There are conflicting ideas about how intelligence should be conceptualized and measured. In psychometrics, human intelligence is commonly assessed by intelligence quotient (IQ) tests, although the validity of these tests is disputed. Several subcategories of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence and social intelligence, have been proposed, and there remains significant debate as to whether these represent distinct forms of intelligence.
There is also ongoing debate regarding how an individual's level
of intelligence is formed, ranging from the idea that intelligence is
fixed at birth to the idea that it is malleable and can change depending
on a person's mindset and efforts.
Psychologists such as Thomas Suddendorf argue we can learn about human intelligence by studying close relatives like primates. We can also get insights into the evolution of human brain by comparing
the human brain with that of other organisms which in turn can offer
insights into evolution of human intelligence.
Correlates
As a construct and as measured by intelligence tests, intelligence is one of the most useful concepts in psychology,
because it correlates with many relevant variables, for instance the
probability of suffering an accident, or the amount of one's salary. Other examples include:
According to a 2018 metastudy
of educational effects on intelligence, education appears to be the
"most consistent, robust, and durable method" known for raising
intelligence.
Personality
A landmark set of meta-analyses synthesizing thousands of studies
including millions of people from over 50 countries found that many
personality traits are intricately related to cognitive abilities.
Neuroticism-related traits display the most negative relations, whereas
traits like activity, industriousness, compassion, and openness are
positively related to various abilities.
Myopia
A number of studies have shown a correlation betweenIQ and myopia. Some suggest that the reason for the correlation is environmental:
either people with a higher IQ are more likely to damage their eyesight
with prolonged reading, or people who read more are more likely to
attain a higher IQ; others contend that a genetic link exists.
Aging
There is evidence that aging causes a decline in cognitive
functions. In one cross-sectional study, various cognitive functions
measured declines by about 0.8 in z-score from age 20 to age 50; the cognitive functions included speed of processing, working memory, and long-term memory.
In psychology, human intelligence is commonly assessed by IQ scores that are determined by IQ tests. In general, higher IQ scores are associated with better outcomes in life. However, while IQ test scores show a high degree of inter-test reliability, and predict certain forms of achievement effectively, their construct validity as a holistic measure of human intelligence is considered dubious. While IQ tests are generally understood to measure some forms of
intelligence, they may fail to serve as an accurate measure of broader
definitions of human intelligence inclusive of creativity and social intelligence. According to psychologist Wayne Weiten, "IQ tests are valid measures of
the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work. But if
the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity
of IQ tests is questionable."
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is based on studies of normal children and adults, of gifted individuals (including so-called "savants"), of persons who have suffered brain damage, of experts and virtuosos, and of individuals from diverse cultures. Gardner breaks intelligence down into components. In the first edition of his book Frames of Mind (1983), he described seven distinct types of intelligence: logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. In a second edition, he added two more types of intelligence: naturalist and existential intelligences. He argues that psychometric (IQ) tests address only linguistic and logical plus some aspects of spatial intelligence. A criticism of Gardner's theory is that it has never been tested, or
subjected to peer review, by Gardner or anyone else, and indeed that it
is unfalsifiable. Others (e.g. Locke, 2005)
suggest that recognizing many specific forms of intelligence (specific
aptitude theory) implies a political—rather than scientific—agenda,
intended to appreciate the uniqueness in all individuals, rather than
recognizing potentially true and meaningful differences in individual
capacities. Schmidt and Hunter suggest that the predictive validity of specific aptitudes over and above that of general mental ability, or "g", has not received empirical support. On the other hand, Jerome Bruner
agreed with Gardner that the intelligences were "useful fictions", and
went on to state that "his approach is so far beyond the data-crunching
of mental testers that it deserves to be cheered."
Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence
to provide a more comprehensive description of intellectual competence
than traditional differential or cognitive theories of human ability. The triarchic theory describes three fundamental aspects of intelligence:
Analytic intelligence comprises the mental processes through which intelligence is expressed.
Creative intelligence is necessary when an individual is confronted
with a challenge that is nearly, but not entirely, novel or when an
individual is engaged in automatizing the performance of a task.
Practical intelligence is bound to a sociocultural milieu and
involves adaptation to, selection of, and shaping of the environment to
maximize fit in the context.
The triarchic theory does not argue against the validity of a general
intelligence factor; instead, the theory posits that general
intelligence is part of analytic intelligence, and only by considering
all three aspects of intelligence can the full range of intellectual
functioning be understood.
Sternberg updated the triarchic theory and renamed it to the Theory of Successful Intelligence. He now defines intelligence as an individual's assessment of success in life by the individual's own (idiographic)
standards and within the individual's sociocultural context. Success is
achieved by using combinations of analytical, creative, and practical
intelligence. The three aspects of intelligence are referred to as
processing skills. The processing skills are applied to the pursuit of
success through what were the three elements of practical intelligence:
adapting to, shaping of, and selecting of one's environments. The
mechanisms that employ the processing skills to achieve success include
utilizing one's strengths and compensating or correcting for one's
weaknesses.
Sternberg's theories and research on intelligence remain contentious within the scientific community.
Based on A. R. Luria's (1966) seminal work on the modularization of brain function, and supported by decades of neuroimaging research, the PASS Theory of Intelligence
(Planning/Attention/Simultaneous/Successive) proposes that cognition
is organized in three systems and the following four processes:
Planning involves executive functions responsible for
controlling and organizing behavior, selecting and constructing
strategies, and monitoring performance.
Attention is responsible for maintaining arousal levels and alertness, and ensuring focus on relevant stimuli.
Simultaneous processing is engaged when the relationship between
items and their integration into whole units of information is required.
Examples of this include recognizing figures, such as a triangle within
a circle vs. a circle within a triangle, or the difference between "he
had a shower before breakfast" and "he had breakfast before a shower."
Successive processing is required for organizing separate items in a
sequence such as remembering a sequence of words or actions exactly in
the order in which they had just been presented.
These four processes are functions of four areas of the brain.
Planning is broadly located in the front part of our brains, the frontal
lobe. Attention and arousal are combined functions of the frontal lobe
and the lower parts of the cortex, although the parietal lobes are also
involved in attention as well. Simultaneous processing and Successive
processing occur in the posterior region or the back of the brain.
Simultaneous processing is broadly associated with the occipital and the
parietal lobes while Successive processing is broadly associated with
the frontal-temporal lobes. The PASS theory is heavily indebted both to
Luria and to studies in cognitive psychology involved in promoting a better look at intelligence.
In Piaget's theory of cognitive development
the focus is not on mental abilities but rather on a child's mental
models of the world. As a child develops, the child creates increasingly
more accurate models of the world which enable the child to interact
with the world more effectively. One example is object permanence with which the child develops a model in which objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
Piaget's theory described four main stages and many sub-stages in the development. These four main stages are:
sensorimotor stage (birth–2 years)
pre-operational stage (2–7 years)
concrete operational stage (7–11 years)
formal operations stage (11–16 years)
Progress through these stages is correlated with, but not identical to psychometric IQ. Piaget conceptualizes intelligence as an activity more than as a capacity.
One of Piaget's most famous studies focused purely on the
discriminative abilities of children between the ages of two and a half
years old, and four and a half years old. He began the study by taking
children of different ages and placing two lines of sweets, one with the
sweets in a line spread further apart, and one with the same number of
sweets in a line placed more closely together. He found that, "Children
between 2 years, 6 months old and 3 years, 2 months old correctly
discriminate the relative number of objects in two rows; between 3
years, 2 months and 4 years, 6 months they indicate a longer row with
fewer objects to have 'more'; after 4 years, 6 months they again
discriminate correctly". Initially younger children were not studied, because if at the age of
four years a child could not conserve quantity, then a younger child
presumably could not either. The results show however that children that
are younger than three years and two months have quantity conservation,
but as they get older they lose this quality, and do not recover it
until four and a half years old. This attribute may be lost temporarily
because of an overdependence on perceptual strategies, which correlates
more candy with a longer line of candy, or because of the inability for a
four-year-old to reverse situations.
This experiment demonstrated several results. First, younger
children have a discriminative ability that shows the logical capacity
for cognitive operations exists earlier than previously acknowledged.
Also, young children can be equipped with certain qualities for
cognitive operations, depending on how logical the structure of the task
is. Research also shows that children develop explicit understanding at
age five and as a result, the child will count the sweets to decide
which has more. Finally the study found that overall quantity
conservation is not a basic characteristic of humans' native
inheritance.
Piaget's theory has been criticized on the grounds that the age
of appearance of a new model of the world, such as object permanence, is
dependent on how the testing is done (see the article on object permanence).
More generally, the theory may be very difficult to test empirically
because of the difficulty of proving or disproving that a mental model
is the explanation for the results of the testing.
Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development
expand Piaget's theory in various ways such as also considering
psychometric-like factors such as processing speed and working memory,
"hypercognitive" factors like self-monitoring, more stages, and more
consideration on how progress may vary in different domains such as
spatial or social.
