and the Advanced Placement
exams.
Under Washington state law RCW 28A.225.010, education is compulsory
for children eight or older or if the child has been officially enrolled
in public school.
Washington does require (RCW 28A.225.010) that homeschools teach
reading, writing, spelling, language, math, science, social studies,
history, health, occupational education, art and music appreciation.
However, the subjects do not have to be taught separately, and the state
does not require a timeline or schedule to be submitted or adhered to,
other than to meet the requirements of a yearly evaluation. Each year
the student must be evaluated according to law RCW28A.200.010, in the
form of:
A standardized achievement test that has been approved by the State Board of Education
OR a non-test assessment administered by a Washington State
certified teacher who must be currently working in the field of
education.
The tests are confidential and only the parent receives a copy. The
Washington Homeschooling Organization (WHO) keeps a list of the
individuals who may administer the tests, or non-test evaluation.
Both the tests and results are required to be kept per RCW
28A.200.010 but does not specify in what form they be kept (Original or
photocopy), they are not required by any state agency and parents do not
have to share them. However, the records can, and probably will be
requested by a school administration if the parents later decide to
enroll their children in formal schooling. The state requires
immunization records in accordance with law, and requests that further
records be kept on instructional and educational activities.
To start homeschooling parents must annually file a Declaration
of Intent to Provide Home Based Instruction RCW 28A.200.010 and be state
qualified to homeschool (RCW 28A.225.010).
Testing and assessment
States also differ in their requirements regarding testing and
assessment. Following the general trend toward easing requirements,
fewer than half the states now require any testing or assessment. In
some states, homeschoolers are required either to submit the results of a
standardized test
(sometimes from an established list of tests) or to have a narrative
evaluation done by a qualified teacher. Other states give parents wide
latitude in the type of assessment to be submitted.
Again, using California as an example, students enrolled in a
public program are encouraged to take the same year-end standardized
tests that all public school students take, but students using tutors or
enrolled in any private school, homeschool or not, are not required to
take any tests. Texas also does not require standardized tests for any
student outside the public school arena, and absence of such tests
cannot be used to discriminate against enrollment in higher education.
Recognition of completion
There are also differences between the states in graduating children
from homeschools. In states where homeschools must be, or can be
operated as any other private school, graduation requirements for all
private schools in that state generally also apply to the homeschools.
Some state education laws have no graduation requirements for private
schools, leaving it up to the private schools to determine which
students meet graduation requirements, and thus allow homeschoolers the
same privilege. (For example, as stated above, Texas considers the
successful completion of a homeschool education equivalent to graduation
from a public or private school.)
Homeschooling is increasingly becoming recognized as a viable
alternative to institutional education, and fewer families are targeted
for prosecution. In an unintended demonstration of the increasing
acceptance of homeschooling, the outgoing Superintendent of Public
Instruction for the state of California, Delaine Eastin, caused a furor
by telling the state legislature that homeschooling was illegal and that
families could not form private schools themselves or teach their
children without credentials. She called for a legislative "solution" to
the growing "problem" of homeschooling. The legislature balked at
taking any action. Then, Ms. Eastin's successor, Jack O'Connell,
instructed his legal staff to review the state laws.
Homeschooling advocates were informed by one of the Department of
Education attorneys that the state was reversing the position it had
taken under Ms. Eastin's tenure. Statements that parents could not teach
their own children or form their own private schools were removed from
the state Department of Education website. Although some officials still
maintain traditional views, truancy prosecutions in California are much
rarer now than they were under Ms. Eastin's leadership. Those
prosecutions that are still pursued routinely fail, and district
attorneys now usually refuse to file such cases.
Curricula
Curriculum
requirements vary from state to state. Some states require
homeschoolers to submit information about their curriculum or lesson
plans. Other states (such as Texas) just require that certain subjects
be covered and do not require submission of the curriculum.
