Psychoactive plants are plants, or preparations thereof, that upon ingestion induce psychotropic effects. As stated in a reference work:
Psychoactive plants are plants that people ingest in the form of simple or complex preparations in order to affect the mind or alter the state of consciousness.
Psychoactive plants have been used ritually (e.g., peyote as an entheogen), medicinally (e.g., opium as an analgesic), and therapeutically (e.g., cannabis as a drug) for thousands of years. Hence, the sociocultural and economic significance of psychoactive plants is enormous.
History of psychoactive plants
Many
plants contain substances that alter moods and cause euphoria. Some of
these psychoactive plants were known to the ancients. The history of
poppy cultivation dates back to 3400 BC. In Mesopotamia. Poppies were
cultivated by the Egyptians and then spread to India and China. Opium
was widely used by Arab physicians around 1000 AD . Opium addiction was
rampant in China, and after opium was banned in 1799, opium smuggling
became a general industry, and in 1839, the Opium War broke out between
Britain and China. The psychoactive plant Cannabis sativa (hemp plant)
was already known in ancient China and India 5000 years ago. The
earliest reference was found in a pharmacist's book from 2737 BC. It was
written during the reign of Emperor Shennong of China. By 1000 AD, hemp
products had spread to the Middle East and Africa. Cannabis probably
came to South America in the 16th century. In the 19th century, cannabis
was used medicinally due to its narcotic effects. Although many
scientific articles on the therapeutic value of cannabis were published
in Europe and America in the late 19th century, the use of cannabis in
medicine declined significantly in the early 20th century.
In the table below, a few examples of significant psychoactive plants and their effects are shown.
For further examples, see List of psychoactive plants.
Botanical
taxonomy delimits groups of plants and describes and names taxa based
on these groups to identify other members of the same taxa. The
circumscription of taxa is directed by the principles of classification,
and the name assigned is governed by a code of nomenclature. In the plant kingdom (Plantae), almost all psychoactive plants are found within the flowering plants (angiosperms).
There are many examples of psychoactive fungi, but fungi
are not part of the plant kingdom.
Some important plant families containing psychoactive species are listed
below. The listed species are examples only, and a family may contain
more psychoactive species than listed.
Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number of secondary metabolites
found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and plant
biology, and the biosynthesis of these compounds. Plants synthesize
phytochemicals for many reasons, including to protect themselves against
insect attacks and plant diseases. The compounds found in plants are of many kinds, but most can be grouped into four major biosynthetic classes: alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, polyketides, and terpenoids. Active constituents of the majority of psychoactive plants fall within the alkaloids (e.g., nicotine, morphine, cocaine, mescaline, caffeine, ephedrine), a class of nitrogen-containing natural products. Examples of psychoactive compounds of plant origin that do not contain nitrogen are tetrahydrocannabinol (a phytocannabinoid from Cannabis sativa) and salvinorin A (a diterpenoid from Salvia divinorum).
Phytochemicals give plants their color, aroma and taste, and protect
them from infectious diseases and predators. As explained in the next
section, phytochemicals inhibit cancer cell growth, boost the immune
system, and prevent damage to DNA that can lead to cancer and other
diseases. This fact suggests that phytochemicals act as antioxidants to
protect the body from oxidative damage caused by water, food, and air.
The 2010 ISCD study "Drug Harms in the UK: a multi-criteria decision analysis" found that alcohol scored highest overall and in "Economic cost", "Injury", "Family adversities", "Environmental damage", and "Community harm".
Psychoactive substances often bring about subjective changes in
consciousness and mood (although these may be objectively observed) that
the user may find rewarding and pleasant (e.g., euphoria
or a sense of relaxation) or advantageous in an objectively observable
or measurable way (e.g. increased alertness), thus the effects are
reinforcing to varying degrees. Substances which are rewarding and thus positively reinforcing have the potential to induce a state of addiction – compulsive drug use despite negative consequences. In addition, sustained use of some substances may produce physical or psychological dependence or both, associated with somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal states respectively. Drug rehabilitation attempts to reduce addiction, through a combination of psychotherapy,
support groups, and other psychoactive substances. Conversely, certain
psychoactive drugs may be so unpleasant that the person will never use
the substance again. This is especially true of certain deliriants (e.g. Jimson weed), powerful dissociatives (e.g. Salvia divinorum), and classic psychedelics (e.g. LSD, psilocybin), in the form of a "bad trip".
