Intelligence

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence

Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-awareness, learning, emotional knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving. It can be described as the ability to perceive or infer information and to retain it as knowledge to be applied to adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.

The term rose to prominence during the early 1900s. Most psychologists believe that intelligence can be divided into various domains or competencies.

Intelligence has been long-studied in humans, and across numerous disciplines. It has also been observed in the cognition of non-human animals. Some researchers have suggested that plants exhibit forms of intelligence, though this remains controversial.

Etymology

Main article: Nous

The word intelligence derives from the Latin nouns intelligentia or intellēctus, which in turn stem from the verb intelligere, to comprehend or perceive. In the Middle Ages, the word intellectus became the scholarly technical term for understanding and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous. This term, however, was strongly linked to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism, including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the active intellect (also known as the active intelligence). This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by early modern philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and David Hume, all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of "intellectus" or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works. Hobbes for example, in his Latin De Corpore, used "intellectus intelligit", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical example of a logical absurdity. "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories that it now implies) in more contemporary psychology.

Definitions

There is controversy over how to define intelligence. Scholars describe its constituent abilities in various ways, and differ in the degree to which they conceive of intelligence as quantifiable.

A consensus report called Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns, published in 1995 by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association, states:

Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.

Psychologists and learning researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following:

Researcher	Quotation
Alfred Binet	Judgment, otherwise called "good sense", "practical sense", "initiative", the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.
David Wechsler	The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.
Lloyd Humphreys	"...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills".
Howard Gardner	To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.
Robert Sternberg & William Salter	Goal-directed adaptive behavior.
Reuven Feuerstein	The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation".
Shane Legg & Marcus Hutter	A synthesis of 70+ definitions from psychology, philosophy, and AI researchers: "Intelligence measures an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments", which has been mathematically formalized.
Alexander Wissner-Gross	F = T ∇ S${\displaystyle {}_{\tau }}$ "Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped".

Human

Main article: Human intelligence

Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex cognitive feats and high levels of motivation and self-awareness. Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It gives humans the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, innovate, plan, solve problems, and employ language to communicate. These cognitive abilities can be organized into frameworks like fluid vs. crystallized and the Unified Cattell-Horn-Carroll model, which contains abilities like fluid reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal abilities, and others.

Intelligence is different from learning. Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use. Intelligence, on the other hand, is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Main article: Intelligence quotient

There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via psychometric testing. Prominent among these are the various Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tests, which were first developed in the early 20th century to screen children for intellectual disability. Over time, IQ tests became more pervasive, being used to screen immigrants, military recruits, and job applicants. As the tests became more popular, belief that IQ tests measure a fundamental and unchanging attribute that all humans possess became widespread.

An influential theory that promoted the idea that IQ measures a fundamental quality possessed by every person is the theory of General Intelligence, or g factor. The g factor is a construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a range of cognitive tests.

Today, most psychologists agree that IQ measures at least some aspects of human intelligence, particularly the ability to thrive in an academic context. However, many psychologists question the validity of IQ tests as a measure of intelligence as a whole.

There is debate about the heritability of IQ, that is, what proportion of differences in IQ test performance between individuals are explained by genetic or environmental factors. The scientific consensus is that genetics does not explain average differences in IQ test performance between racial groups.

Emotional

Main article: Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is thought to be the ability to convey emotion to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately. Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy. In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to help us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence is important to our mental health and has ties to social intelligence.

Social

Main article: Social intelligence

Social intelligence is the ability to understand the social cues and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct from other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others, the accuracy with which we do so, and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative social character. There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different schools of thought.

Moral

Main article: Moral intelligence

Moral intelligence is the capacity to understand right from wrong and to behave based on the value that is believed to be right. It is considered a distinct form of intelligence, independent to both emotional and cognitive intelligence.

Book smart and street smart

Concepts of "book smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study, but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge, while others have knowledge gained through practical experience, but may lack accurate information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge. Artificial intelligence researcher Hector Levesque has noted that:

Given the importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it. It is sometimes derided as being merely "book knowledge", and having it is being "book smart". In contrast, knowledge acquired through direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge", and having it is being "street smart".

Nonhuman animal

Main article: Animal cognition

A crab-eating macaque using a stone

Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges include defining intelligence so it has the same meaning across species, and operationalizing a measure that accurately compares mental ability across species and contexts.

Wolfgang Köhler's research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area, as is Stanley Coren's book, The Intelligence of Dogs. Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include chimpanzees, bonobos (notably the language-using Kanzi) and other great apes, dolphins, elephants and to some extent parrots, rats and ravens.

Cephalopod intelligence provides an important comparative study. Cephalopods appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their nervous systems differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as mammals, birds, reptiles and fish have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with arthropods.

g factor in non-humans

Main article: g factor in non-humans

Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. First described in humans, the g factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.

Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation, habit reversal, social learning, and responses to novelty. Studies have shown that g is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in primates and between 55% and 60% of the variance in mice (Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in IQ explained by g in humans (40–50%).

Plant

Main articles: Plant perception (physiology) § Plant cognition, and Plant cognition

It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their morphology, physiology and phenotype accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction.

A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated cost–benefit analysis and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.