Still others, such as North Carolina, view homeschools as a type of
private school, affording each homeschool the freedom to choose the
curriculum appropriate for its students. While many complete curricula
are available from a wide variety of secular and religious sources, many
families choose to use a variety of resources to cover the required
subjects. In fact, it is not uncommon for a homeschooled student to earn
a number of college credits from a 2- or 4-year college before
completing the 12th grade.
Some states offer public-school-at-home programs. These online or
virtual, public schools (usually charter schools) mimic major aspects
of the homeschooling paradigm, for example, instruction occurs outside
of a traditional classroom, usually in the home. However, students in
such programs are truly public school students and are subject to all or
most of the requirements of other public school students. When parents
enroll their children in such a program, they effectively surrender
control over the curriculum and program to the public school, although a
casual observer might think they are homeschooling.
Some public-school-at-home programs give parents leeway in
curriculum choice; others require use of a specified curriculum. Full
parental or student control over the curriculum and program, however, is
a hallmark feature of homeschooling. Taxpayers pay the cost of
providing books, supplies, and other needs, for public-school-at-home
students, just as they do for conventional public school students. The
U.S. Constitution's prohibition against establishing religion applies to
public-school-at-home programs, so taxpayer money cannot lawfully be
used to purchase a curriculum that is religious in nature.
Access to resources
A
minority of states have statutes that require public schools to give
homeschooled students access to district resources, such as school
libraries, computer labs, extracurricular activities, or even academic
courses. In some communities, homeschoolers meet with a teacher
periodically for curriculum review and suggestions. The laws of some
states give districts the option of giving homeschooled students access
to such resources.
Public libraries will also foster homeschooling. Librarians are
able to aid in the procurement of resources needed for homeschooling
such as internet access, database access, and interlibrary loan
material. Striking up a conversation with a librarian might lead to new
knowledge about available resources, as librarians work with
homeschooled patrons often.
Access to interscholastic athletic competition varies from state to state.
Some state athletic associations, such as the Kentucky High School Athletic Association,completely ban homeschoolers from interscholastic competition; both by
prohibiting homeschoolers to compete for a state federation member
school as well as by prohibiting member schools to compete against
independent teams made up of homeschoolers. In such states,
homeschoolers may only compete amongst other homeschoolers or against
schools that are not members of the state's interscholastic athletic
federation.
Other states allow homeschoolers to compete for the public schools
that they would otherwise attend by virtue of their residence; for
example, former NFL quarterback and current ESPN analyst Tim Tebow was able to play high school football because under Florida
law, a public school must allow homeschoolers resident in its
attendance area unimpeded access to extracurricular activities,
including varsity athletics. Tebow's success has inspired similar
legislation to be introduced in other states, including Texas.
Still other state interscholastic athletic associations allow
homeschoolers to organize teams that compete against other established
schools, but do not allow homeschoolers to compete on established school
teams. The Texas Association of Private and Parochial Schools, the largest of several governing bodies for non-public schools in Texas, uses this option, as does the Michigan High School Athletic Association, though the MHSAA allows such contests during regular season play only.
Homeschooling and college admissions
Many students choose to pursue higher education at the college or university level, some through dual enrollment while in high school and through standardized tests such as the College Level Examination Program (CLEP) and DANTES Subject Standard Tests (DSST).
The College Board recommends that homeschooled students keep detailed records and portfolios to aid them in the admission process.
Over the last several decades, US colleges and universities have become increasingly open to accepting homeschooled students.
75% of colleges and universities have an official policy for homeschool
admissions and 95% have received applications from homeschoolers for
admission. Documents that may be required for admission vary, but may include ACT/SAT scores, essays, high school transcript, letters of recommendation, SAT 2 scores, personal interviews, portfolio, and a GED.
78% of admissions officers expect homeschooled students to do as well
or better than traditional high school graduates at college.
Students coming from a homeschool graduated from college at a higher
rate than their peers¬—66.7 percent compared to 57.5 percent—and earned
higher grade point averages along the way.