Psychoactive drug misuse, dependence, and addiction have resulted in legal measures and moral debate.
Governmental controls on manufacture, supply, and prescription attempt
to reduce problematic medical drug use; worldwide efforts to combat
trafficking in psychoactive drugs are commonly termed the "war on drugs". Ethical concerns have also been raised about the overuse of these drugs clinically and about their marketing by manufacturers. Popular campaigns to decriminalize or legalize the recreational use of certain drugs (e.g., cannabis) are also ongoing.
Psychoactive drug use can be traced to prehistory.
Archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances, mostly
plants, dates back at least 10,000 years; historical evidence indicates
cultural use 5,000 years ago. There is evidence of the chewing of coca leaves, for example, in Peruvian society 8,000 years ago.
Psychoactive substances have been used medicinally and to alter
consciousness. Consciousness altering may be a primary drive, akin to
the need to satiate thirst, hunger, or sexual desire.
This may be manifest in the long history of drug use, and even even
children's desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding, suggesting that
the drive to alter one's state of mind is universal.
In The Hasheesh Eater (1857), American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow was one of the first to describe in modern terms the desire to change one's consciousness through drug use:
[D]rugs
are able to bring humans into the neighborhood of divine experience and
can thus carry us up from our personal fate and the everyday
circumstances of our life into a higher form of reality. It is, however,
necessary to understand precisely what is meant by the use of drugs. We
do not mean the purely physical craving ... That of which we speak is
something much higher, namely the knowledge of the possibility of the
soul to enter into a lighter being, and to catch a glimpse of deeper
insights and more magnificent visions of the beauty, truth, and the
divine than we are normally able to spy through the cracks in our prison
cell. But there are not many drugs which have the power of stilling
such craving. The entire catalog, at least to the extent that research
has thus far written it, may include only opium, hashish, and in rarer
cases alcohol, which has enlightening effects only upon very particular characters.
During the 20th century, the majority of countries initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by prohibiting production, distribution, or use through criminalization. A notable example occurred with Prohibition in the United States,
where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. In recent decades, an
emerging view among governments and law enforcement holds that illicit
drug use cannot be stopped through prohibition. One organization with that opinion, Law Enforcement Against Prohibition
(LEAP), concluded that "[in] fighting a war on drugs the government has
increased the problems of society and made them far worse. A system of
regulation rather than prohibition is a less harmful, more ethical and a
more effective public policy."
In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction
by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned
nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have
adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative
effects of their use be minimized. Such is the case of the Portuguese
drug policy of decriminalization, which achieved its primary goal of
reducing the adverse health effects of drug abuse.
Terminology
Psychoactive and psychotropic
are often used interchangeably in general and academic sources, to
describe substances that act on the brain to alter cognition and
perception; some sources make a distinction between the terms. One
narrower definition of psychotropic refers to drugs used to treat mental
disorders, such as anxiolytic sedatives, antidepressants, antimanic
agents, and neuroleptics. Another use of psychotropic refers to
substances with a high likelihood of abuse, including stimulants,
hallucinogens, opioids, and sedatives/hypnotics including alcohol. In
international drug control, "psychotropic substances" refers to the
substances specified in the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, which does not include narcotics.
The term "drug" has become a skunked term; Drugs
can have a negative connotation, often associated with illegal
substances like cocaine or heroin. This is despite the fact that the
terms "drug" and "medicine" are sometimes used interchangeably.
Novel psychoactive substances (NPS), also known as "designer drugs"
are a category of psychoactive drugs (substances) that are designed to
mimic the effects of often illegal drugs, usually in efforts to
circumvent existing drug laws.