Artificial

Main article: Artificial intelligence

Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well. An intelligent agent can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success. Kaplan and Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system's ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation". Progress in artificial intelligence can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as protein folding. Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks".

Mathematician Olle Häggström defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain optimization of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework, Deep Blue has the power to "steer a chessboard's future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as 'winning', despite attempts by Garry Kasparov to steer the future elsewhere." Hutter and Legg, after surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments". While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one-dimensional parameter, it could also be represented as a "hypersurface in a multidimensional space" to compare systems that are good at different intellectual tasks. Some skeptics believe that there is no meaningful way to define intelligence, aside from "just pointing to ourselves".

Progressive capitalism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_capitalism 

Progessive capitalism is an economic framework within fiscal progressivism that seeks to recalibrate the roles of the market, state, and civil society to enhance societal well-being. This approach advocates for a new social contract that leverages market forces and entrepreneurship while addressing issues such as market dominance, inequality, and the consequences of globalization. Progressive capitalism promotes government investment in technology, education, healthcare, and green infrastructure, alongside implementing public options for essential services.

Distinct from socialism, which calls for extensive government control over production, and neoliberal capitalism with minimal state coordination, progressive capitalism supports market economies with effective regulatory frameworks. It aims to correct and prevent market abuses while ensuring that economic growth and opportunities are widely distributed. By focusing on reforms within the capitalist system, it seeks the benefit of market-driven economic growth balanced with fairness and sustainability. Critics argue that its incremental reforms may not address deeper systemic issues within capitalism.

Historically, progressive capitalism has been associated with periods of significant economic growth and reduced inequality, such as the New Deal and the Golden age of capitalism in the mid-20th century. It contrasts sharply with neoliberal free market capitalism, which tends to reject such interventions in favor of self-regulating markets with more narrowly distributed results. In recent years, progressive capitalism has been promoted by figures like New Keynesian Nobel-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz, former Minister of State for Science, Research and Innovation, David Sainsbury, and U.S. Congressman, Ro Khanna.

Definition

As defined by economist Joseph Stiglitz, progressive capitalism is a form of capitalism that proposes a new social contract to rebalance the roles of the market, the state, and civil society, leveraging market forces and entrepreneurship to enhance societal wellbeing. By rewriting economic rules, it addresses issues like market dominance, ensuring globalization benefits all citizens, and implementing government investments in technology, education, and green infrastructure, alongside public options for essential services. Stiglitz has also described progressive capitalism as "a better balance of government, markets, and civil society".

Progressive capitalism is often presented as an economic approach that is in the middle between socialism and neoliberalism. Stiglitz has stated that progressive capitalism responds to the debate between capitalism and socialism by emphasizing reforms within the capitalist system. It contrasts with traditional socialism, which historically advocated for extensive government control of the means of production, a concept even in Europe with less support today. According to economist Mark Cooper, free market fundamentalism emerges as the key opponent to progressive capitalism. While progressive capitalism advocates for policies to correct market abuses and achieve socially beneficial outcomes, free market fundamentalism rejects such interventions, arguing that markets will self-correct and that regulation and antitrust enforcement only hinder business. Proponents of free market fundamentalism believe minimal government interference will lead to overall public benefit, despite the potential for worsening existing problems. Stiglitz argues that market fundamentalists wrongly label progressive capitalism as socialism, whereas it is distinctly neither socialism nor market socialism.

History

Progressive capitalism builds on the foundational ideas of John Maynard Keynes and Franklin D. Roosevelt, adapting their vision to the contemporary economic landscape. Keynes and Roosevelt advocated for a tempered capitalism where government played a crucial, though limited, role in ensuring stability, efficiency, and equity—goals that remain relevant today. This approach serves as a basis for modern progressive capitalism, which seeks to address the shortcomings of unfettered capitalism by promoting human freedom and balancing market forces with regulatory and public interventions.

Mark Cooper categorizes US economic periods into two main models: free market fundamentalism and progressive capitalism. Free market fundamentalism includes the Gilded Age (1869–1886), the Post-WWI Roar (1917–1932), and Neoliberalism (1980–2008). Progressive capitalism encompasses the New Deal (1933–1946) and the Golden Age (1947–1970), with transitional periods including the Progressive Era (1887–1916), the Crisis (1970–1979), and the Obama administration (2009–2015).

According to Cooper, progressive capitalism has been shown to outperform neoliberalism across key economic indicators using econometric analysis and that during the progressive capitalism era (1933–1972), GDP growth surged by 2.78%, compared to a modest 1.51% under neoliberalism (1980–2008) and that productivity growth also favored progressive capitalism, showing an increase of 2.60% versus 0.84% for neoliberalism. Private investment levels were higher under progressive capitalism at 1.66%, while neoliberalism saw only 0.29%. Unemployment rates improved more under progressive capitalism, decreasing by 2.62%, compared to a reduction of 1.08% under neoliberalism.

Overview

Core principles

Progressive capitalism principles include recognizing excessive corporate power as oppressive, viewing government as a check on private excess, understanding diverse methods for distributing economic benefits, valuing secure and well-paid workers as capitalism's consumers, and rejecting a trade-off between fairness and economic growth, with reduced inequality potentially fostering greater prosperity. A central tenet of progressive capitalism is its focus on enhancing overall well-being, going beyond GDP metrics to ensure that the benefits of societal progress are widely and fairly distributed among all citizens.