Parieto-frontal integration theory of intelligence
Based on a review of 37 neuroimaging studies, Jung and Haier proposed that the biological basis of intelligence stems from how well the frontal and parietal regions of the brain communicate and exchange information with each other. Subsequent neuroimaging and lesion studies report general consensus with the theory. A review of the neuroscience and intelligence literature concludes that
the parieto-frontal integration theory is the best available
explanation for human intelligence differences.
Investment theory
Based on the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory, the tests of intelligence most often used in the relevant studies include measures of fluid ability (gf) and crystallized ability (gc); that differ in their trajectory of development in people. The "investment theory" by Cattell states that the individual differences observed in the procurement of skills and knowledge (gc) are partially attributed to the "investment" of gf, thus suggesting the involvement of fluid intelligence in every aspect of the learning process. The investment theory suggests that personality traits affect "actual" ability, and not scores on an IQ test.
Hebb's theory of intelligence suggested a bifurcation as well,
Intelligence A (physiological), that could be seen as a semblance of fluid intelligence and Intelligence B (experiential), similar to crystallized intelligence.
Intelligence compensation theory (ICT)
The intelligence compensation theory states that individuals who are comparatively less intelligent work
harder and more methodically, and become more resolute and thorough
(more conscientious) in order to achieve goals, to compensate for their
"lack of intelligence" whereas more intelligent individuals do not
require traits/behaviours associated with the personality factor conscientiousness to progress as they can rely on the strength of their cognitive abilities as opposed to structure or effort. The theory suggests the existence of a causal relationship between
intelligence and conscientiousness, such that the development of the
personality trait of conscientiousness is influenced by intelligence.
This assumption is deemed plausible as it is unlikely that the reverse
causal relationship could occur; implying that the negative correlation would be higher between fluid intelligence (gf) and conscientiousness. This is justified by the timeline of development of gf, gc, and personality, as crystallized intelligence
would not have developed completely when personality traits develop.
Subsequently, during school-going ages, more conscientious children
would be expected to gain more crystallized intelligence (knowledge)
through education, as they would be more efficient, thorough,
hard-working, and dutiful.
This theory has recently been contradicted by evidence that identifies compensatory sample selection
which attributes the findings to the bias that comes from selecting
samples containing people above a certain threshold of achievement.
Bandura's theory of self-efficacy and cognition
The view of cognitive ability has evolved over the years, and it
is no longer viewed as a fixed property held by an individual. Instead,
the current perspective describes it as a general capacity,
comprising not only cognitive, but motivational, social, and
behavioural aspects as well. These facets work together to perform
numerous tasks. An essential skill often overlooked is that of managing
emotions and aversive experiences that can compromise one's quality of
thought and activity. Bandura bridges the link between intelligence and
success by crediting individual differences in self-efficacy.
Bandura's theory identifies the difference between possessing skills
and being able to apply them in challenging situations. The theory
suggests that individuals with the same level of knowledge and skill may
perform badly, averagely, or excellently based on differences in
self-efficacy.
A key role of cognition is to allow for one to predict events and
in turn devise methods to deal with these events effectively. These
skills are dependent on processing of unclear and ambiguous stimuli.
People must be able to rely on their reserve of knowledge to identify,
develop, and execute options. They must be able to apply the learning
acquired from previous experiences. Thus, a stable sense of
self-efficacy is essential to stay focused on tasks in the face of
challenging situations.
Bandura's theory of self-efficacy and intelligence suggests that
individuals with a relatively low sense of self-efficacy in any field
will avoid challenges. This effect is heightened when they perceive the
situations as personal threats. When failure occurs, they recover
from it more slowly than others, and credit the failure to an
insufficient aptitude. On the other hand, persons with high levels of
self-efficacy hold a task-diagnostic aim that leads to effective performance.
Process, personality, intelligence and knowledge theory (PPIK)
Predicted growth curves for Intelligence as process, crystallized intelligence, occupational knowledge, and avocational knowledge based on Ackerman's PPIK Theory
Developed by Ackerman, the PPIK (process, personality, intelligence,
and knowledge) theory further develops the approach on intelligence as
proposed by Cattell, the Investment theory, and Hebb, suggesting a distinction between intelligence as knowledge and intelligence as process (two concepts that are comparable and related to gc and gf
respectively, but broader and closer to Hebb's notions of "Intelligence
A" and "Intelligence B") and integrating these factors with elements
such as personality, motivation, and interests.
Ackerman describes the difficulty of distinguishing process from
knowledge, as content cannot be eliminated from any ability test.
Personality traits are not significantly correlated with the intelligence as process aspect except in the context of psychopathology. One exception to this generalization has been the finding of sex differences in cognitive abilities, specifically abilities in mathematical and spatial form.
On the other hand, the intelligence as knowledge factor has been associated with personality traits of Openness and Typical Intellectual Engagement, which also strongly correlate with verbal abilities (associated with crystallized intelligence).
It appears that Latent inhibition,
the phenomenon of familiar stimuli having a postponed reaction time
when compared with unfamiliar stimuli, has a positive correlation with creativity.
Because intelligence appears to be at least partly dependent on brain
structure and the genes shaping brain development, it has been proposed
that genetic engineering could be used to enhance intelligence, a process sometimes called biological uplift in science fiction. Genetic enhancement experiments on mice have demonstrated superior ability in learning and memory in various behavioral tasks.
Education
Higher IQ leads to greater success in education, but independently, education raises IQ scores. A 2017 meta-analysis suggests education increases IQ by 1–5 points per
year of education, or at least increases IQ test-taking ability.
Substances which actually or purportedly improve intelligence or other mental functions are called nootropics. A meta analysis shows omega-3 fatty acids improve cognitive performance among those with cognitive deficits, but not among healthy subjects. A meta-regression shows omega-3 fatty acids improve the moods of patients with major depression (major depression is associated with cognitive nutrient deficits).
There is research and development about the cognitive impacts of smartphones and digital technology.
Some educators and experts have raised some concerns about how
technology may negatively affect students' thinking abilities and
academic performance.
Measured results of the study
Brain training
Attempts to raise IQ with brain training have led to increases on aspects related with the training tasks – for instance working memory – but it is yet unclear if these increases generalize to increased intelligence per se.
A 2008 research paper claimed that practicing a dual n-back task can increase fluid intelligence (gf), as measured in several different standard tests. This finding received some attention from popular media, including an article in Wired. However, a subsequent criticism of the paper's methodology questioned
the experiment's validity and took issue with the lack of uniformity in
the tests used to evaluate the control and test groups. For example, the progressive nature of Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices
(APM) test may have been compromised by modifications of time
restrictions (i.e., 10 minutes were allowed to complete a normally
45-minute test).
Philosophy
Efforts to influence intelligence raise ethical issues. Neuroethics
considers the ethical, legal, and social implications of neuroscience,
and deals with issues such as the difference between treating a human neurological disease and enhancing the human brain, and how wealth impacts access to neurotechnology. Neuroethical issues interact with the ethics of human genetic engineering.
Transhumanist theorists study the possibilities and consequences of developing and using techniques to enhance human abilities and aptitudes.
Eugenics is a social philosophy that advocates the improvement of human hereditary traits through various forms of intervention. Eugenics has variously been regarded as meritorious or deplorable in
different periods of history, falling greatly into disrepute after the
defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II.
Score distribution chart for sample of 905 children tested on 1916 Stanford-Binet Test
The approach to understanding intelligence with the most supporters
and published research over the longest period of time is based on psychometric testing. It is also by far the most widely used in practical settings. Intelligence quotient (IQ) tests include the Stanford-Binet, Raven's Progressive Matrices, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children.
There are also psychometric tests that are not intended to measure
intelligence itself but some closely related construct such as
scholastic aptitude. In the United States examples include the SSAT, the SAT, the ACT, the GRE, the MCAT, the LSAT, and the GMAT. Regardless of the method used, almost any test that requires examinees
to reason and has a wide range of question difficulty will produce
intelligence scores that are approximately normally distributed in the general population.
Intelligence tests are widely used in educational, business, and military settings because of their efficacy in predicting behavior. IQ and g
(discussed in the next section) are correlated with many important
social outcomes—individuals with low IQs are more likely to be divorced,
have a child out of marriage, be incarcerated, and need long-term
welfare support, while individuals with high IQs are associated with
more years of education, higher status jobs and higher income. Intelligence as measured by Psychometric tests has been found to be
highly correlated with successful training and performance outcomes
(e.g., adaptive performance), and IQ/g
is the single best predictor of successful job performance; however,
some researchers although largely concurring with this finding have
advised caution in citing the strength of the claim due to a number of
factors, these include: statistical assumptions imposed underlying some
of these studies, studies done prior to 1970 which appear inconsistent
with more recent studies, and ongoing debates within the Psychology
literature as to the validity of current IQ measurement tools.