Types
Psychoactive drugs are divided according to their pharmacological effects. Common subtypes include:
Anxiolytics are medicinally used to reduce the symptoms of anxiety, and sometimes insomnia.
Stimulants
increase activity, or arousal, of the central nervous system, used to
enhance alertness, attention, cognition, mood and physical performance.
Some stimulants are used medicinally to treat individuals with ADHD and narcolepsy.
Depressants
reduce (or depress) activity and stimulation in the central nervous
system. Drugs within this classification encompass a spectrum of
substances with sedative, soporific, and anesthetic properties, and
include sedatives, hypnotics, and opioids.
Use
of psychoactive substances vary widely between cultures. Some substances
may have controlled or illegal uses, others may have shamanic purposes,
and others are used medicinally. Examples would be social drinking, nootropic supplements, and sleep aids. Caffeine
is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive substance: it is legal
and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions; in North America, 90% of
adults consume caffeine daily.
Psychiatric medications are psychoactive drugs prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders, or to aid in overcoming challenging behavior. There are six major classes of psychiatric medications:
Exposure to psychoactive drugs can cause changes to the brain
that counteract or augment some of their effects; these changes may be
beneficial or harmful. However, there is a significant amount of
evidence that the relapse rate of mental disorders negatively
corresponds with the length of properly followed treatment regimens
(that is, relapse rate substantially declines over time), and to a much
greater degree than placebo.
Militaries worldwide have used or are using various psychoactive drugs to treat pain and to improve performance of soldiers by suppressing hunger, increasing the ability to sustain effort without food, increasing and lengthening wakefulness and concentration, suppressing fear, reducing empathy, and improving reflexes and memory-recall among other things.
Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are
known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives
apprehended in its "war on terror". In July 2012 Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye, psychologists and human rights workers, had a Freedom of Information Act request fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing
practice. Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff
collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful
psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives
release.
In May 2003 recently released Pakistani captiveSha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali, a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.
Performance-enhancing substances, also known as performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs), are substances that are used to improve any form of activity performance in humans. A well-known example of cheating in sports involves doping in sport, where banned physical performance-enhancing drugs are used by athletes and bodybuilders. Athletic performance-enhancing substances are sometimes referred as ergogenic aids. Cognitive performance-enhancing drugs, commonly called nootropics,
are sometimes used by students to improve academic performance.
Performance-enhancing substances are also used by military personnel to
enhance combat performance.
Global
per capita alcohol consumption has shown a downward trajectory since
the 20th century, suggesting a shift towards prioritizing health and
well-being.
Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception
altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and
psychiatry. Examples of psychoactive substances include caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, nicotine, cannabis, and dextromethorphan. Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:
Hypnotics, which depress the central nervous system.
Opioid analgesics, which also depress the central nervous system. These are used recreationally because of their euphoric effects.
Inhalants,
in the forms of gas aerosols, or solvents, which are inhaled as a vapor
because of their stupefying effects. Many inhalants also fall into the
above categories (such as nitrous oxide which is also an analgesic).
In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage is seen as a status symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as at nightclubs and parties. For example, in ancient Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.
Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug prohibition. Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal autonomy and freedom. In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be unconstitutional, and causing more harm than is prevented.
Some people who take psychoactive drugs experience drug or
substance induced psychosis. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis
by Murrie et al. found that the pooled proportion of transition from
substance-induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 25% (95% CI 18%–35%),
compared with 36% (95% CI 30%–43%) for brief, atypical and not otherwise
specified psychoses.
Type of substance was the primary predictor of transition from
drug-induced psychosis to schizophrenia, with highest rates associated
with cannabis (6 studies, 34%, CI 25%–46%), hallucinogens (3 studies,
26%, CI 14%–43%) and amphetamines (5 studies, 22%, CI 14%–34%). Lower
rates were reported for opioid (12%), alcohol (10%) and sedative (9%)
induced psychoses. Transition rates were slightly lower in older cohorts
but were not affected by sex, country of the study, hospital or
community location, urban or rural setting, diagnostic methods, or
duration of follow-up.
