Electric vehicle conversion

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This elderly Fiat employs batteries that can be mounted in any position

 

In automobile engineering, electric vehicle conversion is the replacement of a car's combustion engine and connected components with an electric motor and batteries, to create an all-electric vehicle. Another option is to replace a large combustion engine with an electric motor (for power) and a small combustion engine (for speed), creating a hybrid electric vehicle or a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. 

The general trend appears to be that ground vehicles will "go electric," and automakers have slowly but steadily responded to public demand by producing both hybrid electric vehicles which get 5.2–2.6 l/100 km; 45–90 mpg_‑US gasoline, and electric vehicles which get similar or better mileage by mpg equivalent efficiency rating. 

In general, commercially-manufactured electric vehicles are inhibited by the limited range per charge of batteries (up to 560 km, 350 miles), battery charge times that are slower than gasoline filling times, apparent greater initial cost over combustion engines, and potentially high service costs for used or worn-out batteries. Electric conversions are often inhibited by either the difficult labor and specialized knowledge involved in a do-it-yourself (DIY) conversion, or the expense of a purchased conversion service with conversion components, often costing US$8-12 thousand. There is a small but steadily growing DIY community for electric conversions.

Simple steps

Assumes a simple design of a DC or AC motor.

• Obtain an electric motor, electric vehicle (EV) motor controller, and batteries which match the car size and the performance characteristics (range, speed, power) desired. Smaller vehicles can use smaller ("8 inch") motors, and larger vehicles will require larger electric motors.
• Remove the combustion engine, fuel tank, muffler and exhaust, and other ICE related components.
• Keep the transmission, and design an adapter out of an aluminum plate material, or steel tubing, which will accept the electric motor and mount it to the transmission at the precise distance. Adapter plate machining (and other machining jobs) can be outsourced to a machinist.
• Design a coupler for connecting the motor shaft to the transmission.
• Mount the motor to the transmission, with coupler and adapter firmly mounted.
• Build compartments to house the batteries. Cutting out part of the auto body is possible, and steel tubing should be used to frame the compartment.
• Install the batteries and the motor controller, linking them up to the motor.

Elements of a conversion

• Almost any vehicle can be converted to electric. Many people prefer to pick a vehicle that is light and aerodynamic in order to maximize distance traveled per battery charge. There must also be adequate room and load capacity for batteries.
• If obtaining a vehicle for conversion, chose a car which has an undamaged body (unless also doing the body work).
• The battery pack, which provides a source of electrical power. The most commonly available and affordable batteries are lead-acid flooded type. Next are the AGM (Absorption Glass Mat) sealed maintenance free batteries, a little more powerful and expensive. Then there are the more exotic batteries like Ni-MH and Li-ion; more difficult to find but light and longer lasting, maintenance free, and much more expensive. The new lithium batteries are showing some promise for EVs in the near future.
• The charger which restores energy to the batteries (which may be mounted within the vehicle or at a special charging station at some fixed location)
• The power controller, which regulates the flow of energy between the battery and the electric motor(s), controlled by an electronic throttle.
• One or more electric motors and their mechanical attachment to the driveline
• Power conductors connecting the battery, controller, and motor(s)
• Accessory equipment to power auxiliary equipment such as power brakes and heating system
• Control circuitry and equipment to allow control and interlocking of the various components
• Instrumentation specific to the operation and maintenance of the conversion

Hobbyists and conversions

Eliica prototype

 

The full electric Formula Student car of the Eindhoven University of Technology

 

Hobbyists often build their own EVs by converting existing production cars to run solely on electricity. There is a cottage industry supporting the conversion and construction of BEVs by hobbyists. Universities such as the University of California, Irvine even build their own custom electric or hybrid-electric cars from scratch. 

Short-range battery electric vehicles can offer the hobbyist comfort, utility, and quickness, sacrificing only range. Short-range EVs may be built using high-performance lead–acid batteries, using about half the mass needed for a 100–130 km (60–80 miles) range. The result is a vehicle with about a 50 km (30 miles) range, which, when designed with appropriate weight distribution (40/60 front to rear), does not require power steering, offers exceptional acceleration in the lower end of its operating range, and is freeway capable and legal. But their EVs are expensive due to the higher cost for these higher-performance batteries. By including a manual transmission, short-range EVs can obtain both better performance and greater efficiency than the single-speed EVs developed by major manufacturers. Unlike the converted golf carts used for neighborhood electric vehicles, short-range EVs may be operated on typical suburban throughways (where 60–80 km/h, 35–50 mph speed limits are typical) and can keep up with traffic typical on such roads and the short "slow-lane" on-and-off segments of freeways common in suburban areas. 

Faced with chronic fuel shortage on the Gaza Strip, Palestinian electrical engineer Waseem Othman al-Khozendar invented in 2008 a way to convert his car to run on 32 electric batteries. According to al-Khozendar, the batteries can be charged with US$2 worth of electricity to drive from 180–240 km (110–150 mi). After a 7-hour charge, the car should also be able to run up to a speed of 100 km/h (60 mph).

In 2008, several Chinese manufacturers began marketing lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
₄) batteries directly to hobbyists and vehicle conversion shops. These batteries offered much better power-to-weight ratios allowing vehicle conversions to typically achieve 120–240 km (75–150 mi) per charge. Prices gradually declined to approximately US$350 per kW·h by mid-2009. As the LiFePO
₄ cells feature life ratings of 3,000 cycles, compared to typical lead acid battery ratings of 300 cycles, the life expectancy of LiFePO
₄ cells is around 10 years. LiFePO
₄ cells require more expensive battery management and charging systems than lead acid batteries.

Solar power

On-board solar cells can be used to power an electric vehicle. The small power generated by solar cells mounted on a vehicle means that the other components in the system must be special to compensate for this. For example, the body of even a small conventional car converted to electric is still too heavy to be driven by on-board solar cells. A practical solar-powered vehicle is designed from the ground up with specially made parts.

Conversion process

Most conversions in North America are performed by hobbyists who typically will convert a well used vehicle with a non-functioning engine, since such defective vehicles can be quite inexpensive to purchase. Other hobbyists with larger budgets may prefer to convert a later model vehicle, or a vehicle of a particular type. In some cases, the vehicle itself may be built by the converter, or assembled from a kit car. 