There are many different kinds of IQ tests using a wide variety of
test tasks. Some tests consist of a single type of task, others rely on a
broad collection of tasks with different contents (visual-spatial, verbal, numerical) and asking for different cognitive processes (e.g.,
reasoning, memory, rapid decisions, visual comparisons, spatial imagery,
reading, and retrieval of general knowledge). The psychologist Charles Spearman early in the 20th century carried out the first formal factor analysis of correlations between various test tasks. He found a trend for all such tests to correlate positively with each other, which is called a positive manifold. Spearman found that a single common factor explained the positive correlations among tests. Spearman named it g for "general intelligence factor".
He interpreted it as the core of human intelligence that, to a larger
or smaller degree, influences success in all cognitive tasks and thereby
creates the positive manifold. This interpretation of g as a
common cause of test performance is still dominant in psychometrics.
(Although, an alternative interpretation was recently advanced by van
der Maas and colleagues. Their mutualism model
assumes that intelligence depends on several independent mechanisms,
none of which influences performance on all cognitive tests. These
mechanisms support each other so that efficient operation of one of them
makes efficient operation of the others more likely, thereby creating
the positive manifold.)
IQ tests can be ranked by how highly they load on the g factor. Tests with high g-loadings
are those that correlate highly with most other tests. One
comprehensive study investigating the correlations between a large
collection of tests and tasks has found that the Raven's Progressive Matrices have a particularly high correlation with most other tests and tasks. The Raven's
is a test of inductive reasoning with abstract visual material. It
consists of a series of problems, sorted approximately by increasing
difficulty. Each problem presents a 3 x 3 matrix of abstract designs
with one empty cell; the matrix is constructed according to a rule, and
the person must find out the rule to determine which of 8 alternatives
fits into the empty cell. Because of its high correlation with other
tests, the Raven's Progressive Matrices are generally acknowledged as a
good indicator of general intelligence. This is problematic, however,
because there are substantial gender differences on the Raven's, which are not found when g is measured directly by computing the general factor from a broad collection of tests.
Several critics, such as Stephen Jay Gould, have been critical of g, seeing it as a statistical artifact, and that IQ tests instead measure a number of unrelated abilities. The 1995 American Psychological Association's report "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" stated that IQ tests do correlate and that the view that g is a statistical artifact was a minority one.
A recent scientific understanding of collective intelligence, defined
as a group's general ability to perform a wide range of tasks, expands the areas of human intelligence research applying similar
methods and concepts to groups. Definition, operationalization and
methods are similar to the psychometric approach of general individual
intelligence where an individual's performance on a given set of
cognitive tasks is used to measure intelligence indicated by the general intelligence factor g extracted via factor analysis. In the same vein, collective intelligence research aims to discover a c factor' explaining between-group differences in performance as well as structural and group compositional causes for it.
Several different theories of intelligence have historically been important for psychometrics. Often they emphasized more factors than a single one like in g factor.
Many of the broad, recent IQ tests have been greatly influenced by the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory.
It is argued to reflect much of what is known about intelligence from
research. A hierarchy of factors for human intelligence is used. g
is at the top. Under it there are 10 broad abilities that in turn are
subdivided into 70 narrow abilities. The broad abilities are:
Fluid intelligence (Gf): includes the broad ability to reason,
form concepts, and solve problems using unfamiliar information or novel
procedures.
Crystallized intelligence (Gc): includes the breadth and depth of a
person's acquired knowledge, the ability to communicate one's knowledge,
and the ability to reason using previously learned experiences or
procedures.
Quantitative reasoning (Gq): the ability to comprehend quantitative
concepts and relationships and to manipulate numerical symbols.
Reading & writing ability (Grw): includes basic reading and writing skills.
Short-term memory (Gsm): is the ability to apprehend and hold
information in immediate awareness and then use it within a few seconds.
Long-term storage and retrieval (Glr): is the ability to store
information and fluently retrieve it later in the process of thinking.
Visual processing (Gv): is the ability to perceive, analyze,
synthesize, and think with visual patterns, including the ability to
store and recall visual representations.
Auditory processing (Ga): is the ability to analyze, synthesize, and
discriminate auditory stimuli, including the ability to process and
discriminate speech sounds that may be presented under distorted
conditions.
Processing speed (Gs): is the ability to perform automatic cognitive
tasks, particularly when measured under pressure to maintain focused
attention.
Decision/reaction time/speed (Gt): reflect the immediacy with which
an individual can react to stimuli or a task (typically measured in
seconds or fractions of seconds; not to be confused with Gs, which
typically is measured in intervals of 2–3 minutes). See Mental chronometry.
Modern tests do not necessarily measure of all of these broad
abilities. For example, Gq and Grw may be seen as measures of school
achievement and not IQ. Gt may be difficult to measure without special equipment.
g was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc which
were thought to correspond to the nonverbal or performance subtests and
verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular Wechsler IQ test.
More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex.
Reliability and validity are very different concepts. While
reliability reflects reproducibility, validity refers to whether the
test measures what it purports to measure. While IQ tests are generally considered to measure some forms of
intelligence, they may fail to serve as an accurate measure of broader
definitions of human intelligence inclusive of, for example, creativity and social intelligence. For this reason, psychologist Wayne Weiten argues that their construct validity must be carefully qualified, and not be overstated. According to Weiten, "IQ tests are valid measures of the kind of
intelligence necessary to do well in academic work. But if the purpose
is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity of IQ tests
is questionable."
Along these same lines, critics such as Keith Stanovich
do not dispute the capacity of IQ test scores to predict some kinds of
achievement, but argue that basing a concept of intelligence on IQ test
scores alone neglects other important aspects of mental ability. Robert Sternberg,
another significant critic of IQ as the main measure of human cognitive
abilities, argued that reducing the concept of intelligence to the
measure of g does not fully account for the different skills and knowledge types that produce success in human society.
Despite these criticisms, clinical psychologists generally regard IQ scores as having sufficient statistical validity
for many clinical purposes, such as diagnosing intellectual disability,
tracking cognitive decline, and informing personnel decisions, because
they provide well-normed, easily interpretable indices with known
standard errors.
A study suggested that intelligence is composed of distinct cognitive
systems, each of which having its own capacity and being (to some
degree) independent of other components, with the cognitive profile
being emergent from anatomically distinct cognitive systems (such as brain regions or neural networks). For example, IQ and reading-/language-related traits/skills appear to be influenced "at least partly [by] distinct genetic factors".
Various types of potential measures related to some definitions of intelligence but not part of IQ measurement include:
Cognitive flexibility – abilities in switching between different concepts, or to adapt behaviour in novel or changing environments
Psychologists have shown that the definition of human intelligence is unique to the culture that one is studying. Robert Sternberg
is among the researchers who have discussed how one's culture affects
the person's interpretation of intelligence, and he further believes
that to define intelligence in only one way without considering
different meanings in cultural contexts may cast an investigative and
unintentionally egocentric view on the world. To negate this,
psychologists offer the following definitions of intelligence:
Successful intelligence is the skills and knowledge needed for
success in life, according to one's own definition of success, within
one's sociocultural context.
Analytical intelligence is the result of intelligence's components applied to fairly abstract but familiar kinds of problems.
Creative intelligence is the result of intelligence's components applied to relatively novel tasks and situations.
Practical intelligence is the result of intelligence's components
applied to experience for purposes of adaption, shaping and selection.
Although typically identified by its western definition, multiple
studies support the idea that human intelligence carries different
meanings across cultures around the world. In many Eastern cultures,
intelligence is mainly related with one's social roles and
responsibilities. A Chinese conception of intelligence would define it
as the ability to empathize with and understand others — although this
is by no means the only way that intelligence is defined in China.
In several African communities, intelligence is shown similarly through a
social lens. However, rather than through social roles, as in many
Eastern cultures, it is exemplified through social responsibilities. For
example, in the language of Chi-Chewa, which is spoken by some ten
million people across central Africa,
the equivalent term for intelligence implies not only cleverness but
also the ability to take on responsibility. Furthermore, within American
culture there are a variety of interpretations of intelligence present
as well. One of the most common views on intelligence within American
societies defines it as a combination of problem-solving skills, deductive reasoning skills, and Intelligence quotient (IQ), while other American societies point out that intelligent people should have a social conscience, accept others for who they are, and be able to give advice or wisdom.
Motivational intelligence
Motivational intelligence refers to an individual's capacity to
comprehend and utilize various motivations, such as the need for
achievement, affiliation, or power. It involves understanding tacit
knowledge related to these motivations. This concept encompasses the
ability to recognize and appreciate the diverse values, behaviors, and
cultural differences of others, driven by intrinsic interest rather than
solely to enhance interaction effectiveness.
Research suggests a relationship between motivational
intelligence, international experiences, and leadership. Individuals
with higher levels of motivational intelligence tend to exhibit greater
enthusiasm for learning about other cultures, thereby contributing to
their effectiveness in cross-cultural settings. However, studies have
also revealed variations in motivational intelligence across
ethnicities, with Asian students demonstrating higher cognitive cultural
intelligence but lower motivational intelligence compared to other
groups.