Stiglitz delineates four key priorities of progressive capitalism. Firstly, it restores equilibrium among markets, the state, and civil society to tackle issues like economic stagnation, rising inequality, and environmental degradation through government regulation and investment. Secondly, recognizing the pivotal role of scientific inquiry and social cooperation in wealth generation, it supports markets governed by the rule of law and democratic oversight. Thirdly, addressing the problem of concentrated market power, which contributes to inequality and stifles economic growth, by curbing the dominance of large corporations. Finally, progressive capitalism seeks to sever the nexus between economic and political influence, advocating for reforms to reduce the sway of money in politics and mitigate wealth inequality, ultimately fostering a fairer and more prosperous society.

According to Richard North Patterson, the credo of progressive capitalism is grounded in several core principles: oppressive corporate power can be as stifling as oppressive government; government should act as a check on private excess rather than as a collaborator; there is no universal formula for distributing prosperity; well-compensated workers are valuable customers, not antagonists; and, crucially, there is no inherent trade-off between fairness and growth. Instead, addressing inequality can enhance both economic prosperity and fairness, potentially expanding the overall economic "pie." Patterson states that:

The goal of progressive capitalism is restoring societal balance by recognizing that private enterprise is the core of a broadly successful economy, but that the ideology of supposedly-unfettered markets underpinning shareholder capitalism—abetted, in reality, by subjective public policy choices—is inefficient, destabilizing, and far from inevitable.

Progressive capitalism aims to enhance America's prosperity by facilitating the expansion of individual opportunity instead of nurturing perpetual reliance on an excessively intrusive government. Aligned with progressive capitalism are societal aims such as prioritizing education from K-12 to adapt to the evolving economy, ensuring relief from college and student debt, and offering comprehensive support for families, including access to healthcare. It also provisions for a fairer tax system, strengthening the social safety net, combating workplace discrimination, addressing racial and economic segregation in housing and affordability, upgrading national infrastructure, and fostering economic growth in stagnant communities where relocation is challenging.

Stiglitz argues that progressive capitalism aims to build a society characterized by greater creativity, care, honesty, and empathy, which in turn will enhance both economic and social functioning. He contends that this vision, while retaining the term "capitalism," represents a significant departure from current practices. In this framework, "capital" encompasses not only physical and financial assets but also human, intellectual, organizational, social, and natural capital—reflecting the evolving nature of the economy and society. According to Stiglitz, progressive capitalism addresses key elements of a "good and decent" society. It focuses on living in harmony with nature through strong environmental regulations, an area where current capitalism falls short. It also aims to help individuals flourish and reach their potential by implementing predistribution and redistribution strategies. While current capitalism often undermines honesty, empathy, and cooperation, progressive capitalism promotes these values through a supportive framework of institutional arrangements.

Progressive capitalism should not aim to create perpetual dependency on an overreaching government but should focus on enhancing America by broadening individual opportunities. While it is realistic to acknowledge that some inherent and environmental disadvantages cannot be eliminated, progressive capitalism seeks to address and reduce those disadvantages that have been artificially intensified.

Progressive capitalism and markets

Stiglitz has clarified that progressive capitalism is not "anti-market," progressive capitalism embraces markets while recognizing the necessity of diverse institutions including government, civil society, and non-profit entities like universities. It advocates a balanced approach to economy. Progressive capitalism underscores the importance of corporations, small businesses, and profit-making firms, while also advocating for government involvement in regulation and investment. The framework advocates for regulation and antitrust measures to ensure competition, countering neoliberal claims that such policies are unnecessary. Evidence shows that under progressive capitalism, the financial sector operates more efficiently and competitively, addressing market power issues and outperforming neoliberalism in reducing market abuses and enhancing performance.

Progressive capitalism, as defined by Stiglitz, integrates profit-oriented enterprises with a crucial role for collective action and regulation. Unlike the neoliberal belief that markets alone are the solution, progressive capitalism advocates for a balanced approach where the state actively regulates to ensure competition and prevent exploitation. This system aims to expand freedoms through well-designed public investments and fair regulations, funded by taxes. It also seeks to prevent market distortions from the anti-competitive concentration of power and wealth, which can occur in unfettered capitalism, by promoting competition and implementing redistributive measures.

The Brandeis-Stiglitz model of progressive capitalism posits that capitalism succeeds when it equally supports capital—through profit linked to investment—and labor—through productivity linked to wages. Evidence of this effectiveness includes high economic growth, low unemployment, and reduced inequality. This success is achieved by balancing benefits between capital and labor and implementing socially determined redistribution of surplus to address market-produced inequalities. A strong entrepreneurial state supports capital with high-risk project financing, infrastructure, and creating new markets, and aiding labor through education, skill training, childcare and housing.

Neoliberals often claim that improving the economic performance of poor countries hinges solely on adjusting prices, with the expectation that this will lead to broader economic improvements. In contrast, progressive capitalism, as championed by David Sainsbury, argues that governments must also play a crucial role in developing essential economic institutions. Sainsbury envisions a distinctive role for the state—one that supports and enhances market operations rather than directing or controlling them. This "enabling state" approach is designed to complement rather than replace private enterprise.