A two-stage vehicle is a vehicle that has been built by two separate manufacturers. The result is a standard, complete vehicle. In this process, vehicles may be converted by a manufacturer (as was done by Ford Motor Company to create the Ford Ranger EV). Alternatively, in a process known as "third-party (power)trainization", an independent converter will purchase new vehicle gliders (vehicles without a motor or related equipment) and then perform the conversion, to offer a two-stage vehicle. 

In some countries, the user can choose to buy a converted vehicle of any model in the automaker dealerships only paying the cost of the batteries and motor, with no installation costs (it is called pre-conversion or previous conversion).

Industry

The electric vehicle conversion industry has grown to include conversion car garages, aftermarket kits and vehicle components.

Vehicle types

Electric bicycle

A bicycle with an aftermarket hub-motor in the front wheel

 

An electric bicycle is a conventional bicycle that has been fitted with an electric motor. Converting an existing bicycle by retrofitting it with a "conversion kit" is the simplest and least expensive electric vehicle conversion option. Most often electric bicycles or "e-bikes" are powered by rechargeable batteries however some experimental electric bicycles run directly on or recharge their batteries via solar panels, fuel cells, gas generators or other alternative energy sources. Some experimenters have even used supercapacitors to store energy. Using an on-board generator may impact the legal jurisdictional definition of an electric bicycle. A few types of electric bicycles are able to re-capture a small amount of energy from braking and can re-charge the batteries while braking or traveling down hills (regenerative braking). 

Some electric bikes have features where the motor can move the bicycle by itself (immediate start) if the rider chooses not to pedal with a button or throttle controller, while others require the rider to pedal at all times (pedal assist). This latter type may in some jurisdictions allow the vehicle to be used on bicycle trails that otherwise prohibit motorized vehicles of any kind.

Many battery technologies are available for powering electric bikes. The most common and least expensive battery technology is sealed lead acid but LiFePO₄ is fast becoming the battery of choice for the e-bike. 

Converting one's bike to electric with a conversion kit is an easy and affordable solution for most people interested in learning more about electric vehicle conversion. 

There may be some problems with the warranty however on the original bicycle being converted, if an electric bike conversion kit is added. Low-speed scooters are not typically suitable for on-the-road use. These may be configured for either standing or sitting use. Some local laws apply bicycle laws to scooters, such as helmet and pedestrian right-of-way considerations.

• 

  Electric scooter
  
• 

  Custom drag bike
  
• 

  Solar cruiser
  

Economy coupe

Owing to its light weight and efficiency, a light vehicle can make an excellent choice, particularly if care is taken in component selection and placement. It is possible to obtain conversion kits for some popular light vehicles, most notably the rear motor, rear drive Volkswagen Beetle, its Type 3 evolution, and its successor, the front motor/drive VW Golf. 

By converting a light vehicle it is possible to use a smaller motor, which both weighs and costs less than a larger motor. A lighter overall vehicle weight will reduce power consumption in start-and-stop traffic and increase range in many practical driving conditions. In the same way that a gasoline-powered economy car is cheaper and more efficient to run, an electric-powered economy car is as well.

Compact sedan or coupe

A compact sedan may be a better choice than a subcompact owing to better load capacity and more room for battery placement. Some commercial EV Conversions use vehicles in this size range. One example is a 1992 Honda Civic. In this conversion, the back seat was retained, and there is still enough room to sink nine flooded lead-acid batteries low in the trunk where the spare tire was located, as well as another nine batteries under the hood. Another example is a 1987 Mitsubishi Tredia where the rear batteries have been raised above the trunk floorspace, sealed, and externally vented. With suspension modifications, increasing shock length & spring rating, the car must still be below GVWR, even with the driver and passengers. Exceeding the total design weight of the vehicle would be illegal in some states, and might result in cancellation by an insurance company.

There is an effort by several engineers in California to make the Toyota Prius a "Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle," or PHEV, whereby the first 40 miles are driven by all-electric power, then the gasoline engine comes on to re-charge the batteries, only if the commute is further than 40 mi. If it is less, one can just plug it into the utility grid to re-charge the batteries. The process is done by removing the nickel-metal hydride batteries, and installing different batteries, and a different battery management system.

Since 30 April 2009, the Electric Car Corporation have been selling the Citroën C1 ev'ie, an all-electric conversion from the Citroën C1.

Full-size sedan

Full-size sedans and minivans are generally considered to be poor candidates for EV conversion. As the suspension and tires are already operating close to the maximum permissible, it may be necessary to make substantial modifications in these areas. It may be easier to obtain upgraded suspension components for some smaller vehicles, if these are also typically used for sports racing (particularly autocross). Starting with a heavy vehicle and adding batteries will result in poor performance in acceleration, handling, braking, and economy of operation.

One of the possibilities is using the body of Audi's D2 platform A8 (1994–2003) Audi A8 or sports sedan S8 (1998–2003 or older European market models where the German model weights 1730 kg) Audi S8 both of which are all aluminium monocoque "Audi Space Frame" vehicle, which helped to significantly reduce weight without being any less rigid.

Sports car

For a person interested in sports car performance and appearance, the creation of a satisfying conversion will likely lead to a number of difficulties in such details as battery disposition, as such vehicles generally have available space distributed in small volumes around the vehicle. This leads to complexity in securing and wiring batteries. These vehicles can offer stunning performance in the lower speed ranges owing to light weight and rear wheel drive, and may also offer good range due to their superior aerodynamics. 

The 1969–1976 Porsche 914 is one of the more successful sports car conversions, as well as being one of the most popular. Once converted, it boasts better performance in range, acceleration and top speed than most other vehicles. Also, its low acquisition costs contributes to its popularity as a conversion candidate. Some manufacturers of conversion kits have made a kit specific to the 914.

Another popular sports car used for conversion is the 1984–1989 Toyota MR2. Reasons for its popularity are low weight before conversion, low cost to purchase the car, and available locations within the car to place the large batteries that most people use (lead-acid and its derivative technologies). The later MR2 body style (Mark 2) does not seem as popular, and as of March 2008, there is only one known conversion.

A 1983 Mitsubishi Starion was converted to all-electric in 2009 by Carmel Morris and Nathan Bolton in Australia. This sports vehicle had divided front/rear battery load for well-balanced low center of gravity performance. The battery pack consisted of 45 x 3.2v nominal lithium-ion batteries. The tar weight of the final result was not much greater than the original specification, allowing the sports car to be engineering road-certified as a four-seat vehicle. The builders wanted to prove that an electric car conversion could also include other options such as power steering and air conditioning (as is the norm for new electric vehicles), without sacrificing excess energy or comfort. Information on the successful Electric Starion conversion can be found on the web. 