In 1994, retired NFL defensive end Jason Taylor, then a homeschool football player in Pennsylvania, engaged in a legal battle against the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA, the leading oversight association governing U.S. collegiate
athletics) and its classification of homeschool athletes as essentially
high school dropouts. Taylor's legal victory has provided a precedent
for thousands of other homeschool athletes to compete in colleges and
attain the same opportunities in education and professional development
that other athletes enjoy.
Other homeschool students who have risen to the top of collegiate
competition include NCAA 2005 champion tennis player Chris Lam, Kevin
Johnson of the University of Tulsa basketball team, 2010-2011 Big South Player of the Year Jesse Sanders of the Liberty University Flames, and the 2007 Heisman Trophy winner Tim Tebow from the University of Florida. In 2012, another homeschool student was a Heisman Trophy finalist: Collin Klein of Kansas State University.
In Texas, Six-Man Football has also been popular among
homeschoolers, with at least five teams being fielded for the 2008-2009
season. The top three places in the Texas Independent State Championship
(also called "the Ironman Bowl") were claimed by homeschool teams.
Advocacy organizations
There are several national homeschooling advocacy groups, such as:
There
are many homeschooling conventions and conferences featuring exhibitors
and workshops. There are two main types of homeschooling conventions:
public and organization (Christian, secular, Catholic). Some larger
shows in the United States include, but are not limited to the
following:
Alabama Homeschool Expo (Montgomery, AL)
CHEA Convention (Pasadena, CA)
FPEA Convention (Orlando, Florida)
Great Homeschool Conventions (GHC)
HEAV State Convention & Educational Fair (Richmond, Virginia)
HSC Conference (San Francisco Bay Area, California)
Texas Home School Coalition Conventions (Arlington and The Woodlands, TX)
Washington Homeschool Organization Conference (Tacoma, WA)
The Constitution does not protect homeschooling in explicit terms.
But a sound reading of Meyer and Pierce, the Supreme Court precedents
that protect parents' rights to choose private over public schools,
implies such a right.
Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a condition in which people develop symptoms of illness or become infected with chronic disease from the building in which they work or reside.
The main identifying observation is an increased incidence of complaints of symptoms such as headache, eye, nose, and throat irritation, fatigue, dizziness, and nausea. In fact the 1989 Oxford English Dictionary defines SBS in that way. The World Health Organization created a 484-page tome on indoor air quality
back in 1984 when SBS was attributed only to non-organic causes, and
suggested that the book might form a basis for legislation or
litigation.
The outbreaks may or may not be a direct result of inadequate cleaning or inappropriate cleaning methods. SBS has also been used to describe staff concerns in post-war buildings with misplanned building aerodynamics, defects in the construction materials or assembly process and-or inadequate maintenance.
Certain symptoms tend to increase in severity with the time people
spend in the building; often improving over time or even disappearing
when people are away from the building. SBS is also used interchangeably with "building-related symptoms", which orients the name of the condition around patients' symptoms rather than a "sick" building.
Attempts have been made to connect sick building syndrome to various causes, such as contaminants produced by outgassing of some types of building materials, volatile organic compounds (VOC), improper exhaust ventilation of ozone (byproduct of some office machinery), light industrial chemicals used within, or lack of adequate fresh-air intake/air filtration (see minimum efficiency reporting value). Sick building syndrome has also been attributed to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. However, there have been inconsistent findings on whether air conditioning systems result in SBS or not.
Signs and symptoms
An air quality monitor
Human exposure to aerosols has been documented to give rise to a variety of adverse health effects. Building occupants complain of symptoms such as sensory irritation of the eyes, nose, or throat; neurotoxic or general health problems; skin irritation; nonspecific hypersensitivity reactions; infectious diseases; and odor and taste sensations. Exposure to poor lighting conditions has led to general malaise.
Extrinsic allergic alveolitis has been associated with the presence of fungi and bacteria in the moist air of residential houses and commercial offices.