Progressive capitalism in relation to power and politics

Progressive capitalism acknowledges the central role of power dynamics and the need to address them to achieve fairness. It focuses on limiting excessive power and addressing inequalities within economic entities and their interactions with citizens. By restraining corporate power, facilitating the entry of new firms through improved access to finance and technology, and strengthening workers' rights—including supporting unionization—progressive capitalism aims to rebalance power and counteract perceptions of a rigged system that contribute to disillusionment with democracy and the rise of populism.

Progressive capitalism addresses the critical issue of growing power imbalances, with increasing concentrations of wealth and corporate power contrasting sharply with the diminishing power and incomes of workers. A key component of progressive capitalism is its commitment to social justice, which seeks to reduce inequalities not only in income and wealth but also those arising from various forms of exploitation. Access to basic health care, considered a human right by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, is central to this agenda. Progressive capitalism advocates for public health care provision, often complemented by private options, especially in countries with significant income and wealth disparities. In the U.S., despite the Affordable Care Act, many still lack adequate health care options. Thus, a public option, where the government provides an additional choice, is essential for enhancing competition and reducing market exploitation.

Progressive capitalism reimagines the social contract between voters, elected officials, workers, and corporations, aiming to address disparities. Stiglitz advocates for expanding public options in critical areas currently dominated by private entities or lacking sufficient provision. He highlights the missed opportunity of not including a public option in Obamacare, which could have increased choices and competition, ultimately lowering costs. By implementing such measures across sectors like retirement and mortgages, he envisions restoring a middle-class standard of living for most Americans.

In the Brandeis-Stiglitz model of progressive capitalism, the banking and finance sectors are crucial. Brandeis and Stiglitz criticize the harmful effects of finance capital when banks exceed their roles, such as by engaging in management or complex tasks beyond assessing and holding loans, leading to conflicts of interest and inefficiencies. This model also seeks to address contemporary challenges in the digital communications sector by applying foundational principles similar to those that guided the success of the second industrial revolution in America. It advocates for regulatory frameworks and guidance that foster competition and innovation within decentralized markets, as well as expert-driven policy implementation and democratic political processes to support evolving economic structures.

Joseph Stiglitz has described progressive capitalism as a "truly freeing economic and political system." Progressive capitalism advances both political and economic freedom by ensuring fair and equitable market practices. It fosters meaningful political freedom through shared prosperity and by curbing the disproportionate influence of wealth on politics. By creating a more just economic system and regulating financial power in politics, progressive capitalism seeks to protect democratic processes and enhance real freedoms for all citizens.

Progressive capitalism promotes democracy and social justice by addressing systemic power imbalances. To ensure its sustainability, capitalist interests must be prevented from distorting democratic processes. This is accomplished by promoting democratic values, safeguarding a diverse and independent press, reinforcing checks and balances across various societal sectors, and protecting the democratic system itself from practices like voter suppression and gerrymandering.

Progressive capitalism and neoliberalism

Progressive capitalism has been presented as an alternative to neoliberalism.

Stiglitz argues that the notion perpetuated by neoliberalism—that there are no viable alternatives to its policies—is fundamentally flawed. During the European debt crisis, for example, the harsh austerity measures imposed on Greece and other European countries were not the only options available. Instead, Stiglitz advocates for progressive capitalism as a viable alternative. This approach offers a different way to organize society, focusing on expanding individual opportunities and creating a fairer, more sustainable economy, in contrast to the austerity and market-driven policies of neoliberalism.

Neoliberalism and Progressive Capitalism: Policy Responses to Market Issues

Market failure	Neoliberal policy stance	Consequences	Progressive capitalism policies
Externalities	Deregulation; Coase theorem	Excessive pollution; financial crises	Regulation; corrective taxation; government investment in environment and public health
Public goods & coordination failures	Leave to private sector; reliance on private production	Underinvestment in education, health; slower growth	Public investments; subsidies for collective action; balanced public-private partnerships
Imperfect information	No disclosure requirements; caveat emptor	Insufficient disclosure; exploitation; reduced productivity	Disclosure requirements; regulations; liability laws; class-action suits
Imperfect risk markets	No intervention; risk consequences ignored	Lack of health insurance; high economic volatility	Social insurance; safety nets; income-contingent loans; public option
Imperfect capital markets	Denial of relevance; leave to market	High underinvestment; resource underutilization	Small-business loans; green banks; stabilizing fiscal and monetary policies
Lack of competition	Leave to market; potential competition	Market power concentration; high prices; reduced innovation	Antitrust policies; restrict mergers; public options
Excessive inequality	Leave to market or political process	Income and wealth concentration; undermined democracy; less opportunity	Pre-redistribution (e.g., minimum wages); redistribution through taxes; public expenditure programs

Application

To transition from neoliberal capitalism to progressive capitalism, it is necessary to adjust the economic and legal systems by updating rules, regulations, and institutions. The specifics of progressive capitalism will vary by country, influenced by each nation's history and culture. There is no one-size-fits-all model for progressive capitalism.