The Bradley GT II as well as other VW-based kit cars are very popular conversion candidates due to their being inexpensive, extensive support groups as well as their simple sports car design. Availability of conversion kits for these cars are quite prevalent with commercial retail establishments that specialize in EV conversions.

Light truck

Light trucks are especially suitable for hobbyist conversion because it is easy to locate batteries remote from the passenger compartment and there is a good load handling capacity for the use of heavy batteries such as the flooded lead-acid batteries commonly used in golf carts. Light trucks also offer substantial utility in use simply because they are trucks. Even if a portion of the weight capacity is removed by the presence of batteries within or below the cargo bed, much or all of the spatial utility remains. A light truck is highly recommended as a first conversion effort because of the simplicity of component layout. With proper battery placement the stability of a late production truck can be improved over the ICE version. While a number of suitable vehicles are available in pre-2002 models, the modern evolution of this type has become taller, heavier, bulkier and less efficient, and their excessive height makes under-bed battery placement essential to keep the center of gravity low enough for stability on curves.

Other trucks – full size and most SUVs

These are rarely converted due to their excessive weight, and aerodynamic inefficiencies. To make the situation worse, many modern trucks and SUVs continue to get bulkier, heavier, and their high stance means the height of the center of gravity leads to instability while making high speed turns, a distinct disadvantage if there is not enough room between the frame rails to enable low battery mounting. As a direct result, the payload carrying capacity and thus the GVWR of the vehicles goes down. Such a trait is not desirable because it limits the weight of the battery pack that can be carried, limiting the maximum battery-to-vehicle weight ratio that could be achieved for the vehicle when converted to an EV. (Such considerations are important due to price, weight, and performance limitations of current battery technologies.) For a given battery type, reducing the battery-to-vehicle weight ratio always results in reduced vehicle range per charge. However, despite these mostly unavoidable limitations, several SUVs and larger trucks have been successfully converted to electric power by hobbyists. Some examples include the "Gone Postal" van converted to an EV racer by Roderick Wilde and Suckamps EV Racing, the Land Rover EV converted by Wilde Evolutions, and the 1988 Jeep Cherokee EV converted by Nick Viera.

Classic Cars

Although technologically feasible, classic cars are not widely converted in order to maintain a car's authenticity. The German company ReeVOLT has however made it one of their business branches to convert old Trabants for use in tourism in the east of Germany in connection to the car's regional historic significance and to allow easy access to environmental zones such as city centers and in particular the partially car-free island of Rügen. The car is considered ideal for conversions because of its low used price and low weight due to the small size and resin fiber construction.

Electric buses

The principal efforts in the development of autonomous electric buses (this is, without trolleys and wires) have involved limited production of very expensive fuel cell vehicles.

The most economically effective development in this area involves the creation of hybrid electric buses (mainly plug-in hybrids), well suited to this application owing to frequent stops and starts and effective energy recovery and release in this cycle.

Another solution is the conversion to battery electric buses that follow the principle of replacing (discharged batteries) instead of recharging. 

Transdev York in the United Kingdom currently operate the world's first diesel-engined buses that have been converted to full-electric propulsion. A fleet of five late 1990s Dennis Trident 2 open-top double-decker buses, operated for a local City Sightseeing contract, have been converted from diesel to electric power.

Racers

Hotrod

While this type of vehicle is usually made to be a "street-legal" performance machine, it may also be developed for occasional use as a drag racing vehicle. The leading vehicle in this field is the "Maniac Mazda" a Mazda RX-7 sports car converted from rotary engine to electric by Roderick Wilde. This vehicle can outrun Dodge Viper and Ferrari sports cars in quarter-mile drag races.

Autocross racer

EV's have proven successful in autocross competition. The electric motor's ability to deliver maximum torque at 0 RPM and a comparatively broad torque band provide good throttle response and allow running an autocross without any time lost to shifting gears. The short distance of the typical autocross requires less stored energy than most forms of motorsports. This minimizes electric vehicle's most obvious competitive disadvantage, the weight penalty of batteries compared to gasoline. 

The Batt mobile in autocross 2016 in Queensland Australia

Drag racer

Intended only for specialized straight line quarter-mile (acceleration) racing this type of vehicle is used only "off road" at specialized "dragstrips".

High speed straight line racer

Even more specialized than the drag racer, this is intended to obtain high speeds on long, straight, and flat raceways, such as the dry lake beds found in locations such as the Bonneville Salt Flats.

Closed circuit road racer

Closed Circuit Road racing, particularly any type of endurance racing, is one of the greatest challenges for EV's. Pound per pound, gasoline contains far more energy than even the most advanced of current batteries. An electric vehicle must be heavier or more efficient to run the same distance as its gasoline competitor. Endurance racing strategies include battery packs that can be changed quickly and "Dump charging"

Custom chassis

Suitable for a builder who is capable of constructing a kit car, with good abilities and equipment in machining and welding this can result in a unique vehicle. It is especially suitable for the construction of a lightweight vehicle that can offer exceptional performance. Many VW-based kit car companies have tube chassis ready to start with. 

A glider kit includes all components of a vehicle except the power train.

Novelty vehicle

A novelty vehicle or an electric powered art car may not be suitable for on-road use. Applications include electric vehicle show demonstrations, parades, parade floats, float towing, and eclectic off-road gatherings such as Burning Man. This vehicle is ideal for the beach (where not prohibited) and to promote tourist places but will usually require trailering to its operating site.

Registration of converted and newly constructed vehicles

United States

The ease of registration will vary by state. Some states require safety inspections, usually to ensure body integrity in areas subject to severe corrosion from winter road de-icing materials. In any case, for general registration all functional safety equipment should be operating – turn signals, brake lights, headlights, horn, etc. The windshield should have no running cracks (small stone chips and "stars" may be acceptable if not in the driver's principal line of vision). If the vehicle has been reconstructed from a salvage vehicle (a vehicle whose registration has been forfeited) inspection may be more severe to ensure compliance and the legitimacy of sources of salvage components by presentation of proper purchase receipts.