A study in 2017 correlated several inflammatory diseases of the
respiration tract with objective evidence of damp-caused damage in
homes.
The WHO has classified the reported symptoms into broad
categories, including: mucous membrane irritation (eye, nose, and throat
irritation), neurotoxic effects (headaches, fatigue, and irritability),
asthma and asthma-like symptoms (chest tightness and wheezing), skin
dryness and irritation, gastrointestinal complaints and more.
Several sick occupants may report individual symptoms which do
not appear to be connected. The key to discovery is the increased
incidence of illnesses in general with onset or exacerbation within a
fairly close time frame – usually within a period of weeks. In most
cases, SBS symptoms will be relieved soon after the occupants leave the
particular room or zone. However, there can be lingering effects of various neurotoxins,
which may not clear up when the occupant leaves the building. In some
cases – particularly in sensitive individuals – there can be long-term
health effects.
Cause
ASHRAE has recognized that polluted urban air, designated within the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s air quality ratings as unacceptable, requires the installation of treatment such as filtration for which the HVAC
practitioners generally apply carbon-impregnated filters and their
likes. Different toxins will aggravate the human body in different ways.
Some people are more allergic to mold, while others are highly
sensitive to dust. Inadequate ventilation will exaggerate small problems
(such as deteriorating fiberglass insulation or cooking fumes) into a
much more serious indoor air quality problem.
Common products such as paint, insulation, rigid foam, Particle
Board, plywood, duct liners, exhaust fumes and other chemical
contaminants from indoor or outdoor sources, and biological contaminants
can be trapped inside by the HVAC AC system. As this air is recycled
using fan coils the overall oxygenation ratio drops and becomes harmful.
When combined with other stress factors such as traffic noise, poor
lighting, inhabitants of buildings located in a polluted urban area can
quickly become ill as their immune system is overwhelmed.
Certain VOCs,
considered toxic chemical contaminants to humans, are used as adhesives
in all common building construction products. These aromatic carbon
rings / VOCs can cause acute and chronic health effects on the occupants
of a building, including cancer, paralysis, lung failure, and others.
Bacterial spores, fungal spores, mold spores, pollen, and viruses are
types of biological contaminants and can all cause allergic reactions or
illness described as SBS. In addition, pollution from outdoors, such as
motor vehicle exhaust, can infiltrate into poorly designed buildings
and contribute to poor indoor air quality, high ppm of CO and CO2. Adult SBS symptoms were associated with a history of allergic rhinitis, eczema and asthma.
A 2015 study concerning the association of SBS and indoor air pollutants in office buildings in Iran found that, as carbon dioxide levels increase in a building, symptoms like nausea, headaches, nasal irritation, dyspnea, and throat dryness have also been shown to increase.
Certain work conditions have been found to be correlated with specific
symptoms. For example, higher light intensity was significantly related
to skin dryness, eye pain, and malaise.
Higher temperature has also been found to correlate with symptoms such
as sneezing, skin redness, itchy eyes and headache, while lower relative
humidity has been associated with sneezing, skin redness, and pain of
the eyes.
In 1973, in response to the oil crisis and conservation
concerns, ASHRAE Standards 62-73 and 62-81 reduced required ventilation
from 10 cubic feet per minute (4.7 L/s) per person to 5 cubic feet per
minute (2.4 L/s) per person, but this was found to be a contributing
factor to sick building syndrome.
As of the 2016 revision, ASHRAE ventilation standards call for 5 to 10
cubic feet per minute of ventilation per occupant (depending on the
occupancy type) in addition to ventilation based on the zone floor area
delivered to the breathing zone.
Psychological factors
One
study looked at commercial buildings and their employees, comparing
some environmental factors suspected of inducing SBS to a self-reported
survey of the occupants, finding that the measured psycho-social circumstances appeared more influential than the tested environmental factors. The authors of that study pointed to the self-reported nature of the observations as a limitation of the research.