Certain aspects of progressive capitalism rely on collaborations between the public and private sectors, while others require direct government investment. The economic framework increases government spending on technology, education, and infrastructure. Joseph Stiglitz asserts that the progressive capitalism agenda is highly feasible and essential to enact. He argues that the alternatives put forth by nationalists and neoliberals would only exacerbate existing issues such as stagnation, inequality, environmental degradation, and political discord, potentially resulting in undesirable outcomes. Stiglitz contends that the concept of progressive capitalism is not contradictory but rather offers a practical and dynamic alternative to failed ideologies like free-market neoliberalism.

Measures within the framework of progressive capitalism include addressing the challenges of affordability and accessibility in healthcare, by exploring innovative solutions beyond current approaches or single-payer systems, such as including public options that maintain choice while expanding coverage. For childcare, targeted measures like expanding tax credits and implementing universal paid leave can alleviate burdens and encourage family well-being. Education initiatives, including universal pre-K, affordable skilled trades and college education options, are crucial for fostering opportunity and addressing inequality. Infrastructure refurbishment is urgent, requiring significant public investment to boost economic growth and create jobs. Climate change demands comprehensive action, such as revising pollution clean-up tax, a carbon tax to help combat climate change, and investments in renewable energy, while tax reform must prioritize fairness and sustainability through measures like progressive taxation and pre-distribution reforms. The government should invest in research for clean energy solutions, implement federal standards for appliances to minimize energy waste, and encourage automakers to create more fuel-efficient vehicles while shifting towards electric options.

Progressive capitalism incorporates a greater role for collective action with private sector and government involvement. It contrasts with extremes like communism, which concentrated power excessively, and neoliberal approaches, such as those of Reagan and Thatcher, which leaned too far towards free markets with insufficient attention to social justice. The Third Way, exemplified by leaders like Clinton, Blair, and Schröder, failed to adequately address social justice concerns while embracing neoliberal policies like free trade and tax cuts for the wealthy. Collective action under progressive capitalism encompasses various forms, such as NGOs, unions, cooperatives, and conservation societies. It is essential for managing externalities, including environmental damage, which require public regulations. Effective collective action often necessitates government intervention to address free-rider problems and can be supported through subsidies to encourage voluntary participation.

Progressive capitalism relies on antitrust law to counter the dominance of large corporations, scrutinizing mergers and acquisitions, and potentially breaking up large corporations like Amazon and Facebook to ensure fair competition in the market. Richard North Patterson suggests that this approach would address the acquisition practices of tech giants like Amazon, Facebook, Google, Apple, and Microsoft, which have collectively acquired 436 companies and startups over the past decade without significant regulatory oversight. Progressive capitalism also necessitates pre-tax reforms. There are constraints, both political and economic, on the extent to which income can be redistributed through taxation and government spending alone. Predistribution, viewed as a fundamental aspect of progressive capitalism, entails reshaping economic incentives and income structures prior to taxation. Proposed measures include granting corporations a charter of corporate citizenship, allowing employee board representation, and requiring executives to hold shares for a specified period.

Another crucial element of progressive capitalism is preventing special interests from corrupting democracy. Richard North Patterson has suggested that the framework would involve strengthening the Federal Election Commission (FEC), shutting down individual super PACs, and implementing measures such as comprehensive disclosure of campaign funding sources and a public campaign-finance matching system. Steps should be taken to sever the connection between corporate lobbyists and public officials, including restrictions on stock ownership and lobbying careers and increased transparency in lobbying activities. Progressive capitalism recognizes that economic and political health are intertwined, and unchecked dominance of large private institutions can narrow opportunities, stifle competition, and undermine representative governance. By addressing these issues, progressive capitalism aims to preserve the integrity of the political and economic system and minimize the rise of extremism and authoritarianism.

Given the existential challenge of climate change, in the scope of progressive capitalism, public initiatives and regulations must prioritize the development of a sustainable economy. A crucial aspect of ensuring widespread access to a middle-class lifestyle will be the establishment of government-backed alternatives, such as public options for mortgages, retirement plans, and healthcare. Progressive capitalism advocates for addressing market failures, particularly when imperfect and asymmetric information leads to exploitation by profit-maximizers, as demonstrated by the 2008 recession. Joseph Stiglitz proposes a public mortgage option that offers standard 30-year mortgages for taxpayers of five years, based on assessments of repayment ability and property value. This option would provide flexibility, including reduced payments to avoid foreclosures during personal income drops, and utilize government efficiencies in data collection and social insurance to lower homeownership costs.

David Sainsbury advocates for a government that strengthens the civil service, implements effective regulations and codes of conduct, and promotes innovation through support for interlinked industries and regional upgrades. He describes an education system that prioritizes vocational training and STEM subjects (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). In his vision of progressive capitalism, a proactive government focuses on creating an environment conducive to growth and opportunity, rather than reverting to outdated "command and control" methods. This approach requires significant improvements in government capabilities, including the creation of a national economic council and a more effective civil service. Sainsbury also supports state funding for political parties to mitigate the influence of financial power and ensure that governments can more effectively represent public interests.

In India, where the state traditionally plays a significant role but has recently liberalized sectors like finance and underinvested in areas such as healthcare and housing, Joseph Stiglitz has stated that he sees a substantial potential for progressive capitalism. This approach would enhance environmental regulations to address severe pollution and water issues, and ensure that billionaires contribute fairly through taxation. As India's economy grows, progressive capitalism could help the government take a more active role in creating a more equitable and sustainable society, aligning with the country's increasing capacity to support comprehensive public services and environmental protections.