Investigations have explored the impact of motivational
intelligence on job motivation. A study conducted on employees of
Isfahan Gas Company indicated a positive and significant relationship
between motivational intelligence and two of its indicators, namely
adaptability and social relationship, with job motivation. These
findings highlight the potential influence of motivational intelligence
on individuals' motivation levels within work contexts.
Motivational intelligence has been identified as a strong predictor, superseding knowledge intelligence, behavioral intelligence,
and strategic intelligence. It holds a crucial role in promoting
cooperation, which is considered the ideal and essential element of
motivational intelligence.
Therapeutic approaches grounded in motivational intelligence emphasize a
collaborative partnership between the therapist and client. The
therapist creates an environment conducive to change without imposing
their views or attempting to force awareness or acceptance of reality
onto the client.
Motivational intelligence encompasses the understanding of
motivations, such as achievement, affiliation, and power, as well as the
appreciation of cultural differences and values. It has been found to
impact areas such as international experiences, leadership, job
motivation, and cooperative therapeutic interventions.
Bacon's empiricism and Descartes' rationalist philosophy laid the foundation for enlightenment thinking. Descartes' attempt to construct the sciences on a secure metaphysical foundation was not as successful as his method of doubt applied to philosophy, which led to a dualistic doctrine of mind and matter. His skepticism was refined by Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding
(1690) and Hume's writings in the 1740s. Descartes' dualism was
challenged by Spinoza's uncompromising assertion of the unity of matter
in his Tractatus (1670) and Ethics (1677).
According to Jonathan Israel, these laid down two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: first, the moderate variety, following Descartes, Locke, and Christian Wolff,
which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems
of power and faith, and, second, the Radical Enlightenment, inspired by
the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty,
freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority. The moderate variety tended to be deistic
whereas the radical tendency separated the basis of morality entirely
from theology. Both lines of thought were eventually opposed by a
conservative Counter-Enlightenment which sought a return to faith.
German philosopher Immanuel Kant, one of the most influential figures of Enlightenment and modern philosophy
Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to influence German intellectual life and European philosophy more broadly well into the 20th century.
Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason and that women as well as men
should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her 1792
work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
Science played an important role in Enlightenment discourse and
thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the
sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of
religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free
speech and thought. There were immediate practical results. The experiments of Antoine Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the Montgolfier brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot air balloon in 1783.
Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism
and rational thought and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of
advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen
universally: Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from
nature and not operating to make people happier.
Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies,
which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific
research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone
of the maturation of the scientific profession. Scientific academies
and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of
scientific knowledge, in contrast to the scholasticism of the
university. Some societies created or retained links to universities, but
contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific
societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the
transmission of knowledge while societies functioned to create
knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to
diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science.
Official scientific societies were chartered by the state to provide
technical expertise.
Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own
publications, control the election of new members and the administration
of the society. In the 18th century, a very large number of official academies and
societies were founded in Europe; by 1789 there were over 70 official
scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.
The influence of science began appearing more commonly in poetry
and literature. While some societies were established with ties to
universities or maintained existing ones contemporary sources often
distinguished between the two, asserting that universities primarily
served to transmit knowledge, whereas scientific societies were oriented
toward the creation of new knowledge. James Thomson penned his "A Poem to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton," which mourned the loss of Newton and praised his science and legacy.
Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a "science of man," which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson,
all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient
and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces
of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution), and as popularised by Dugald Stewart was the basis of classical liberalism.
In 1776, Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations,
often considered the first work on modern economics as it had an
immediate impact on British economic policy that continues into the 21st
century. It was immediately preceded and influenced by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot's drafts of Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth (1766). Smith acknowledged indebtedness and possibly was the original English translator.
Beccaria, a jurist, criminologist, philosopher, and politician
and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his
masterpiece Dei delitti e delle pene (Of Crimes and Punishments, 1764). His treatise, translated into 22 languages, condemned torture and the death penalty and was a founding work in the field of penology and the classical school of criminology by promoting criminal justice. Francesco Mario Pagano wrote studies such as Saggi politici (Political Essays, 1783); and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the Criminal Trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.
Politics
The Enlightenment has long been seen as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment brought political modernization
to the West, in terms of introducing democratic values and institutions
and the creation of modern, liberal democracies. This thesis has been
widely accepted by scholars and has been reinforced by the large-scale
studies by Robert Darnton, Roy Porter, and, most recently, by Jonathan Israel. Enlightenment thought was deeply influential in the political realm. European rulers such as Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Frederick II of Prussia tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. Many of the major political and intellectual figures behind the American Revolution associated themselves closely with the Enlightenment: Benjamin Franklin
visited Europe repeatedly and contributed actively to the scientific
and political debates there and brought the newest ideas back to
Philadelphia; Thomas Jefferson closely followed European ideas and later incorporated some of the ideals of the Enlightenment into the Declaration of Independence; and Madison incorporated these ideals into the U.S. Constitution during its framing in 1787.
Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy on social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan
in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European
liberal thought: the right of the individual, the natural equality of
all men, the artificial character of the political order (which led to
the later distinction between civil society and the state), the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative"
and based on the consent of the people, and a liberal interpretation of
law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly
forbid.
Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality,
respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau
agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies
in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law, in which all men are born equal and with the right to life,
liberty, and property. However, when one citizen breaks the law of
nature both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war,
from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke
said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural
rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts. In
contrast, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil
man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill
himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the
inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social
contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is
embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.
Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to
"Life, Liberty, and Property," and his belief that the natural right to
property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury,
wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the
world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on
whom the Affairs of Europe now turn." Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political
documents, including the U.S. Declaration of Independence and the French
National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
Some philosophes argued that the establishment of a contractual basis of rights would lead to the market mechanism and capitalism, the scientific method, religious tolerance, and the organization of states into self-governing republics through democratic means. In this view, the tendency of the philosophes in particular to apply rationality to every problem is considered the essential change.
Although much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by
social contract theorists, Hume and Ferguson criticized this camp.
Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments
derived from consent are rarely seen and civil government is grounded in
a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the
ruler's authority over-and-against the subject that the subject tacitly
consents, and Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that
their consent made him sovereign," rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society,
Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was popular in
Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without agreeing to a social contract.
Both Rousseau's and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights,
which are not a result of law or custom but are things that all men
have in pre-political societies and are therefore universal and
inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from
Locke's Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature.
For Locke, the law of nature is grounded on mutual security or the idea
that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is
equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include
perfect equality and freedom, as well as the right to preserve life and
property.
Locke argues against indentured servitude
on the basis that enslaving oneself goes against the law of nature
because a person cannot surrender their own rights: freedom is absolute,
and no one can take it away. Locke argues that one person cannot
enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he
introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights.
The Marquis of Pombal, as the head of the government of Portugal, implemented sweeping socio-economic reforms.
The leaders of the Enlightenment were not especially democratic, as
they more often look to absolute monarchs as the key to imposing reforms
designed by the intellectuals. Voltaire despised democracy and said the
absolute monarch must be enlightened and must act as dictated by reason
and justice—in other words, be a "philosopher-king."
In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment
at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the
system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called
"enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany
and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many
reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his
regime became a comedy of errors, and nearly all his programs were
reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Johann Friedrich Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.
Denmark's minister Johann Struensee, a social reformer, was publicly executed in 1772 for usurping royal authority.
Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw
himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and
scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned
and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's
invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained: "My principal
occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice... to enlighten minds,
cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human
nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."
Alexis de Tocqueville
proposed the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical
opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men
of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort
of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real
power." This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion," born
when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie
from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted
promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition
to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power."
Religion
It does not require great art or magnificently trained eloquence, to
prove that Christians should tolerate each other. I, however, am going
further: I say that we should regard all men as our brothers. What? The
Turk my brother? The Chinaman my brother? The Jew? The Siam? Yes,
without doubt; are we not all children of the same father and creatures
of the same God?
Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years' War. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its
generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for
religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while
still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this
meant a return to simple Scripture. Locke abandoned the corpus of
theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. Anthony Collins, one of the English freethinkers,
published his "Essay concerning the Use of Reason in Propositions the
Evidence whereof depends on Human Testimony" (1707), in which he rejects
the distinction between "above reason" and "contrary to reason," and
demands that revelation should conform to man's natural ideas of God. In
the Jefferson Bible, Thomas Jefferson went further and dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the resurrection of Jesus after his death, as he tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament.
Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g., disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn
advised affording no political weight to any organized religion but
instead recommended that each person follow what they found most
convincing. They believed a good religion based in instinctive morals
and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain
order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion
on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.