Registration procedures will vary by state and will usually be more difficult (even bizarre) in states with strict emissions requirements (even though a plug-in only conversion will be a zero emission vehicle). Arguing with DMV staff is typically futile in all jurisdictions, but there may be appeal procedures available but whose availability may not be openly publicized.

On the other hand, changing the registration allows a conversion to qualify for tax incentives available in some states, such as Oregon, for either the vehicle, the charging system, or both.

California (US) conversion registration and taxation

Registration of a converted existing, or newly self-constructed electric vehicle in California is no longer difficult.

This falls into two categories; First, if the vehicle is built from new frame components and possibly some salvage parts, (i.e., it has never been a previously titled motorcar previously, but it has brakes or axles that were obtained used/rebuilt.) In California if you "create" a car from scratch and want to register and title it with DMV, you need to go through the "Specially Constructed Vehicle Emission Control Program" or SPCNS for short, this is also called California "SB100" program. Or Second, a previously registered vehicle converted to electric propulsion. 

SPCNC: In the past, the process of registering an SPCNS vehicle required meeting with an outside referee at a community college or one of the states mobile referee stations to verify the vehicle. The current process happens at the DMV with the inspection being done by A DMV inspector. The inspector will need to be able to see the motor and batteries and verify that there in no internal combustion engine. The vehicle will still need a brake and light inspection By an outside inspector to verify its compliance with other vehicle codes.

Currently Registered Vehicles: If you are converting an existing vehicle and it is older than 1975, you may opt to not bother to get the vehicle converted to the "E" code unless you are looking for the Diamond Lane stickers, since these vehicles don't require a smog inspection. For vehicles newer than 1975 you will need to go the DMV and have the vehicle inspected as a conversion. The batteries and motor will have to be exposed so the inspector can see them and verify that there is no internal combustion engine. 

The next step requires the clerk at the local California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) office to call the Sacramento office. Only the Sacramento office can make this entry into the computer system. If the local clerk tries, the system will default to the "Q" code for hybrid. (These procedures are in place to inhibit fraudulent registration of ICE vehicles as Electric in order to avoid smog inspections.) A hybrid is not exempt from smog inspection. Before you leave the DMV make sure your printout has the proper "E" code or you will have to go back to do it again. 

There is weight fee of $87 for vehicles under 2,700 kg (6,000 lb) or $266 for vehicles from 2,700 to 4,500 kg (6,000 to 10,000 lb). This is in addition to any regular registration fees.

Energy security

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A U.S. Navy F/A-18 Super Hornet displaying an "Energy Security" logo.

 

Energy security is the association between national security and the availability of natural resources for energy consumption. Access to (relatively) cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led to significant vulnerabilities. International energy relations have contributed to the globalization of the world leading to energy security and energy vulnerability at the same time.

In the context of energy security, security of energy supply is an issue of utmost importance. Moreover, it is time to define "a global energy policy model, which not only aims at ensuring an efficient environmental protection but also at ensuring security of energy supply".

Renewable resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits.

Threats

The modern world relies on a vast energy supply to fuel everything from transportation to communication, to security and health delivery systems. Perhaps most alarmingly, peak oil expert Michael Ruppert has claimed that for every calorie of food produced in the industrial world, ten calories of oil and gas energy are invested in the forms of fertilizer, pesticide, packaging, transportation, and running farm equipment. Energy plays an important role in the national security of any given country as a fuel to power the economic engine. Some sectors rely on energy more heavily than others; for example, the Department of Defense relies on petroleum for approximately 77% of its energy needs. Threats to energy security include the political instability of several energy producing countries, the manipulation of energy supplies, the competition over energy sources, attacks on supply infrastructure, as well as accidents, natural disasters, terrorism, and reliance on foreign countries for oil.

Foreign oil supplies are vulnerable to unnatural disruptions from in-state conflict, exporters' interests, and non-state actors targeting the supply and transportation of oil resources. The political and economic instability caused by war or other factors such as strike action can also prevent the proper functioning of the energy industry in a supplier country. For example, the nationalization of oil in Venezuela has triggered strikes and protests in which Venezuela's oil production rates have yet to recover. Exporters may have political or economic incentive to limit their foreign sales or cause disruptions in the supply chain. Since Venezuela's nationalization of oil, anti-American Hugo Chávez threatened to cut off supplies to the United States more than once. The 1973 oil embargo against the United States is a historical example in which oil supplies were cut off to the United States due to U.S. support of Israel during the Yom Kippur War. This has been done to apply pressure during economic negotiations—such as during the 2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute. Terrorist attacks targeting oil facilities, pipelines, tankers, refineries, and oil fields are so common they are referred to as "industry risks". Infrastructure for producing the resource is extremely vulnerable to sabotage. One of the worst risks to oil transportation is the exposure of the five ocean chokepoints, like the Iranian-controlled Strait of Hormuz. Anthony Cordesman, a scholar at the Center for Strategic and International Studies in Washington, D.C., warns, "It may take only one asymmetric or conventional attack on a Ghawar Saudi oil field or tankers in the Strait of Hormuz to throw the market into a spiral."

New threats to energy security have emerged in the form of the increased world competition for energy resources due to the increased pace of industrialization in countries such as India and China, as well as due to the increasing consequences of climate change. Although still a minority concern, the possibility of price rises resulting from the peaking of world oil production is also starting to attract the attention of at least the French government. Increased competition over energy resources may also lead to the formation of security compacts to enable an equitable distribution of oil and gas between major powers. However, this may happen at the expense of less developed economies. The Group of Five, precursors to the G8, first met in 1975 to coordinate economic and energy policies in the wake of the 1973 Arab oil embargo, a rise in inflation and a global economic slowdown. NATO leaders meeting in Bucharest Romania, in April 2008, may discuss the possibility of using the military alliance "as an instrument of energy security". One of the possibilities include placing troops in the Caucasus region to police oil and gas pipelines.

Long-term security

Long-term measures to increase energy security center on reducing dependence on any one source of imported energy, increasing the number of suppliers, exploiting native fossil fuel or renewable energy resources, and reducing overall demand through energy conservation measures. It can also involve entering into international agreements to underpin international energy trading relationships, such as the Energy Charter Treaty in Europe. All the concern coming from security threats on oil sources long term security measures will help reduce the future cost of importing and exporting fuel into and out of countries without having to worry about harm coming to the goods being transported.