Greater
effects were found with features of the psycho-social work environment
including high job demands and low support. The report concluded that
the physical environment of office buildings appears to be less
important than features of the psycho-social work environment in
explaining differences in the prevalence of symptoms. However, there is
still a relationship between sick building syndrome and symptoms of
workers regardless of workplace stress.
Excessive work stress or dissatisfaction, poor interpersonal
relationships and poor communication are often seen to be associated
with SBS, recent studies show that a combination of environmental sensitivity and stress can greatly contribute to sick building syndrome.
Specific work-related stressors are related with specific SBS
symptoms. Workload and work conflict are significantly associated with
general symptoms (headache, abnormal tiredness, sensation of cold or
nausea). While crowded workspaces and low work satisfaction are
associated with upper respiratory symptoms.
Work productivity has been associated with ventilation rates, a
contributing factor to SBS, and there's a significant increase in
production as ventilation rates increase, by 1.7% for every two-fold
increase of ventilation rate.
Printer effluent, released into the office air as ultra-fine particles
(UFPs) as toner is burned during the printing process, may lead to
certain SBS symptoms. Printer effluent may contain a variety of toxins to which a subset of office workers are sensitive, triggering SBS symptoms.
Specific careers are also associated with specific SBS symptoms.
Transport, communication, healthcare, and social workers have highest
prevalence of general symptoms. Skin symptoms such as eczema, itching,
and rashes on hands and face are associated with technical work.
Forestry, agriculture, and sales workers have the lowest rates of sick
building syndrome symptoms.
From the assessment done by Fisk and Mudarri, 21% of asthma cases
in the United States were caused by wet environments with mold that
exist in all indoor environments, such as schools, office buildings,
houses and apartments. Fisk and Berkeley Laboratory colleagues also
found that the exposure to the mold increases the chances of respiratory
issues by 30 to 50 percent.
Additionally, studies showing that health effects with dampness and
mold in indoor environments found that increased risk of adverse health
effects occurs with dampness or visible mold environments.
Milton et al. determined the cost of sick leave specific for one
business was an estimated $480 per employee, and about five days of sick
leave per year could be attributed to low ventilation rates. When
comparing low ventilation rate areas of the building to higher
ventilation rate areas, the relative risk of short-term sick leave was
1.53 times greater in the low ventilation areas.
Home
Sick building syndrome can also occur due to factors of the home. Laminate flooring can cause more exposure to chemicals and more resulting SBS symptoms compared to stone, tile, and cement flooring.
Recent redecorating and new furnishings within the last year were also
found to be associated with increased symptoms, along with dampness and
related factors, having pets, and the presence of cockroaches.
The presence of mosquitoes was also a factor related to more symptoms,
though it is unclear whether it was due to the presence of mosquitoes or
the use of repellents.
Some studies have found that sick building syndrome may be associated
with indoor mould or mycotoxin contamination. However, the attribution
of sick building syndrome to mould is controversial and supported by
little evidence.
Indoor temperature under 18 °C (64 °F) has been shown to be
associated with increased respiratory and cardiovascular diseases,
increased blood levels, and increased hospitalization.
Diagnosis
While sick building syndrome (SBS) encompasses a multitude of non-specific symptoms,
building-related illness (BRI) comprises specific, diagnosable symptoms
caused by certain agents (chemicals, bacteria, fungi, etc.). These can
typically be identified, measured, and quantified. There are usually 4 causal agents in BRI; 1.) Immunologic, 2.) Infectious, 3.) toxic, and 4.) irritant. For instance, Legionnaire's disease, usually caused by Legionella pneumophila,
involves a specific organism which could be ascertained through
clinical findings as the source of contamination within a building.