Several novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including deism and talk of atheism. According to Thomas Paine, deism is the simple belief in God the Creator
with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead,
the deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and
Reill note: "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they
were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they
were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who
punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined; that is, since
atheists gave themselves to no supreme authority and no law and had no
fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt
society. Bayle observed that, in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain
an appearance of [religion]," and he believed that even atheists could
hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create
and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result
would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own
will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the
satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his
actions."
The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that is often credited to Locke. According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the
government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as
this was something rational people could not cede to the government for
it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the
liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected
from any government authority.
These views on religious tolerance and the importance of
individual conscience, along with the social contract, became
particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. In a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association in Connecticut, Thomas
Jefferson calls for a "wall of separation between church and state" at
the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to
disestablish the Church of England in Virginia and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of Locke, Bacon, and Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.
The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries and influenced
nations globally, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in
France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church
radicalism, while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes,
where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without
threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes
fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded
into exile. The British government, for the most part, ignored the
Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give
Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.
A common theme among most countries which derived Enlightenment
ideas from Europe was the intentional non-inclusion of Enlightenment
philosophies pertaining to slavery. Originally during the French
Revolution, a revolution deeply inspired by Enlightenment philosophy,
"France's revolutionary government had denounced slavery, but the
property-holding 'revolutionaries' then remembered their bank accounts." Slavery frequently showed the limitations of the Enlightenment ideology
as it pertained to European colonialism, since many colonies of Europe
operated on a plantation economy fueled by slave labor. In 1791, the Haitian Revolution, a slave rebellion by emancipated slaves against French colonial rule in the colony of Saint-Domingue,
broke out. European nations and the United States, despite the strong
support for Enlightenment ideals, refused to "[give support] to
Saint-Domingue's anti-colonial struggle."
The very existence of an English Enlightenment has been hotly debated
by scholars. The majority of textbooks on British history make little
or no mention of an English Enlightenment. Some surveys of the entire
Enlightenment include England and others ignore it, although they do
include coverage of such major intellectuals as Joseph Addison, Edward Gibbon, John Locke, Isaac Newton, Alexander Pope, Joshua Reynolds, and Jonathan Swift. Freethinking,
a term describing those who stood in opposition to the institution of
the Church, and the literal belief in the Bible, can be said to have
begun in England no later than 1713, when Anthony Collins
wrote his "Discourse of Free-thinking," which gained substantial
popularity. This essay attacked the clergy of all churches and was a
plea for deism.
Roy Porter
argues that the reasons for this neglect were the assumptions that the
movement was primarily French-inspired, that it was largely a-religious
or anti-clerical, and that it stood in outspoken defiance to the
established order. Porter admits that after the 1720s England could claim thinkers to equal Diderot, Voltaire, or Rousseau. However, its leading intellectuals such as Gibbon, Edmund Burke and Samuel Johnson
were all quite conservative and supportive of the standing order.
Porter says the reason was that Enlightenment had come early to England
and had succeeded such that the culture had accepted political
liberalism, philosophical empiricism, and religious toleration,
positions which intellectuals on the continent had to fight against
powerful odds. Furthermore, England rejected the collectivism of the
continent and emphasized the improvement of individuals as the main goal
of enlightenment.
According to Derek Hirst,
the 1640s and 1650s saw a revived economy characterised by growth in
manufacturing, the elaboration of financial and credit instruments, and
the commercialisation of communication. The gentry found time for
leisure activities, such as horse racing and bowling. In the high
culture important innovations included the development of a mass market
for music, increased scientific research, and an expansion of
publishing. All the trends were discussed in depth at the newly
established coffee houses.
One leader of the Scottish Enlightenment was Adam Smith, the father of modern economic science.
Scotland
In the Scottish Enlightenment,
the principles of sociability, equality, and utility were disseminated
in schools and universities, many of which used sophisticated teaching
methods which blended philosophy with daily life. Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of
mutually supporting institutions such as schools, universities, reading
societies, libraries, periodicals, museums, and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist,
Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role
in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment." In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and
economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.
Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. Franklin also broadly encouraged the individual's rights and responsibilities to serve as an educated and informed citizen. He published yearly the widely popular, Poor Richard's Almanack,
filled with witty quotes encouraging disciplined self-learning, such as
"Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise." The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both
directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and
Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of
natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland and Matthew Tindal. There was a great emphasis upon liberty, republicanism, and religious tolerance.
There was no respect for monarchy or inherited political power. Deists
reconciled science and religion by rejecting prophecies, miracles, and
biblical theology. Leading deists included Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible, from which he removed all supernatural aspects.
The movement advocated against Jewish reclusiveness, encouraged
the adoption of prevalent attire over traditional dress, while also
working to diminish the authority of traditional community institutions
such as rabbinic courts and boards of elders.
Netherlands
The Dutch Enlightenment began in 1640. During the Early Dutch Enlightenment (1640–1720), many books were
translated from Latin, French or English to Dutch, often at the risk of
their translators and publishers. By the 1720s, the Dutch Republic had also become a major center for printing and exporting banned books to France. Implanted in Netherlandish culture, vernacular rationalism brought the Dutch to take advantage of the intellectual philosophy the enlightenment spread. The most famous figure of the Dutch Enlightenment was Baruch Spinoza.
The French Enlightenment was influenced by England and in turn influenced other national enlightenments. As worded by
Sharon A. Stanley, "the French Enlightenment stands out from other
national enlightenments for its unrelenting assault on church leadership
and theology."
Prussia took the lead among the German states in sponsoring the
political reforms that Enlightenment thinkers urged absolute rulers to
adopt. There were important movements as well in the smaller states of
Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and the Palatinate. In each case,
Enlightenment values became accepted and led to significant political
and administrative reforms that laid the groundwork for the creation of
modern states. The princes of Saxony, for example, carried out an impressive series of
fundamental fiscal, administrative, judicial, educational, cultural,
and general economic reforms. The reforms were aided by the country's
strong urban structure and influential commercial groups and modernized
pre-1789 Saxony along the lines of classic Enlightenment principles.
Before 1750, the German upper classes looked to France for
intellectual, cultural, and architectural leadership, as French was the
language of high society. By the mid-18th century, the Aufklärung
(The Enlightenment) had transformed German high culture in music,
philosophy, science, and literature. Christian Wolff was the pioneer as a
writer who expounded the Enlightenment to German readers and
legitimized German as a philosophic language.
Johann Gottfried von Herder broke new ground in philosophy and poetry, as a leader of the Sturm und Drang movement of proto-Romanticism. Weimar Classicism (Weimarer Klassik)
was a cultural and literary movement based in Weimar that sought to
establish a new humanism by synthesizing Romantic, classical, and
Enlightenment ideas. The movement (from 1772 until 1805) involved Herder
as well as polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller, a poet and historian. The theatre principal Abel Seyler greatly influenced the development of German theatre and promoted serious German opera, new works and experimental productions, and the concept of a national theatre. Herder argued that every group of people had its own particular
identity, which was expressed in its language and culture. This
legitimized the promotion of German language and culture and helped
shape the development of German nationalism. Schiller's plays expressed
the restless spirit of his generation, depicting the hero's struggle
against social pressures and the force of destiny.
In remote Königsberg,
Kant tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual
freedom, and political authority. Kant's work contained basic tensions
that would continue to shape German thought—and indeed all of European
philosophy—well into the 20th century. German Enlightenment won the support of princes, aristocrats, and the middle classes, and it permanently reshaped the culture. However, there was a conservatism among the elites that warned against going too far.
In 1788, Prussia issued an "Edict on Religion" that forbade
preaching any sermon that undermined popular belief in the Holy Trinity
or the Bible. The goal was to avoid theological disputes that might
impinge on domestic tranquility. Men who doubted the value of
Enlightenment favoured the measure, but so too did many supporters.
German universities had created a closed elite that could debate
controversial issues among themselves, but spreading them to the public
was seen as too risky. This intellectual elite was favoured by the
state, but that might be reversed if the process of the Enlightenment
proved politically or socially destabilizing.
During the 18th century, Austria was under Habsburg rule. The reign of Maria Theresa, the first Habsburg monarch to be considered influenced by the Enlightenment in some areas, was marked by a mix of enlightenment and conservatism. Her son Joseph II's brief reign was marked by this conflict, with his ideology of Josephinism
facing opposition. Joseph II carried out numerous reforms in the spirit
of the Enlightenment, which affected, for example, the school system,
monasteries and the legal system. Emperor Leopold II,
who was an early opponent of capital punishment, had a brief and
contentious rule that was mostly marked by relations with France.
Similarly, Emperor Francis II's rule was primarily marked by relations with France.
The Modern Greek Enlightenment (Greek: Διαφωτισμός, Diafotismós) was
the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment, characterized by an
intellectual and philosophical movement within the Greek community. At
this time, many Greeks were dispersed across the Ottoman Empire, with
some residing on the Ionian Islands, in Venice, and other parts of
Italy.
Hungary
The Hungarian Enlightenment emerged during the 18th century, while Hungary was part of the Habsburg Empire.