The impact of the 1973 oil crisis and the emergence of the OPEC cartel was a particular milestone that prompted some countries to increase their energy security. Japan, almost totally dependent on imported oil, steadily introduced the use of natural gas, nuclear power, high-speed mass transit systems, and implemented energy conservation measures. The United Kingdom began exploiting North Sea oil and gas reserves, and became a net exporter of energy into the 2000s.

In other countries energy security has historically been a lower priority. The United States, for example, has continued to increase its dependency on imported oil although, following the oil price increases since 2003, the development of biofuels has been suggested as a means of addressing this.

Increasing energy security is also one of the reasons behind a block on the development of natural gas imports in Sweden. Greater investment in native renewable energy technologies and energy conservation is envisaged instead. India is carrying out a major hunt for domestic oil to decrease its dependency on OPEC, while Iceland is well advanced in its plans to become energy independent by 2050 through deploying 100% renewable energy.

Short-term security

Petroleum

Petroleum, otherwise known as "crude oil", has become the resource most used by countries all around the world including Russia, China (actually, China is mostly dependent on coal (70.5% in 2010)) and the United States of America. With all the oil wells located around the world energy security has become a main issue to ensure the safety of the petroleum that is being harvested. In the middle east oil fields become main targets for sabotage because of how heavily countries rely on oil. Many countries hold strategic petroleum reserves as a buffer against the economic and political impacts of an energy crisis. All 28 members of the International Energy Agency hold a minimum of 90 days of their oil imports, for example.

The value of such reserves was demonstrated by the relative lack of disruption caused by the 2007 Russia-Belarus energy dispute, when Russia indirectly cut exports to several countries in the European Union.

Due to the theories in peak oil and need to curb demand, the United States military and Department of Defense had made significant cuts, and have been making a number of attempts to come up with more efficient ways to use oil.

Natural gas

Compared to petroleum, reliance on imported natural gas creates significant short-term vulnerabilities. The gas conflicts between Ukraine and Russia of 2006 and 2009 serve as vivid examples of this. Many European countries saw an immediate drop in supply when Russian gas supplies were halted during the Russia-Ukraine gas dispute in 2006.

Natural gas has been a viable source of energy in the world. Consisting of mostly methane, natural gas is produced using two methods: biogenic and thermogenic. Biogenic gas comes from methanogenic organisms located in marshes and landfills, whereas thermogenic gas comes from the anaerobic decay of organic matter deep under the Earth's surface. Russia is the current leading country in production of natural gas.

One of the biggest problems currently facing natural gas providers is the ability to store and transport it. With its low density, it is difficult to build enough pipelines in North America to transport sufficient natural gas to match demand. These pipelines are reaching near capacity and even at full capacity do not produce the amount of gas needed.

Nuclear power

Sources of uranium delivered to EU utilities in 2007, from the 2007 Annual report of the Euratom Supply Agency

 

Uranium for nuclear power is mined and enriched in diverse and "stable" countries. These include Canada (23% of the world's total in 2007), Australia (21%), Kazakhstan (16%) and more than 10 other countries. Uranium is mined and fuel is manufactured significantly in advance of need. Nuclear fuel is considered by some to be a relatively reliable power source, being more common in the Earth's crust than tin, mercury or silver, though a debate over the timing of peak uranium does exist.

Nuclear power reduces carbon emissions. Although a very viable resource, nuclear power can be a controversial solution because of the risks associated with it. Another factor in the debate with nuclear power is that many people or companies simply do not want any nuclear energy plant or radioactive waste near them.

Currently, nuclear power provides 13% of the world's total electricity. The most notable use of nuclear power within the United States is in U.S. Navy aircraft carriers and submarines, which have been exclusively nuclear-powered for several decades. These classes of ship provide the core of the Navy's power, and as such are the single most noteworthy application of nuclear power in that country.

Renewable energy

The deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the diversity of electricity sources and, through local generation, contributes to the flexibility of the system and its resistance to central shocks. For those countries where growing dependence on imported gas is a significant energy security issue, renewable technologies can provide alternative sources of electric power as well as displacing electricity demand through direct heat production. Renewable biofuels for transport represent a key source of diversification from petroleum products.

As the resources that have been so crucial to survival in the world to this day start declining in numbers, countries will begin to realize that the need for renewable fuel sources will be as vital as ever. With the production of new types of energy, including solar, geothermal, hydro-electric, biofuel, and wind power. With the amount of solar energy that hits the world in one hour there is enough energy to power the world for one year. With the addition of solar panels all around the world a little less pressure is taken off the need to produce more oil.

Geothermal can potentially lead to other sources of fuel, if companies would take the heat from the inner core of the earth to heat up water sources we could essentially use the steam creating from the heated water to power machines, this option is one of the cleanest and efficient options. Hydro-electric which has been incorporated into many of the dams around the world, produces a lot of energy, and is very easy to produce the energy as the dams control the water that is allowed through seams which power turbines located inside of the dam. Biofuels have been researched using many different sources including ethanol and algae, these options are substantially cleaner than the consumption of petroleum. "Most life cycle analysis results for perennial and ligno-cellulosic crops conclude that biofuels can supplement anthropogenic energy demands and mitigate green house gas emissions to the atmosphere". Using oil to fuel transportation is a major source of green house gases, any one of these developments could replace the energy we derive from oil. Traditional fossil fuel exporters (e.g. Russia) struggle to diversify away from oil and develop renewable energy.

National security

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Security measures taken to protect the Houses of Parliament in London, UK. These heavy blocks of concrete are designed to prevent a car bomb or other device being rammed into the building.

 

President Reagan in a briefing with National Security Council staff on the Libya Bombing on 15 April 1986

 

National security is the security of a nation state, including its citizens, economy, and institutions, which is regarded as a duty of government. 

Originally conceived as protection against military attack, national security is now widely understood to include non-military dimensions, including the security from terrorism, crime, economic security, energy security, environmental security, food security, cyber security etc. Similarly, national security risks include, in addition to the actions of other nation states, action by violent non-state actors, narcotic cartels, and multinational corporations, and also the effects of natural disasters.

Governments rely on a range of measures, including political, economic, and military power, as well as diplomacy to enforce national security. They may also act to build the conditions of security regionally and internationally by reducing transnational causes of insecurity, such as climate change, economic inequality, political exclusion, and nuclear proliferation.