Ritual and spiritual
Offerings
Alcohol and tobacco (nicotine) have been and are used as offerings in various religions and spiritual practices. Coca leaves have been used as offerings in rituals.
According to the Catholic Church, the sacramental wine used in the Eucharist must contain alcohol. Canon 924 of the present Code of Canon Law (1983) states:
§3 The wine must be natural, made from grapes of the vine, and not corrupt.
Timothy Leary was a leading proponent of spiritual hallucinogen use.
Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for
religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used peyote cacti containing mescaline for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years. The muscimol-containing Amanita muscaria mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe.
The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new spiritual and intention-based movements began to use LSD
and other hallucinogens as tools to access deeper inner exploration. In
the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected
only for members of the Native American Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote.
However, the genuine religious use of peyote, regardless of one's
personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico,
Nevada, and Oregon.
Psychedelic therapy (or psychedelic-assisted therapy) refers to the proposed use of psychedelic drugs, such as psilocybin, MDMA, LSD, and ayahuasca, to treat mental disorders.
As of 2021, psychedelic drugs are controlled substances in most
countries and psychedelic therapy is not legally available outside
clinical trials, with some exceptions.
The aims and methods of psychonautics, when state-altering substances are involved, is commonly distinguished from recreational drug use by research sources.
Psychonautics as a means of exploration need not involve drugs, and may
take place in a religious context with an established history. Cohen
considers psychonautics closer in association to wisdom traditions and
other transpersonal and integral movements.
Self-medication, sometime called do-it-yourself (DIY) medicine, is a human behavior
in which an individual uses a substance or any exogenous influence to
self-administer treatment for physical or psychological conditions, for
example headaches or fatigue.
The substances most widely used in self-medication are over-the-counter drugs and dietary supplements, which are used to treat common health issues at home. These do not require a doctor'sprescription to obtain and, in some countries, are available in supermarkets and convenience stores.
In the US, NORML (National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws) has led since the 1970s a movement to legalize cannabis nationally. The so-called "420 movement"
is the global association of the number 420 with cannabis consumption:
April 20th – fourth month, twentieth day – has become an international countercultureholiday based on the celebration and consumption of cannabis;4:20 pm on any day is a time to consume cannabis.
Operation Overgrow is the name, given by cannabis activists, of an "operation" to spread marijuana seeds wildly "so it grows like weed". The thought behind the operation is to draw attention to the debate about legalization/decriminalization of marijuana.
A drug overdose involves taking a dose of a drug
that exceeds safe levels. In the UK (England and Wales) until 2013, a
drug overdose was the most common suicide method in females.
In 2019 in males the percentage is 16%. Self-poisoning accounts for the
highest number of non-fatal suicide attempts. In the United States
about 60% of suicide attempts and 14% of suicide deaths involve drug
overdoses. The risk of death in suicide attempts involving overdose is about 2%.
Most people are under the influence of sedative-hypnotic drugs (such as alcohol or benzodiazepines) when they die by suicide, with alcoholism present in between 15% and 61% of cases. Countries that have higher rates of alcohol use and a greater density of bars generally also have higher rates of suicide. About 2.2–3.4% of those who have been treated for alcoholism at some point in their life die by suicide. Alcoholics who attempt suicide are usually male, older, and have tried to take their own lives in the past. In adolescents who misuse alcohol, neurological and psychological dysfunctions may contribute to the increased risk of suicide.
Overdose attempts using painkillers are among the most common, due to their easy availability over-the-counter.
The
theory of dosage, set, and setting is a useful model in dealing with
the effects of psychoactive substances, especially in a controlled
therapeutic setting as well as in recreational use. Dr. Timothy Leary, based on his own experiences and systematic observations on psychedelics, developed this theory along with his colleagues Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) in the 1960s.
Dosage
The first factor, dosage, has been a truism since ancient times, or at least since Paracelsus
who said, "Dose makes the poison." Some compounds are beneficial or
pleasurable when consumed in small amounts, but harmful, deadly, or
evoke discomfort in higher doses.