The Hungarian Enlightenment is usually said to have begun in 1772 and
was greatly influenced by French Enlightenment (through Vienna).
The Transylvanian Enlightenment was represented by the Transylvanian School, a group of thinkers who promoted a cultural revival and rights for Romanians (who were marginalized by the Habsburgs).
The Wallachian Enlightenment was represented by such figures as Dinicu Golescu (1777–1830), while the Moldavian Englightenment was headed by prince Dimitrie Cantemir (1673-1723).
The Enlightenment arrived relatively late in Switzerland, spreading
from England, the Netherlands, and France toward the end of the 17th
century. The movement initially took hold in Protestant regions, where
it gradually replaced orthodox religious thinking. The 1712 victory of
the reformed cantons of Zurich and Bern over the five Catholic cantons
of central Switzerland in the Second War of Villmergen marked both a Protestant triumph and a victory for Enlightenment ideas in the economically more developed regions.
Swiss Enlightenment thinkers made significant contributions
across multiple fields. The Romand school developed influential theories
of natural law, with scholars like Jean Barbeyrac (Lausanne), Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui (Geneva), and Emer de Vattel
(Neuchâtel) promoting concepts of inalienable rights and justified
resistance to tyranny that influenced the American independence
movement. In literature, Johann Jakob Bodmer and Johann Jakob Breitinger made Zurich a center of German literary innovation, while Albert von Haller's poetry represented the peak of Swiss Enlightenment literature. Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
considering himself both a Genevan and Swiss citizen, developed
democratic republican theories that extended Genevan models to broader
European federalist principles.
Statue of Cesare Beccaria, considered one of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment
In Italy the main centers of diffusion of the Enlightenment were Naples and Milan: in both cities the intellectuals took public office and collaborated with the Bourbon and Habsburg administrations. In Naples, Antonio Genovesi, Ferdinando Galiani, and Gaetano Filangieri
were active under the tolerant King Charles of Bourbon. However, the
Neapolitan Enlightenment, like Vico's philosophy, remained almost always
in the theoretical field. Only later, many Enlighteners animated the unfortunate experience of the Parthenopean Republic. In Milan, however, the movement strove to find concrete solutions to problems. The center of discussions was the magazine Il Caffè (1762–1766), founded by brothers Pietro and Alessandro Verri
(famous philosophers and writers, as well as their brother Giovanni),
who also gave life to the Accademia dei Pugni, founded in 1761. Minor
centers were Tuscany, Veneto, and Piedmont, where among others, Pompeo Neri worked.
From Naples, Genovesi influenced a generation of southern Italian intellectuals and university students. His textbook Della diceosina, o sia della Filosofia del Giusto e dell'Onesto
(1766) was a controversial attempt to mediate between the history of
moral philosophy on the one hand and the specific problems encountered
by 18th-century commercial society on the other. It contained the
greater part of Genovesi's political, philosophical, and economic
thought, which became a guidebook for Neapolitan economic and social
development.
Science flourished as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani made break-through discoveries in electricity. Pietro Verri was a leading economist in Lombardy. Historian Joseph Schumpeter states he was "the most important pre-Smithian authority on Cheapness-and-Plenty." The most influential scholar on the Italian Enlightenment has been Franco Venturi. Italy also produced some of the Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists, including Cesare Beccaria, Giambattista Vico, and Francesco Mario Pagano.
When Charles II, the last Spanish Habsburg monarch, died his successor was from the French House of Bourbon, initiating a period of French Enlightenment influence in Spain and the Spanish Empire.
In the 18th Century, the Spanish continued to expand their empire in the Americas with the Spanish missions in California and established missions deeper inland in South America. Under Charles III, the crown began to implement serious structural changes.
The monarchy curtailed the power of the Catholic Church, and
established a standing military in Spanish America. Freer trade was
promoted under comercio libre in which regions could trade with
companies sailing from any other Spanish port, rather than the
restrictive mercantile system. The crown sent out scientific expeditions
to assert Spanish sovereignty over territories it claimed but did not
control, but also importantly to discover the economic potential of its
far-flung empire. Botanical expeditions sought plants that could be of
use to the empire. Charles IV gave Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt
free rein to travel in Spanish America, usually closed to foreigners,
and more importantly, access to crown officials to aid the success of
his scientific expedition.
When Napoleon invaded Spain in 1808, Ferdinand VII abdicated and Napoleon placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the throne. To add legitimacy to this move, the Bayonne Constitution
was promulgated, which included representation from Spain's overseas
components, but most Spaniards rejected the whole Napoleonic project. A war of national resistance erupted. The Cortes de Cádiz
(parliament) was convened to rule Spain in the absence of the
legitimate monarch, Ferdinand. It created a new governing document, the Constitution of 1812, which laid out three branches of government: executive, legislative, and judicial; put limits on the king by creating a constitutional monarchy; defined citizens as those in the Spanish Empire without African ancestry; established universal manhood suffrage;
and established public education starting with primary school through
university as well as freedom of expression. The constitution was in
effect from 1812 until 1814, when Napoleon was defeated and Ferdinand
was restored to the throne of Spain. Upon his return, Ferdinand
repudiated the constitution and reestablished absolutist rule.
Haiti
The Haitian Revolution began in 1791 and ended in 1804 and shows how Enlightenment ideas "were part of complex transcultural flows." Radical ideas in Paris during and after the French Revolution were mobilized in Haiti, such as by Toussaint Louverture. Toussaint had read the critique of European colonialism in Guillaume Thomas François Raynal's book Histoire des deux Indes and "was particularly impressed by Raynal's prediction of the coming of a 'Black Spartacus.'"
The revolution combined Enlightenment ideas with the experiences
of the slaves in Haiti, two-thirds of whom had been born in Africa and
could "draw on specific notions of kingdom and just government from West
and Central Africa, and to employ religious practices such as voodoo for the formation of revolutionary communities." The revolution also affected France and "forced the French National Convention to abolish slavery in 1794."
The Portuguese Enlightenment was heavily marked by the rule of Prime Minister Marquis of Pombal under King Joseph I from 1756 to 1777. Following the 1755 Lisbon earthquake
which destroyed a large part of Lisbon, the Marquis of Pombal
implemented important economic policies to regulate commercial activity
(in particular with Brazil and England), and to standardise quality
throughout the country (for example by introducing the first integrated
industries in Portugal). His reconstruction of Lisbon's riverside district in straight and perpendicular streets (the Lisbon Baixa),
methodically organized to facilitate commerce and exchange (for example
by assigning to each street a different product or service), can be
seen as a direct application of the Enlightenment ideas to governance
and urbanism. His urbanistic ideas, also being the first large-scale
example of earthquake engineering, became collectively known as Pombaline style,
and were implemented throughout the kingdom during his stay in office.
His governance was as enlightened as ruthless, see for example the Távora affair.
The Napoleonic invasion of Portugal had consequences for the Portuguese monarchy. With the aid of the British navy, the Portuguese royal family was evacuated to Brazil, its most important colony. Even though Napoleon had been defeated, the royal court remained in Brazil. The Liberal Revolution of 1820
forced the return of the royal family to Portugal. The terms by which
the restored king was to rule was a constitutional monarchy under the
Constitution of Portugal. Brazil declared its independence from Portugal in 1822 and became a monarchy.
Sweden
The existence of a Swedish Enlightenment has been debated by scholars. According to Tore Frängsmyr, the Swedish Enlightenment "never formed a truly coherent current of ideas or became a unified movement." As worded by Max Skjönsberg,
Frängsmyr's
main arguments against a Swedish Enlightenment were that religious
criticism in Sweden was reserved for foreign Catholicism rather than the domestic Lutheran Church
and that the debate about freedom in the 1750s and 1760s focused on
political economy and freedom to trade rather than freedom to
'philosophize'. The fact that political economy is now a much more
important aspect of Enlightenment historiography, to a great degree
thanks to research on the Scottish Enlightenment, is a clear example of
why Frängsmyr's case is in need of revision.
Between 1718 and 1772, the Swedish Enlightenment overlapped with the
period of parliamentary rule known in Swedish history as the Age of Liberty.
In Russia, the government began to actively encourage the
proliferation of arts and sciences in the mid-18th century. This era
produced the first Russian university, library, theatre, public museum,
and independent press. Like other enlightened despots, Catherine the
Great played a key role in fostering the arts, sciences and education.
She used her own interpretation of Enlightenment ideals, assisted by
notable international experts such as Voltaire (by correspondence) and
in residence world class scientists such as Leonhard Euler and Peter Simon Pallas.
The national Enlightenment differed from its Western European
counterpart in that it promoted further modernization of all aspects of
Russian life and was concerned with attacking the institution of serfdom in Russia.
The Russian Enlightenment centered on the individual instead of
societal enlightenment and encouraged the living of an enlightened life. A powerful element was prosveshchenie
which combined religious piety, erudition, and commitment to the spread
of learning. However, it lacked the skeptical and critical spirit of
the Western European Enlightenment.