Definitions

The concept of national security remains ambiguous, having evolved from simpler definitions which emphasised freedom from military threat and from political coercion. Among the many definitions proposed to date are the following, which show how the concept has evolved to encompass non-military concerns:

• "A nation has security when it does not have to sacrifice its legitimate ínterests to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by war." (Walter Lippmann, 1943).
• "The distinctive meaning of national security means freedom from foreign dictation." (Harold Lasswell, 1950)
• "National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, the absence of fear that such values will be attacked." (Arnold Wolfers, 1960)
• "National security then is the ability to preserve the nation's physical integrity and territory; to maintain its economic relations with the rest of the world on reasonable terms; to preserve its nature, institution, and governance from disruption from outside; and to control its borders." (Harold Brown, U.S. Secretary of Defense, 1977-1981)
• "National security... is best described as a capacity to control those domestic and foreign conditions that the public opinion of a given community believes necessary to enjoy its own self-determination or autonomy, prosperity and wellbeing." (Charles Maier, 1990)
• "National security is an appropriate and aggressive blend of political resilience and maturity, human resources, economic structure and capacity, technological competence, industrial base and availability of natural resources and finally the military might." (National Defence College of India, 1996)
• "[National security is the] measurable state of the capability of a nation to overcome the multi-dimensional threats to the apparent well-being of its people and its survival as a nation-state at any given time, by balancing all instruments of state policy through governance... and is extendable to global security by variables external to it." (Prabhakaran Paleri, 2008)
• "[National and international security] may be understood as a shared freedom from fear and want, and the freedom to live in dignity. It implies social and ecological health rather than the absence of risk... [and is] a common right." (Ammerdown Group, 2016)

Dimensions of national security

Potential causes of national insecurity include actions by other states (e.g. military or cyber attack), violent non-state actors (e.g. terrorist attack), organised criminal groups such as narcotic cartels, and also the effects of natural disasters (e.g. flooding, earthquakes). Systemic drivers of insecurity, which may be transnational, include climate change, economic inequality and marginalisation, political exclusion, and militarisation.

In view of the wide range of risks, the security of a nation state has several dimensions, including economic security, energy security, physical security, environmental security, food security, border security, and cyber security. These dimensions correlate closely with elements of national power. 

Increasingly, governments organise their security policies into a national security strategy (NSS); as of 2017, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States are among the states to have done so. Some states also appoint a National Security Council to oversee the strategy and/or a National Security Advisor.

Although states differ in their approach, with some beginning to prioritise non-military action to tackle systemic drivers of insecurity, various forms of coercive power predominate, particularly military capabilities. The scope of these capabilities has developed. Traditionally, military capabilities were mainly land- or sea-based, and in smaller countries they still are. Elsewhere, the domains of potential warfare now include the air, space, cyberspace, and psychological operations. Military capabilities designed for these domains may be used for national security, or equally for offensive purposes, for example to conquer and annex territory and resources.

Physical security

In practice, national security is associated primarily with managing physical threats and with the military capabilities used for doing so. That is, national security is often understood as the capacity of a nation to mobilise military forces to guarantee its borders and to deter or successfully defend against physical threats including military aggression and attacks by non-state actors, such as terrorism. Most states, such as South Africa and Sweden, configure their military forces mainly for territorial defence; others, such as France, Russia, the UK and the US, invest in higher-cost expeditionary capabilities, which allow their armed forces to project power and sustain military operations abroad.

Political security

Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver, Jaap de Wilde and others have argued that national security depends on political security: the stability of the social order. Others, such as Paul Rogers, have added that the equitability of the international order is equally vital. Hence, political security depends on the rule of international law (including the laws of war), the effectiveness of international political institutions, as well as diplomacy and negotiation between nations and other security actors. It also depends on, among other factors, effective political inclusion of disaffected groups and the human security of the citizenry.

Economic security

Economic security, in the context of international relations, is the ability of a nation state to maintain and develop the national economy, without which other dimensions of national security cannot be managed. In larger countries, strategies for economic security expect to access resources and markets in other countries, and to protect their own markets at home. Developing countries may be less secure than economically advanced states due to high rates of unemployment and underpaid work.

Ecological security

Ecological security, also known as environmental security, refers to the integrity of ecosystems and the biosphere, particularly in relation to their capacity to sustain a diversity of life-forms (including human life). The security of ecosystems has attracted greater attention as the impact of ecological damage by humans has grown. The degradation of ecosystems, including topsoil erosion, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and climate change, affect economic security and can precipitate mass migration, leading to increased pressure on resources elsewhere. 

The scope and nature of environmental threats to national security and strategies to engage them are a subject of debate. Romm (1993) classifies the major impacts of ecological changes on national security as:

• Transnational environmental problems. These include global environmental problems such as climate change due to global warming, deforestation, and loss of biodiversity.
• Local environmental or resource pressures. These include resource scarcities leading to local conflict, such as disputes over water scarcity in the Middle East; migration into the United States caused by the failure of agriculture in Mexico; and the impact on the conflict in Syria of erosion of productive land. Environmental insecurity in Rwanda following a rise in population and dwindling availability of farmland, may also have contributed to the genocide there.
• Environmentally threatening outcomes of warfare. These include acts of war that degrade or destroy ecosystems. Examples are the Roman destruction of agriculture in Carthage; Saddam Hussein's burning of oil wells in the Gulf War; the use of Agent Orange by the UK in the Malayan Emergency and the USA in the Vietnam War for defoliating forests; and the high greenhouse gas emissions of military forces.

Climate change is affecting global agriculture and food security

 

Refugees fleeing war and insecurity in Iraq and Syria arrive at Lesbos Island, supported by Spanish volunteers, 2015

Security of energy and natural resources

Resources include water, sources of energy, land and minerals. Availability of adequate natural resources is important for a nation to develop its industry and economic power. For example, in the Persian Gulf War of 1991, Iraq captured Kuwait partly in order to secure access to its oil wells, and one reason for the US counter-invasion was the value of the same wells to its own economy. Water resources are subject to disputes between many nations, including India and Pakistan, and in the Middle East.

The interrelations between security, energy, natural resources, and their sustainability is increasingly acknowledged in national security strategies and resource security is now included among the UN Sustainable Development Goals. In the US, for example, the military has installed solar photovoltaic microgrids on their bases in case of power outage.