Advocates

New Keynesian Nobel-winning economist Joseph Stiglitz advocates for adopting progressive capitalism as a viable alternative to neoliberalism, which he considers failed and should be abandoned. He argues that progressive capitalism addresses the urgent need for systemic change, given the evident flaws of the current neoliberal system. Stiglitz notes that a majority of Americans support the values and policies of progressive capitalism and proposes to counteract the worsening environmental degradation and threats to democratic principles caused by unfettered capitalism.

U.S. Congressman Ro Khanna identifies himself as a "progressive capitalist" and argues that progressives should promote wealth generation as part of their agenda. He defines the framework as prioritizing significant investments in every American and creating equitable opportunities for value generation. He advocates for a vision where progressive capitalism ensures broad access to healthcare, education, and basic support systems, which he views as essential for individuals to reach their full potential. According to Khanna, progressive capitalism promotes the benefits of free markets—such as innovation and entrepreneurship—while ensuring that markets serve the common good and address inequalities. He highlights the importance of a well-distributed, well-paying job market and supports practical applications of progressive capitalism, such as technology companies investing in disadvantaged communities. Khanna calls for a shift from unfettered capitalism to a progressive capitalist model that re-centers the American dream for the working class. As a progressive capitalist, he advocates for democratizing access to technology as a way to reinvigorate the innovative spirit of the American economy. His book Dignity in a Digital Age outlines his vision of progressive capitalism.

In his 2013 book Progressive Capitalism: How to Achieve Economic Growth, Liberty and Social Justice, David Sainsbury, a former Minister of State for Science, Research and Innovation, advocates for a new progressive capitalism that he believes should replace the neoliberal one. The suggested framework is one where rapid growth is driven by market-supporting institutions within an enabling state. This contrasts with the market-directing institutions of a command-and-control state or the minimal state with its weak institutions. His key recommendations include establishing a Shareholders Advisory Board to protect investors, raising thresholds for takeovers, and ensuring R&D funds drive innovation. He also proposes regional technology initiatives, enhanced technician training, improved careers advice in schools, and the formation of a National Economic Council to coordinate economic reform. Sainsbury also suggests reforming political finance by limiting donations and increasing public support for political parties.

Political commentator Richard North Patterson argues that progressive capitalism is essential to avoiding the dangers posed by extreme voices on both the left and right. He refers to historical precedents showing that societies cannot develop politically, economically, or spiritually when the majority of their people are struggling.

Patrick Diamond and Roger Liddle argue for a model of progressive capitalism that contrasts sharply with both the "command and control" approach of traditional socialism and the minimalist stance of neo-liberalism. They advocate for a government that supports economic institutions and fosters long-term investment while avoiding direct market intervention. This vision includes investing in infrastructure, promoting vocational education and STEM fields, and reforming financial and political systems to support inclusive growth.

Criticism

Economist Max B. Sawicky critiques Joseph Stiglitz's progressive capitalism for its focus on incremental reforms rather than addressing fundamental market issues. While Stiglitz's proposals, like enhanced Social Security and public mortgage options, aim to improve existing systems and reduce exploitation, Sawicky argues they do not confront the deeper structural problems of capitalism. He suggests that Stiglitz's approach remains within social-democratic reform and overlooks the potential for more radical solutions, such as social ownership and comprehensive economic planning, which he believes could more effectively address systemic issues and leverage public sector capabilities.

Supramolecular chemistry

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry

Supramolecular chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerning chemical systems composed of discrete numbers of molecules. The strength of the forces responsible for spatial organization of the system ranges from weak intermolecular forces, electrostatic charge, or hydrogen bonding to strong covalent bonding, provided that the electronic coupling strength remains small relative to the energy parameters of the component. While traditional chemistry concentrates on the covalent bond, supramolecular chemistry examines the weaker and reversible non-covalent interactions between molecules. These forces include hydrogen bonding, metal coordination, hydrophobic forces, van der Waals forces, pi–pi interactions and electrostatic effects.

Important concepts advanced by supramolecular chemistry include molecular self-assembly, molecular folding, molecular recognition, host–guest chemistry, mechanically-interlocked molecular architectures, and dynamic covalent chemistry. The study of non-covalent interactions is crucial to understanding many biological processes that rely on these forces for structure and function. Biological systems are often the inspiration for supramolecular research.

History

18-crown-6 can be synthesized from using potassium ion as the template cation

The existence of intermolecular forces was first postulated by Johannes Diderik van der Waals in 1873. However, Nobel laureate Hermann Emil Fischer developed supramolecular chemistry's philosophical roots. In 1894, Fischer suggested that enzyme–substrate interactions take the form of a "lock and key", the fundamental principles of molecular recognition and host–guest chemistry. In the early twentieth century non-covalent bonds were understood in gradually more detail, with the hydrogen bond being described by Latimer and Rodebush in 1920.