Enlightenment ideas (oÅ›wiecenie) emerged late in Poland, as the Polish middle class was weaker and szlachta (nobility) culture (Sarmatism) together with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth political system (Golden Liberty) were in deep crisis. The political system was built on aristocratic republicanism,
but was unable to defend itself against powerful neighbors Russia,
Prussia, and Austria as they repeatedly sliced off regions until nothing
was left of independent Poland. The Polish Enlightenment began in the
1730s–40s and especially in theatre and the arts peaked in the reign of
King Stanisław August Poniatowski (second half of the 18th century).
Warsaw was a main centre after 1750, with an expansion of schools
and educational institutions and the arts patronage held at the Royal
Castle. Leaders promoted tolerance and more education. They included King Stanislaw II August and reformers Piotr Switkowski, Antoni Poplawski,
Josef Niemcewicz, and Jósef Pawlinkowski, as well as Baudouin de
Cortenay, a Polonized dramatist. Opponents included Florian Jaroszewicz,
Gracjan Piotrowski, Karol Wyrwicz, and Wojciech Skarszewski. The movement went into decline with the Third Partition of Poland (1795) – a national tragedy inspiring a short period of sentimental writing – and ended in 1822, replaced by Romanticism.
Eighteenth-century China experienced "a trend towards seeing fewer
dragons and miracles, not unlike the disenchantment that began to spread
across the Europe of the Enlightenment." Furthermore, "some of the developments that we associate with Europe's Enlightenment resemble events in China remarkably." During this time, ideals of Chinese society were reflected in "the reign of the Qing emperors Kangxi and Qianlong; China was posited as the incarnation of an enlightened and meritocratic society—and instrumentalized for criticisms of absolutist rule in Europe."
Japan
From 1641 to 1853, the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan enforced a policy called kaikin. The policy prohibited foreign contact with most outside countries. Robert Bellah found "origins of modern Japan in certain strands of Confucian thinking, a 'functional analogue to the Protestant Ethic' that Max Weber singled out as the driving force behind Western capitalism." Japanese Confucian and Enlightenment ideas were brought together, for example, in the work of the Japanese reformer Tsuda Mamichi in the 1870s, who said, "Whenever we open our mouths...it is to speak of 'enlightenment.'"
In Japan and much of East Asia, Confucian ideas were not replaced
but "ideas associated with the Enlightenment were instead fused with
the existing cosmology—which in turn was refashioned under conditions of
global interaction." In Japan in particular, the term ri, which is the Confucian idea of "order and harmony on human society" also came to represent "the idea of laissez-faire and the rationality of market exchange." By the 1880s, the slogan "Civilization and Enlightenment" became potent
throughout Japan, China, and Korea and was employed to address
challenges of globalization.
Korea
During this time, Korea "aimed at isolation" and was known as the "hermit kingdom" but became awakened to Enlightenment ideas by the 1890s such as with the activities of the Independence Club. Korea was influenced by China and Japan but also found its own Enlightenment path with the Korean intellectual Yu Kilchun who popularized the term Enlightenment throughout Korea. The use of Enlightenment ideas was a "response to a specific situation
in Korea in the 1890s, and not a belated answer to Voltaire."
India
In 18th-century India, Tipu Sultan was an enlightened monarch, who "was one of the founding members of the (French) Jacobin Club in Seringapatam, had planted a liberty tree, and asked to be addressed as 'Tipu Citoyen,'" which means Citizen Tipu. In parts of India, an important movement called the "Bengal Renaissance" led to Enlightenment reforms beginning in the 1820s. Ram Mohan Roy
was a reformer who "fused different traditions in his project of social
reform that made him a proponent of a 'religion of reason.'"
Eighteenth-century Egypt had "a form of 'cultural revival' in the
making—specifically Islamic origins of modernization long before
Napoleon's Egyptian campaign." Napoleon's expedition into Egypt
further encouraged "social transformations that harkened back to
debates about inner-Islamic reform, but now were also legitimized by
referring to the authority of the Enlightenment." A major intellectual influence on Islamic modernism and expanding the Enlightenment in Egypt, Rifa al-Tahtawi "oversaw the publication of hundreds of European works in the Arabic language."
Namik Kemal, a political activist and member of the Young Ottomans, drew on major Enlightenment thinkers and "a variety of intellectual resources in his quest for social and political reform." In 1893, Kemal responded to Ernest Renan,
who had indicted the Islamic religion, with his own version of the
Enlightenment, which "was not a poor copy of French debates in the
eighteenth century, but an original position responding to the
exigencies of Ottoman society in the late nineteenth century."
The idea of the Enlightenment has always been contested territory. According to Keith Thomas,
its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive
about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought,
rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political
liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for
the future." Thomas adds that its detractors accuse it of shallow rationalism, naïve
optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start,
conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked
materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By
1794, they pointed to the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions.
Romantic philosophers argued that the Enlightenment's excessive
dependence on reason was a mistake that it perpetuated, disregarding the
bonds of history, myth, faith, and tradition that were necessary to
hold society together. Ritchie Robertson
portrays it as a grand intellectual and political program, offering a
"science" of society modeled on the powerful physical laws of Newton.
"Social science" was seen as the instrument of human improvement. It
would expose truth and expand human happiness.
The rights of women and nonwhite people were generally overlooked in Enlightenment philosophy, which is often explicitly Eurocentric. Scientific racism first emerged at this time, bringing together traditional racism and new research methods. During the Enlightenment, concepts of monogenism and polygenism
became popular, though they would only be systematized
epistemologically during the 19th century. Monogenism contends that all
races have a single origin, while polygenism is the idea that each race
has a separate origin. Until the 18th century, the words "race" and
"species" were interchangeable. The classification of non-European peoples as sub-human and irrational served to justify European dominance.
Definition
The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the latter part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term Lumières (used first by Jean-Baptiste Dubos
in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Kant's 1784 essay
"Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?"), the German term became Aufklärung (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären
= to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of
the Enlightenment or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms
like les Lumières (French), illuminismo (Italian), ilustración (Spanish) and Aufklärung
(German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late
19th century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the
Enlightenment."
If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it.
Bertrand Russell
saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development which
began in antiquity and that reason and challenges to the established
order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic Counter-Reformation
and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against
monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their
desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Although many of these
philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues that by
the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of
the schism that began with Martin Luther.
Jonathan Israel rejects the attempts of postmodern and Marxian historians to understand the revolutionary ideas of the period purely as by-products of social and economic transformations. He instead focuses on the history of ideas in the period from 1650 to
the end of the 18th century and claims that it was the ideas themselves
that caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the
latter half of the 18th century and the early 19th century. Israel argues that until the 1650s Western civilization "was based on a
largely shared core of faith, tradition, and authority."
Time span
There is little consensus on the beginning of the Age of
Enlightenment, though several historians and philosophers argue that it
was marked by Descartes' 1637 philosophy of Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am"), which shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty. In France, many cited the publication of Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687), which built upon the work of earlier scientists and formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation. French historians usually place the Siècle des Lumières ("Century of Enlightenments") between 1715 and 1789: from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. Most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.
In recent years, scholars have expanded the time span and global
perspective of the Enlightenment by examining: (1) how European
intellectuals did not work alone and other people helped spread and
adapt Enlightenment ideas, (2) how Enlightenment ideas were "a response
to cross-border interaction and global integration," and (3) how the Enlightenment "continued throughout the nineteenth century and beyond." The Enlightenment "was not merely a history of diffusion" and "was the work of historical actors around the world... who invoked the term... for their own specific purposes."
Enlightenment, understood in the
widest sense as the advance of thought, has always aimed at liberating
human beings from fear and installing them as masters. Yet the wholly
enlightened earth radiates under the sign of disaster triumphant.
Extending Horkheimer and Adorno's argument, intellectual historian Jason Josephson Storm argues that any idea of the Age of Enlightenment as a clearly defined period that is separate from the earlier Renaissance and later Romanticism or Counter-Enlightenment
constitutes a myth. Storm points out that there are vastly different
and mutually contradictory periodizations of the Enlightenment depending
on nation, field of study, and school of thought; that the term and
category of "Enlightenment" referring to the Scientific Revolution was
actually applied after the fact; that the Enlightenment did not see an
increase in disenchantment or the dominance of the mechanistic worldview; and that a blur in the early modern ideas of the humanities and natural sciences makes it hard to circumscribe a Scientific Revolution. Storm defends his categorization of the Enlightenment as "myth" by
noting the regulative role ideas of a period of Enlightenment and
disenchantment play in modern Western culture, such that belief in
magic, spiritualism, and even religion appears somewhat taboo in
intellectual strata.
In the 1970s, study of the Enlightenment expanded to include the
ways Enlightenment ideas spread to European colonies and how they
interacted with indigenous cultures and how the Enlightenment took place
in formerly unstudied areas such as Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Poland,
Hungary, and Russia. Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas
have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas
described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century
Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing
for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was
bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state, making
it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary
politics and society, away from the interference of established
authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of
the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.