Computer security

Computer security, also known as cybersecurity or IT security, refers to the security of computing devices such as computers and smartphones, as well as computer networks such as private and public networks, and the Internet. It concerns the protection of hardware, software, data, people, and also the procedures by which systems are accessed, and the field has growing importance due to the increasing reliance on computer systems in most societies. Since unauthorized access to critical civil and military infrastructure is now considered a major threat, cyberspace is now recognised as a domain of warfare.

Infrastructure security

Infrastructure security is the security provided to protect infrastructure, especially critical infrastructure, such as airports, highways rail transport, hospitals, bridges, transport hubs, network communications, media, the electricity grid, dams, power plants, seaports, oil refineries, and water systems. Infrastructure security seeks to limit vulnerability of these structures and systems to sabotage, terrorism, and contamination.

Many countries have established government agencies to directly manage the security of critical infrastructure usually through the Ministry of Interior/Home Affairs, dedicated security agencies to protect facilities such as United States Federal Protective Service, and also dedicated transport police such as the British Transport Police. There are also commercial transportation security units such as the Amtrak Police in the United States. Critical infrastructure is vital for the essential functioning of a country. Incidental or deliberate damage can have a serious impact on the economy and essential services. Some of the threats to infrastructure include:

• Terrorism: person or groups deliberately targeting critical infrastructure for political gain. In the November 2008 Mumbai attacks, the Mumbai central station and hospital were deliberately targeted, for example.
• Sabotage: person or groups such as ex-employees, anti-government groups, environmental groups. Refer to Bangkok's International Airport Seized by Protestors.
• Information warfare: private person hacking for private gain or countries initiating attacks to glean information and damage a country's cyber infrastructure. Cyberattacks on Estonia and cyberattacks during the 2008 South Ossetia war are examples.
• Natural disaster: hurricane or other natural events which damage critical infrastructure such as oil pipelines, water and power grids. See Hurricane Ike and Economic effects of Hurricane Katrina for examples.

Issues in national security

Consistency of approach

The dimensions of national security outlined above are frequently in tension with one another. For example:

• The high cost of maintaining large military forces places a burden on the economic security of a nation. The share of government expenditure on state armed forces varies internationally; for example, in 2015 it was 4% in Germany, 9% in Chile, 14% in the USA, 15% in Israel, and 19% in Pakistan. Conversely, economic constraints can limit the scale of expenditure on military capabilities.
• Unilateral security action by states can undermine political security at an international level if it erodes the rule of law and undermines the authority of international institutions. The invasion of Iraq in 2003 and the annexation of Crimea in 2014 have been cited as examples.
• The pursuit of economic security in competition with other nation states can undermine the ecological security of all when the impact includes widespread topsoil erosion, biodiversity loss, and climate change. Conversely, expenditure on mitigating or adapting to ecological change places a burden on the national economy.

If tensions such as these are not managed effectively, national security policies and actions may be ineffective or counterproductive.

National versus transnational security

Increasingly, national security strategies have begun to recognise that nations cannot provide for their own security without also developing the security of their regional and international context. For example, Sweden's national security strategy of 2017 declared:

"Wider security measures must also now encompass protection against epidemics and infectious diseases, combating terrorism and organised crime, ensuring safe transport and reliable food supplies, protecting against energy supply interruptions, countering devastating climate change, initiatives for peace and global development, and much more."

A US fighter jet over a burning oil well in Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War, 1991

 

The extent to which this matters, and how it should be done, is the subject of debate. Some argue that the principal beneficiary of national security policy should be the nation state itself, which should centre its strategy on protective and coercive capabilities in order to safeguard itself in a hostile environment (and potentially to project that power into its environment, and dominate it to the point of strategic supremacy). Others argue that security depends principally on building the conditions in which equitable relationships between nations can develop, partly by reducing antagonism between actors, ensuring that fundamental needs can be met, and also that differences of interest can be negotiated effectively. In the UK, for example, Malcolm Chalmers argued in 2015 that the heart of the UK's approach should be support for the Western strategic military alliance led through NATO by the United States, as "the key anchor around which international order is maintained". The Ammerdown Group argued in 2016 that the UK should shift its primary focus to building international cooperation to tackle the systemic drivers of insecurity, including climate change, economic inequality, militarisation and the political exclusion of the world's poorest people.

Impact on civil liberties and human rights

Approaches to national security can have a complex impact on human rights and civil liberties. For example, the rights and liberties of citizens are affected by the use of military personnel and militarised police forces to control public behaviour; the use of surveillance, including mass surveillance in cyberspace, which has implications for privacy; military recruitment and conscription practices; and the effects of warfare on civilians and civil infrastructure. This has led to a dialectical struggle, particularly in liberal democracies, between government authority and the rights and freedoms of the general public. 

The National Security Agency harvests personal data across the internet.

 

Even where the exercise of national security is subject to good governance and the rule of law, a risk remains that the term national security may be become a pretext for suppressing unfavorable political and social views. In the US, for example, the controversial USA Patriot Act of 2001, and the revelation by Edward Snowden in 2013 that the National Security Agency harvests the personal data of the general public, brought these issues to wide public attention. Among the questions raised are whether and how national security considerations at times of war should lead to the suppression of individual rights and freedoms, and whether such restrictions are necessary when a state is not at war.

See also: Civil liberties, Human rights, and Mass surveillance

Country-by-country perspectives

Americas

Brazil

National Security ideology as taught by the US Army School of the Americas to military personnel were vital in causing the military coup of 1964. The military dictatorship was installed on the claim by military that Leftists were an existential threat to the national interests.

United States

National Security Act of 1947

The concept of national security became an official guiding principle of foreign policy in the United States when the National Security Act of 1947 was signed on July 26, 1947 by U.S. President Harry S. Truman. As amended in 1949, this Act:

• created important components of American national security, such as the precursor to the Department of Defense;
• subordinated the military branches to the new cabinet-level position of Secretary of Defense;
• established the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency;

Notably, the Act did not define national security, which was conceivably advantageous, as its ambiguity made it a powerful phrase to invoke whenever issues threatened by other interests of the state, such as domestic concerns, came up for discussion and decision.

The notion that national security encompasses more than just military security was present, though understated, from the beginning. The Act established the National Security Council so as to "advise the President on the integration of domestic, military and foreign policies relating to national security".