With the deeper understanding of the non-covalent interactions, for example, the clear elucidation of DNA structure, chemists started to emphasize the importance of non-covalent interactions. In 1967, Charles J. Pedersen discovered crown ethers, which are ring-like structures capable of chelating certain metal ions. Then, in 1969, Jean-Marie Lehn discovered a class of molecules similar to crown ethers, called cryptands. After that, Donald J. Cram synthesized many variations to crown ethers, on top of separate molecules capable of selective interaction with certain chemicals. The three scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1987 for "development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity". In 2016, Bernard L. Feringa, Sir J. Fraser Stoddart, and Jean-Pierre Sauvage were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, "for the design and synthesis of molecular machines".

Carboxylic acid dimers

The term supermolecule (or supramolecule) was introduced by Karl Lothar Wolf et al. (Übermoleküle) in 1937 to describe hydrogen-bonded acetic acid dimers. The term supermolecule is also used in biochemistry to describe complexes of biomolecules, such as peptides and oligonucleotides composed of multiple strands.

Eventually, chemists applied these concepts to synthetic systems. One breakthrough came in the 1960s with the synthesis of the crown ethers by Charles J. Pedersen. Following this work, other researchers such as Donald J. Cram, Jean-Marie Lehn and Fritz Vögtle reported a variety of three-dimensional receptors, and throughout the 1980s research in the area gathered a rapid pace with concepts such as mechanically interlocked molecular architectures emerging.

The influence of supramolecular chemistry was established by the 1987 Nobel Prize for Chemistry which was awarded to Donald J. Cram, Jean-Marie Lehn, and Charles J. Pedersen in recognition of their work in this area. The development of selective "host–guest" complexes in particular, in which a host molecule recognizes and selectively binds a certain guest, was cited as an important contribution.

Concepts

A ribosome is a biological machine that uses protein dynamics on nanoscales.

Molecular self-assembly

Molecular self-assembly is the construction of systems without guidance or management from an outside source (other than to provide a suitable environment). The molecules are directed to assemble through non-covalent interactions. Self-assembly may be subdivided into intermolecular self-assembly (to form a supramolecular assembly), and intramolecular self-assembly (or folding as demonstrated by foldamers and polypeptides). Molecular self-assembly also allows the construction of larger structures such as micelles, membranes, vesicles, liquid crystals, and is important to crystal engineering.

Molecular recognition and complexation

Molecular recognition is the specific binding of a guest molecule to a complementary host molecule to form a host–guest complex. Often, the definition of which species is the "host" and which is the "guest" is arbitrary. The molecules are able to identify each other using non-covalent interactions. Key applications of this field are the construction of molecular sensors and catalysis.

Template-directed synthesis

Molecular recognition and self-assembly may be used with reactive species in order to pre-organize a system for a chemical reaction (to form one or more covalent bonds). It may be considered a special case of supramolecular catalysis. Non-covalent bonds between the reactants and a "template" hold the reactive sites of the reactants close together, facilitating the desired chemistry. This technique is particularly useful for situations where the desired reaction conformation is thermodynamically or kinetically unlikely, such as in the preparation of large macrocycles. This pre-organization also serves purposes such as minimizing side reactions, lowering the activation energy of the reaction, and producing desired stereochemistry. After the reaction has taken place, the template may remain in place, be forcibly removed, or may be "automatically" decomplexed on account of the different recognition properties of the reaction product. The template may be as simple as a single metal ion or may be extremely complex.

Mechanically interlocked molecular architectures

Mechanically interlocked molecular architectures consist of molecules that are linked only as a consequence of their topology. Some non-covalent interactions may exist between the different components (often those that were used in the construction of the system), but covalent bonds do not. Supramolecular chemistry, and template-directed synthesis in particular, is key to the efficient synthesis of the compounds. Examples of mechanically interlocked molecular architectures include catenanes, rotaxanes, molecular knots, molecular Borromean rings, 2D [c2]daisy chain polymer and ravels.

Dynamic covalent chemistry

In dynamic covalent chemistry covalent bonds are broken and formed in a reversible reaction under thermodynamic control. While covalent bonds are key to the process, the system is directed by non-covalent forces to form the lowest energy structures.

Biomimetics

Many synthetic supramolecular systems are designed to copy functions of biological systems. These biomimetic architectures can be used to learn about both the biological model and the synthetic implementation. Examples include photoelectrochemical systems, catalytic systems, protein design and self-replication.

Imprinting

Molecular imprinting describes a process by which a host is constructed from small molecules using a suitable molecular species as a template. After construction, the template is removed leaving only the host. The template for host construction may be subtly different from the guest that the finished host binds to. In its simplest form, imprinting uses only steric interactions, but more complex systems also incorporate hydrogen bonding and other interactions to improve binding strength and specificity.

Molecular machinery

Molecular machines are molecules or molecular assemblies that can perform functions such as linear or rotational movement, switching, and entrapment. These devices exist at the boundary between supramolecular chemistry and nanotechnology, and prototypes have been demonstrated using supramolecular concepts. Jean-Pierre Sauvage, Sir J. Fraser Stoddart and Bernard L. Feringa shared the 2016 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the 'design and synthesis of molecular machines'.

Building blocks

Supramolecular systems are rarely designed from first principles. Rather, chemists have a range of well-studied structural and functional building blocks that they are able to use to build up larger functional architectures. Many of these exist as whole families of similar units, from which the analog with the exact desired properties can be chosen.