Prevention
Reduce the time you stay in the building
If you live there, consider moving to a new place. Make sure you are not moving to a worse place though
Fix any deteriorated paint or concrete deterioration
Regular inspections to indicate for presence of mold or other toxins
Adequate maintenance of all building mechanical systems
Roof shingle non-pressure cleaning for removal of algae, mold, and Gloeocapsa magma
Using ozone
to eliminate the many sources, such as VOCs, molds, mildews, bacteria,
viruses, and even odors. However, numerous studies identify high-ozone shock treatment as ineffective despite commercial popularity and popular belief.
Replacement of water-stained ceiling tiles and carpeting
Only using paints, adhesives, solvents, and pesticides in well-ventilated areas or only using these pollutant sources during periods of non-occupancy
Increasing the number of air exchanges; the American Society of
Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers recommend a
minimum of 8.4 air exchanges per 24-hour period
Increased ventilation rates that are above the minimum guidelines
Proper and frequent maintenance of HVAC systems
UV-C light in the HVAC plenum
Installation of HVAC air cleaning systems or devices to remove VOCs and bioeffluents (people odors)
Central vacuums that completely remove all particles from the house including the ultrafine particles (UFPs) which are less than 0.1 μm
Regular vacuuming with a HEPA filter vacuum cleaner to collect and retain 99.97% of particles down to and including 0.3 micrometers
Placing bedding in sunshine, which is related to a study done in a
high-humidity area where damp bedding was common and associated with SBS
Lighting in the workplace should be designed to give individuals control, and be natural when possible
Relocating office printers outside the air conditioning boundary, perhaps to another building
Replacing current office printers with lower emission rate printers
Identification and removal of products containing harmful ingredients
Management
SBS,
as a non specific blanket term, does not have any specific cause or
cure. Any known cure would be associated with the specific eventual
disease that was cause by exposure to known contaminants. In all cases,
alleviation consists of removing the affected person from the building
associated. BRI, on the other hand, utilizes treatment appropriate for
the contaminant identified within the building (e.g., antibiotics for
Legionnaire's disease).
In most cases, simply improving the indoor air quality (IAQ) of a
particular building will attenuate, or even eliminate, the continued
exposure to toxins. For the individual, the recovery may be a process
involved with targeting the acute symptoms of a specific illness, as in
the case of mold toxins.
Treating various building-related illnesses is vital to the overall
understanding of SBS. Careful analysis by certified building
professionals and Medical Doctors can help to identify the exact cause
of the BRI, and help to illustrate a causal path to infection. With this
knowledge one can, theoretically, remediate a building of contaminants
and rebuild the structure with new materials. Office BRI may more likely
than not be explained by three events: "Wide range in the threshold of
response in any population (susceptibility), a spectrum of response to
any given agent, or variability in exposure within large office
buildings."
Isolating any one of the three aspects of office BRI can be a
great challenge, which is why those who find themselves with BRI should
take three steps, history, examinations, and interventions. History
describes the action of continually monitoring and recording the health
of workers experiencing BRI, as well as obtaining records of previous
building alterations or related activity. Examinations go hand in hand
with monitoring employee health. This step is done by physically
examining the entire workspace and evaluating possible threats to health
status among employees. Interventions follow accordingly based on the
results of the Examination and History report.
Epidemiology
Some studies have found that women have higher reports of SBS symptoms than men. It is not entirely clear, however, if this is due to biological, social, or occupational factors.
A 2001 study published in the Journal Indoor Air, gathered 1464
office-working participants to increase the scientific understanding of
gender differences under the Sick Building Syndrome phenomenon.
Using questionnaires, ergonomic investigations, building evaluations,
as well as physical, biological, and chemical variables, the
investigators obtained results that compare with past studies of SBS and
gender. The study team found that across most test variables,
prevalence rates were different in most areas, but there was also a deep
stratification of working conditions between genders as well. For
example, men's workplaces tend to be significantly larger and have
all-around better job characteristics. Secondly, there was a noticeable
difference in reporting rates, specifically that women have higher rates
of reporting roughly 20% higher than men. This information was similar
to that found in previous studies, thus indicating a potential
difference in willingness to report.