While not defining the "interests" of national security, the Act does establish, within the National Security Council, the "Committee on Foreign Intelligence", whose duty is to conduct an annual review "identifying the intelligence required to address the national security interests of the United States as specified by the President" (emphasis added).

In Gen. Maxwell Taylor's 1974 essay "The Legitimate Claims of National Security", Taylor states:

The national valuables in this broad sense include current assets and national interests, as well as the sources of strength upon which our future as a nation depends. Some valuables are tangible and earthy; others are spiritual or intellectual. They range widely from political assets such as the Bill of Rights, our political institutions and international friendships, to many economic assets which radiate worldwide from a highly productive domestic economy supported by rich natural resources. It is the urgent need to protect valuables such as these which legitimizes and makes essential the role of national security.

Obama administration

The U.S. Armed Forces defines national security of the United States in the following manner:

A collective term encompassing both national defense and foreign relations of the United States. Specifically, the condition provided by: a. a military or defense advantage over any foreign nation or group of nations; b. a favorable foreign relations position; or c. a defense posture capable of successfully resisting hostile or destructive action from within or without, overt or covert.

In 2010, the White House included an all-encompassing world-view in a national security strategy which identified "security" as one of the country's "four enduring national interests" that were "inexorably intertwined":

To achieve the world we seek, the United States must apply our strategic approach in pursuit of four enduring national interests:

• Security:  The security of the United States, its citizens, and U.S. allies and partners.
• Prosperity:  A strong, innovative, and growing U.S. economy in an open international economic system that promotes opportunity and prosperity.
• Values: Respect for universal values at home and around the world.
• International Order:  An international order advanced by U.S. leadership that promotes peace, security, and opportunity through stronger cooperation to meet global challenges.

Each of these interests is inextricably linked to the others: no single interest can be pursued in isolation, but at the same time, positive action in one area will help advance all four.

— National Security Strategy, Executive Office of the President of the United States (May 2010)

Empowerment of women

U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has said that, "The countries that threaten regional and global peace are the very places where women and girls are deprived of dignity and opportunity". She has noted that countries where women are oppressed are places where the "rule of law and democracy are struggling to take root", and that, when women's rights as equals in society are upheld, the society as a whole changes and improves, which in turn enhances stability in that society, which in turn contributes to global society.

Cyber

In the United States, the Bush Administration in January 2008, initiated the Comprehensive National Cybersecurity Initiative (CNCI). It introduced a differentiated approach, such as: identifying existing and emerging cybersecurity threats, finding and plugging existing cyber vulnerabilities, and apprehending actors that trying to gain access to secure federal information systems. President Obama issued a declaration that the "cyber threat is one of the most serious economic and national security challenges we face as a nation" and that "America's economic prosperity in the 21st century will depend on cybersecurity."

National security state

To reflect on institutionalization of new bureaucratic infrastructures and governmental practices in the post-World War II period in the U.S., when a culture of semi-permanent military mobilization brought around the National Security Council, the CIA, the Department of Defense, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff, national-security researchers apply a notion of a national security state:

During and after World War II, US leaders expanded the concept of national security and used its terminology for the first time to explain America’s relationship to the world. For most of US history, the physical security of the continental United States had not been in jeopardy. But by 1945, this invulnerability was rapidly diminishing with the advent of long-range bombers, atom bombs, and ballistic missiles. A general perception grew that the future would not allow time to mobilize, that preparation would have to become constant. For the first time, American leaders would have to deal with the essential paradox of national security faced by the Roman Empire and subsequent great powers: Si vis pacem, para bellum — If you want peace, prepare for war.

— David Jablonsky

Asia

China

China's Armed Forces are known as the People's Liberation Army (PLA). The military is largest in the world with 2.3 million active troops in 2005.

The Ministry of State Security was established in 1983 to ensure “the security of the state through effective measures against enemy agents, spies, and counterrevolutionary activities designed to sabotage or overthrow China’s socialist system.”

Muslim separatists in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region are China's most significant domestic threat.

India

State of the national security of Republic of India is determined by its internal stability and geopolitical interests. India maintains its position as one of major economic and military powers and continues to emerge to strengthen its stature and diplomatic clout. While Islamic upsurge in Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir demanding secession and far left wing terrorism in India's red corridor remain some key issues in India's internal security, terrorism from Pakistan based militant groups has been emerging as a major concern for New Delhi.

National Security Advisor of India heads National Security Council of India, receives all kinds of intelligence reports and is chief advisor to the Prime Minister of India over national and international security policy. National Security Council has India's defence, foreign, home, finance ministers and deputy chairman of NITI Aayog as its members and is responsible for shaping strategies for India's security in all aspects.

Europe

Russia

In the years 1997 and 2000, Russia adopted documents titled "National Security Concept" that described Russia's global position, the country's interests, listed threats to national security and described the means to counter those threats. In 2009, these documents were superseded by the "National Security Strategy to 2020". The key body responsible for coordination of policies related to Russia's national security is the Security Council of Russia.

According to provision 6 of the National Security Strategy to 2020, national security is "the situation in which the individual, the society and the state enjoy protection from foreign and domestic threats to the degree that ensures constitutional rights and freedoms, decent quality of life for citizens, as well as sovereignty, territorial integrity and stable development of the Russian Federation, the defense and security of the state."

United Kingdom

The primary body responsible for coordinating national security policy in the UK is the National Security Council (United Kingdom) which helps produce and enact the UK's National Security Strategy. It was created in May 2010 by the new coalition government of the Conservative Party (UK) and Liberal Democrats. The National Security Council is a committee of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and was created as part of a wider reform of the national security apparatus. This reform also included the creation of a National Security Adviser and a National Security Secretariat to support the National Security Council.

Africa

Conceptualizing and understanding the National Security choices and challenges of African States is a difficult task. This is due to the fact that it is often not rooted in the understanding of their (mostly disrupted) state formation and their often imported process of state building.

Although Post-Cold War conceptualizations of Security have broadened, the policies and practices of many African states still privilege national security as being synonymous with state security and even more narrowly- regime security.

The problem with the above is that a number of African states (be specific) have been unable to govern their security in meaningful ways. Often failing to be able to claim the monopoly of force in their territories. The hybridity of security ‘governance’ or ‘providers’ thus exists. States that have not been able to capture this reality in official National Security strategies and policies often find their claim over having the monopoly of force and thus being the Sovereign challenged. This often leads to the weakening of the state. Examples of such states are South Sudan and Somalia.