Set
The set is the internal attitudes and constitution of the person,
including their expectations, wishes, fears, and sensitivity to the
drug. This factor is especially important for the hallucinogens, which
have the ability to make conscious experiences out of the unconscious.
In traditional cultures, set is shaped primarily by the worldview,
health and genetic characteristics that all the members of the culture
share.
Setting
The third aspect is setting, which pertains to the surroundings, the place, and the time in which the experiences transpire.
This theory clearly states that the effects are equally the
result of chemical, pharmacological, psychological, and physical
influences. The model that Timothy Leary proposed applied to the
psychedelics, although it also applies to other psychoactives.
Illustration of the major elements of neurotransmission. Depending on its method of action, a psychoactive substance may block the receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (dendrite), or block reuptake or affect neurotransmitter synthesis in the pre-synaptic neuron (axon).
Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person's neurochemistry,
which in turn causes changes in a person's mood, cognition, perception
and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect
the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or more neurotransmitter or neuroreceptor in the brain.
Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are called agonists. They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing its reuptake from the synapses,
or by mimicking the action by binding directly to the postsynaptic
receptor. Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are called antagonists, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.
Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the homeostasis disrupted by the presence of the drug (see also, neuroplasticity).
Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter can increase
the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter or the receptors
themselves may become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is
called sensitization.
Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular
neurotransmitter may cause a decrease in both number and sensitivity of
these receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance.
Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with
long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single
exposure. These processes are thought to play a role in drug dependence
and addiction. Physical dependence
on antidepressants or anxiolytics may result in worse depression or
anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, because clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder) is often referred to simply as depression, antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for patients who are depressed, but not clinically depressed.
Affected neurotransmitter systems
The
following is a brief table of notable drugs and their primary
neurotransmitter, receptor or method of action. Many drugs act on more
than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.
Comparison
of the perceived harm for various psychoactive drugs from a poll among
medical psychiatrists specialized in addiction treatment (David Nutt et al. 2007)
Psychoactive drugs are often associated with addiction or drug dependence. Dependence can be divided into two types: psychological dependence, by which a user experiences negative psychological or emotional withdrawal symptoms (e.g., depression) and physical dependence, by which a user must use a drug to avoid physically uncomfortable or even medically harmful physical withdrawal symptoms. Drugs that are both rewarding and reinforcing are addictive; these properties of a drug are mediated through activation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, particularly the nucleus accumbens. Not all addictive drugs are associated with physical dependence, e.g., amphetamine, and not all drugs that produce physical dependence are addictive drugs, e.g., oxymetazoline.
Many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize in drug rehabilitation,
with varying degrees of success, and many parents attempt to influence
the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives.
Common forms of rehabilitation include psychotherapy, support groups and pharmacotherapy, which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological withdrawal symptoms while a user is going through detox. Methadone, itself an opioid and a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for heroin addiction, as is another opioid, buprenorphine. Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using psychedelics such as ibogaine to treat and even cure drug addictions, although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice.
The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most of recent history; the Second Opium War and Prohibition
are two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding
psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential
document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, an international treaty signed in 1961 as an Act of the United Nations. Signed by 73 nations including the United States, the USSR,
Pakistan, India, and the United Kingdom, the Single Convention on
Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and
laid out an international agreement to fight addiction to recreational drugs by combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs.
All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these
rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the Netherlands, are more
lenient with their enforcement of these laws.
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are over the counter and which are only available with a prescription.
However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs
listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to
criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age. Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments.
Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs,
especially the "hard" drugs, which are illegal in most countries.
In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for
illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists
concerning over the counter psychoactive medications in antiemetics and antitussives. Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such as antidepressants and stimulants, are overprescribed and threaten patients' judgement and autonomy.
A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals,
berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated. An example of
this is cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use. Animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.
Widely used psychoactive drugs
This
is a list of commonly used drugs that contain psychoactive ingredients.
Please note that the following lists contains legal and illegal drugs
(based on the country's laws).
Common legal drugs
The most widely consumed psychotropic drugs worldwide are:
.JPG)
,_OWID.svg)
.svg)