Society and culture
A medal minted during the reign of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and Protestants in Hungary—another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of serfdom.
In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the
Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of
intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and
18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes
that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the
process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the
Enlightenment.
One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere,
a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and
accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an
explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of
political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the
exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to
critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois
public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering
everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.
German explorer Alexander von Humboldt
showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial
policies—he always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by
the ideas of the Enlightenment.
The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution:
"Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and
improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous
century." Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered
the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of
goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the
public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states
had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European
society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking
down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender
differences and geographical areas."
The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity—the
public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere
was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently
contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude." Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class
participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.
Implications in the arts
Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts. Emphasis on learning, art, and music became more widespread, especially
with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature,
philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject
matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more
segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.
As musicians depended more on public support, public concerts became
increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers'
incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel,
for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities
in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his
operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.
The desire to explore, record, and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like
genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment
movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte
(1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes
that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment."
As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an
increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this
involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level.
Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and
increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially
with keyboard music. Music publishers began to print music that amateurs could understand
and play. The majority of the works that were published were for
keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on,
amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for
publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as
well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people
becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines,
reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as
connoisseurs began to surface.
Dissemination of ideas
The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminating
their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They
used many venues, some of them quite new.
In
the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the
bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic ... there exists a
certain realm which holds sway only over the mind ... that we honor
with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence,
and because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of
talent and of thought.
Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment because of the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment."
Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the]
potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Old Regime,
the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints
of patronage and corporatism (medieval guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.
In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors." These men came to London to become authors only to discover that the
literary market could not support large numbers of writers, who in any
case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.
ESTC data 1477–1799 by decade given with a regional differentiation
The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one
of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the
Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater
quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets,
newspapers, and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and
attitudes." Commercial development likewise increased the demand for
information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of
the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as
evidenced by the bibliothèque bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books
about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780,
while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of
the total.
Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a reading revolution.
Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small
number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After
1750, people began to read "extensively," finding as many books as they
could, increasingly reading them alone. This is supported by increasing literacy rates, particularly among women.
The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a
private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries"
set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were
not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum
was the bibliothèque bleue, a collection of cheaply produced
books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and
semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of
medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other
things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's
penetration into the lower classes, the bibliothèque bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access
to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out
their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally
bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee
houses commonly offered books, journals, and sometimes even popular
novels to their customers. Tatler and The Spectator,
two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely
associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and
produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the
coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed, and
even produced on the premises.
The target audience of natural history was French upper class,
evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the
generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to upper class
desire for erudition: many texts had an explicit instructive purpose.
However, natural history was often a political affair. As Emma Spary
writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the
natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of
the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural
over the social." The idea of taste (le goût)
was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had
to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members
of the upper class. In this way, natural history spread many of the
scientific developments of the time but also provided a new source of
legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.
The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des sçavans,
appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began
to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant
languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for
material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English
publications on the continent, which was echoed by England's similar
lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an
international market—such as Danish, Spanish, and Portuguese—found
journal success more difficult, and a more international language was
used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca
of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing
industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language
periodicals were produced.
Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from
established authorities to novelty and innovation, and instead promoted
the Enlightened ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being
a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an
implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by
monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced
Christian Enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained
authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the
biblical and natural theories.
Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into
ancient times, the texts changed from defining words in a long running
list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize
knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As
the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed
according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on
secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than
matters of theology.
Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical
ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. Commenting on alphabetization, the historian Charles Porset
has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order
authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be
considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of
thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age
of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford
such texts began to multiply. In the latter half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and
encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and
1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French
Revolution. Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew
in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in
supplemented editions.
The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences.
Harris' book avoids theological and biographical entries and instead
concentrates on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon Technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions and is a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing.
In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerk- und Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon
and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For
example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry
and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.
One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era
brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An
increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both
the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the
dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was
precipitated by a high rise in the availability of food; this enabled
many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food,
they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal
that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number
of people." As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century,
public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up
new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on
the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for
individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the
original scientific text. Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without
education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate
and analyze the text in the vernacular.
The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and
knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the
entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds
(1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest
in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid
out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles,
treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles
Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables."
Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by
intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time.
Leading educational theorists like England's John Locke and
Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of
shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising
demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after
the American Revolution and the French Revolution.
The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries, was associationism:
the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through
repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment
ideologies of liberty, self-determination, and personal responsibility,
it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to
transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into
effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of
society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.
Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment
progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most
renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle,
Montpellier, Uppsala, and Edinburgh. These universities, especially
Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on
Britain's North American colonies and later the American Republic.
Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical school also led the way
in chemistry, anatomy, and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and
most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable
to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical
university at Montpellier.
The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science,
founded in 1666 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state,
acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists.
It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new
scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social
status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens."
Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its
increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics
who were members (13%). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be
attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their
members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite
Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the
sciences for the people." For example, it was with this in mind that
academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular
pseudo-science of mesmerism.
In England, the Royal Society
of London played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread
of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent
scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now
live and operate" and his method based knowledge on experimentation,
which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This
is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a
"collective act" and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal
locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford
professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire
peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in
the area and a witness's "moral constitution." In other words, only
civil society were considered for Boyle's public.
Salons were places where philosophes were reunited and
discussed old, actual, or new ideas. This led to salons being the
birthplace of intellectual and enlightened ideas.
Coffeehouses
were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the
Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people
from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were
frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an
environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges
were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to
monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between
classes of people. If the different classes joined together under the
influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the
all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of
the numbers of their members might be able to successfully revolt.
Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to
discuss political matters, especially matters of foreign affairs. Rulers
thought political affairs were their business only, a result of their
divine right to rule.
Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought to
engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and
thought-provoking matters, from philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses
were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of
free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were
scholars, many were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of
people, including the educated wealthy and bourgeois as well as the
lower classes. Patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, represented
almost all classes, so the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those
who wanted to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular
critiques of the coffeehouse said that it "allowed promiscuous
association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from
the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean and unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism, when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711),
a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr.
Spectator, to both entertain and provoke discussion on serious
philosophical matters.
The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian
Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities,"
offering a locus of learning that was less formal than at structured
institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position
in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently
referred to as the virtuosi, who conducted their research on some
of the premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for
like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and
to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university
institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than
any university tutorial."
The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment. Their origins include:
Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th
century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state.
Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric.
Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles.
John Henley's Oratory, which mixed outrageous sermons with even more absurd questions, like "Whether Scotland be anywhere in the world?"
In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more
"genteel" rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of
sociability. The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the
theory and practice of public elocution." The debating societies were
commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very
successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators per
night.
The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of
topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved
around "confessional"—that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) or Anglican
issues, debated primarily to establish which bloc of faith ought to
have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority." After Enlightenment, everything that previously had been rooted in
tradition was questioned, and often replaced by new concepts. After the
second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general
process of rationalization and secularization set in" and confessional
disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating
contest between faith and incredulity."
In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues
such as politics and the role of women. However, the critical subject
matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to
the government; the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the
debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended
and even participated in almost every debating society, which were
likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee.
Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely
egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.
Masonic lodges
Masonic initiation ceremony
Historians have debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. Leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope, Horace Walpole, Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin and George Washington. Norman Davies said Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of
liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It
expanded during the Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in
Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and
politicians as well as intellectuals, artists, and political activists.
During the Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international
network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic
programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment
and helped diffuse these values across Britain, France, and other
places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values,
and rituals originated in Scotland c. 1600
and spread to England and then across the Continent in the 18th
century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal
understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild
sociability—"liberty, fraternity, and equality." Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of
fraternity, which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs,
but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution
against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were
perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most
popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees
and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry,
emerged in France, Germany, Sweden, and Russia. One example was the Illuminati,
founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but
was never part of the movement. The name itself translates to "enlightened," chosen to reflect their original intent
to promote the values of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly
political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.
Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They
"reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of
self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections, and
representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the
lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was
especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear
in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as
threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that
met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons across Europe explicitly linked themselves to
the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As
the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of
their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to
"initiate the unenlightened." This did not necessarily link lodges to
the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional
heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic
terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically
ordered universe.
German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent
there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age
of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges." Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did
promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially
non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can
hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their
own right." Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment
values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals
and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way
of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that
formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between
these lodges and aristocratic society.
The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Catholic Church so in
countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain,
and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the
confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and
enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington
were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of
Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order
was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the
Loyalists.
Art
At the same time, the Classical art of Greece and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered Pompeii and Herculaneum.
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