Synthetic recognition motifs

• The pi-pi charge-transfer interactions of bipyridinium with dioxyarenes or diaminoarenes have been used extensively for the construction of mechanically interlocked systems and in crystal engineering.
• The use of crown ether binding with metal or ammonium cations is ubiquitous in supramolecular chemistry.
• The formation of carboxylic acid dimers and other simple hydrogen bonding interactions.
• The complexation of bipyridines or terpyridines with ruthenium, silver or other metal ions is of great utility in the construction of complex architectures of many individual molecules.
• The complexation of porphyrins or phthalocyanines around metal ions gives access to catalytic, photochemical and electrochemical properties in addition to the complexation itself. These units are used a great deal by nature.

Macrocycles

Macrocycles are very useful in supramolecular chemistry, as they provide whole cavities that can completely surround guest molecules and may be chemically modified to fine-tune their properties.

• Cyclodextrins, calixarenes, cucurbiturils and crown ethers are readily synthesized in large quantities, and are therefore convenient for use in supramolecular systems.
• More complex cyclophanes, and cryptands can be synthesised to provide more tailored recognition properties.
• Supramolecular metallocycles are macrocyclic aggregates with metal ions in the ring, often formed from angular and linear modules. Common metallocycle shapes in these types of applications include triangles, squares, and pentagons, each bearing functional groups that connect the pieces via "self-assembly."
• Metallacrowns are metallomacrocycles generated via a similar self-assembly approach from fused chelate-rings.

Structural units

Many supramolecular systems require their components to have suitable spacing and conformations relative to each other, and therefore easily employed structural units are required.

• Commonly used spacers and connecting groups include polyether chains, biphenyls and terphenyls, and simple alkyl chains. The chemistry for creating and connecting these units is very well understood.
• nanoparticles, nanorods, fullerenes and dendrimers offer nanometer-sized structure and encapsulation units.
• Surfaces can be used as scaffolds for the construction of complex systems and also for interfacing electrochemical systems with electrodes. Regular surfaces can be used for the construction of self-assembled monolayers and multilayers.
• The understanding of intermolecular interactions in solids has undergone a major renaissance via inputs from different experimental and computational methods in the last decade. This includes high-pressure studies in solids and "in situ" crystallization of compounds which are liquids at room temperature along with the use of electron density analysis, crystal structure prediction and DFT calculations in solid state to enable a quantitative understanding of the nature, energetics and topological properties associated with such interactions in crystals.

Photo-chemically and electro-chemically active units

• Porphyrins, and phthalocyanines have highly tunable photochemical and electrochemical activity as well as the potential to form complexes.
• Photochromic and photoisomerizable groups can change their shapes and properties, including binding properties, upon exposure to light.
• Tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) and quinones have multiple stable oxidation states, and therefore can be used in redox reactions and electrochemistry.
• Other units, such as benzidine derivatives, viologens, and fullerenes, are useful in supramolecular electrochemical devices.

Biologically-derived units

• The extremely strong complexation between avidin and biotin is instrumental in blood clotting, and has been used as the recognition motif to construct synthetic systems.
• The binding of enzymes with their cofactors has been used as a route to produce modified enzymes, electrically contacted enzymes, and even photoswitchable enzymes.
• DNA has been used both as a structural and as a functional unit in synthetic supramolecular systems.

Applications

Materials technology

Supramolecular chemistry has found many applications, in particular molecular self-assembly processes have been applied to the development of new materials. Large structures can be readily accessed using bottom-up synthesis as they are composed of small molecules requiring fewer steps to synthesize. Thus most of the bottom-up approaches to nanotechnology are based on supramolecular chemistry. This approach is applied in the synthesis of metallogels, one-dimensional nanostructured materials formed from low molecular weight gelators and metal ions. Many smart materials are based on molecular recognition.

Catalysis

Main article: Supramolecular catalysis

A major application of supramolecular chemistry is the design and understanding of catalysts and catalysis. Non-covalent interactions influence the binding reactants.

Medicine

Design based on supramolecular chemistry has led to numerous applications in the creation of functional biomaterials and therapeutics. Supramolecular biomaterials afford a number of modular and generalizable platforms with tunable mechanical, chemical and biological properties. These include systems based on supramolecular assembly of peptides, host–guest macrocycles, high-affinity hydrogen bonding, and metal–ligand interactions.

A supramolecular approach has been used extensively to create artificial ion channels for the transport of sodium and potassium ions into and out of cells.

Supramolecular chemistry is also important to the development of new pharmaceutical therapies by understanding the interactions at a drug binding site. The area of drug delivery has also made critical advances as a result of supramolecular chemistry providing encapsulation and targeted release mechanisms. In addition, supramolecular systems have been designed to disrupt protein–protein interactions that are important to cellular function.

Data storage and processing

Supramolecular chemistry has been used to demonstrate computation functions on a molecular scale. In many cases, photonic or chemical signals have been used in these components, but electrical interfacing of these units has also been shown by supramolecular signal transduction devices. Data storage has been accomplished by the use of molecular switches with photochromic and photoisomerizable units, by electrochromic and redox-switchable units, and even by molecular motion. Synthetic molecular logic gates have been demonstrated on a conceptual level. Even full-scale computations have been achieved by semi-synthetic DNA computers.