There might be a gender
difference in reporting rates of sick building syndrome, because women
tend to report more symptoms than men do. Along with this, some studies
have found that women have a more responsive immune system and are more
prone to mucosal dryness and facial erythema.
Also, women are alleged by some to be more exposed to indoor
environmental factors because they have a greater tendency to have
clerical jobs, wherein they are exposed to unique office equipment and
materials (example: blueprint machines, toner-based printers), whereas men often have jobs based outside of offices.
History
In the late 1970s, it was noted that nonspecific symptoms were
reported by tenants in newly constructed homes, offices, and nurseries.
In media it was called "office illness". The term "sick building
syndrome" was coined by the WHO in 1986, when they also estimated that
10–30% of newly built office buildings in the West had indoor air
problems. Early Danish and British studies reported symptoms.
Poor indoor environments attracted attention. The Swedish allergy
study (SOU 1989:76) designated "sick building" as a cause of the
allergy epidemic as was feared. In the 1990s, therefore, extensive
research into "sick building" was carried out. Various physical and
chemical factors in the buildings were examined on a broad front.
The problem was highlighted increasingly in media and was
described as a "ticking time bomb". Many studies were performed in
individual buildings.
In the 1990s "sick buildings" were contrasted against "healthy buildings".
The chemical contents of building materials were highlighted. Many
building material manufacturers were actively working to gain control of
the chemical content and to replace criticized additives. The
ventilation industry advocated above all more well-functioning
ventilation. Others perceived ecological construction, natural
materials, and simple techniques as a solution.
At the end of the 1990s came an increased distrust of the concept of "sick building". A dissertation at the Karolinska Institutet
in Stockholm 1999 questioned the methodology of previous research, and a
Danish study from 2005 showed these flaws experimentally. It was
suggested that sick building syndrome was not really a coherent syndrome
and was not a disease to be individually diagnosed, but a collection of
as many as to dozen semi related diseases. In 2006 the Swedish National
Board of Health and Welfare recommended in the medical journal Läkartidningen
that "sick building syndrome" should not be used as a clinical
diagnosis. Thereafter, it has become increasingly less common to use
terms such as "sick buildings" and "sick building syndrome" in research.
However, the concept remains alive in popular culture and is used to
designate the set of symptoms related to poor home or work environment
engineering. "Sick building" is therefore an expression used especially
in the context of workplace health.
Sick building syndrome made a rapid journey from media to
courtroom where professional engineers and architects became named
defendants and were represented by their respective professional
practice insurers. Proceedings invariably relied on expert witnesses,
medical and technical experts along with building managers, contractors
and manufacturers of finishes and furnishings, testifying as to cause
and effect. Most of these actions resulted in sealed settlement
agreements, none of these being dramatic. The insurers needed a defense
based upon Standards of Professional Practice to meet a court decision
that declared that in a modern, essentially sealed building, the HVAC
systems must produce breathing air for suitable human consumption.
ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineers, currently with over 50,000 international members) undertook
the task of codifying its indoor air quality (IAQ) standard.
ASHRAE empirical research determined that "acceptability" was a
function of outdoor (fresh air) ventilation rate and used carbon dioxide
as an accurate measurement of occupant presence and activity. Building
odors and contaminants would be suitably controlled by this dilution
methodology. ASHRAE codified a level of 1,000 ppm of carbon dioxide and
specified the use of widely available sense-and-control equipment to
assure compliance. The 1989 issue of ASHRAE 62.1-1989 published the whys
and wherefores and overrode the 1981 requirements that were aimed at a
ventilation level of 5,000 ppm of carbon dioxide (the OSHA workplace
limit), federally set to minimize HVAC system energy consumption. This
apparently ended the SBS epidemic.
Over time, building materials changed with respect to emissions
potential. Smoking vanished and dramatic improvements in ambient air
quality, coupled with code compliant ventilation and maintenance, per
ASHRAE standards have all contributed to the acceptability of the indoor
air environment.
