Simple textile (magnified)
Late antique textile, Egyptian, now in the Dumbarton Oaks collection
Mrs. Condé Nast wearing a silk Fortuny tea gown
A textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibers (yarn or thread). Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, or other materials to produce long strands. Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting or tatting, felting, or braiding.
The related words "fabric" and "cloth" and "material" are often used in textile assembly trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. A textile is any material made of interlacing fibres, including carpeting and geotextiles. A fabric
is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or
bonding that may be used in production of further goods (garments,
etc.). Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric that has been processed.
Etymology
The word 'textile' is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning 'woven', from textus, the past participle of the verb texere, 'to weave'.
The word 'fabric' also derives from Latin, most recently from the Middle French fabrique, or 'building, thing made', and earlier as the Latin fabrica 'workshop; an art, trade; a skilful production, structure, fabric', which is from the Latin faber, or 'artisan who works in hard materials', from PIE dhabh-, meaning 'to fit together'.
The word 'cloth' derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz (compare O.Frisian 'klath', Middle Dutch 'cleet', Dutch 'kleed', Middle High German 'kleit', and German 'kleid', all meaning "garment").
History
The
first clothes, worn at least 70,000 years ago and perhaps much earlier,
were probably made of animal skins and helped protect early humans from
the ice ages. Then at some point people learned to weave plant fibers
into textiles.
The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times.
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The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of
production has been altered almost beyond recognition by
industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing
techniques. However, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods.
Uses
Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for containers such as bags and baskets. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art. In the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Miscellaneous uses include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, handkerchiefs, cleaning rags, transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes; textiles are also used to provide strengthening in composite materials such as fibreglass and industrial geotextiles. Textiles are used in many traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting and embroidery.
Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles.
Technical textiles include textile structures for automotive
applications, medical textiles (e.g. implants), geotextiles
(reinforcement of embankments), agrotextiles (textiles for crop protection),
protective clothing (e.g. against heat and radiation for fire fighter
clothing, against molten metals for welders, stab protection, and bullet proof vests). In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met. Woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires,
laboratory fabric has been shown capable of "self-powering nanosystems"
using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body
movements.
Sources and types
Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources: animal (wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute, bamboo), mineral (asbestos, glass fibre), and synthetic (nylon, polyester, acrylic, rayon). The first three are natural. In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum.
Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest microfibre made of strands thinner than one denier to the sturdiest canvas. Textile manufacturing terminology has a wealth of descriptive terms, from light gauze-like gossamer to heavy grosgrain cloth and beyond.
Animal
Wool refers to the hair of the domestic sheep or goat,
which is distinguished from other types of animal hair in that the
individual strands are coated with scales and tightly crimped, and the
wool as a whole is coated with a wax mixture known as lanolin (sometimes called wool grease), which is waterproof and dirtproof. Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, while worsted refers to a finer yarn spun from longer fibres which have been combed to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for warm clothing. Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, and mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.
Other animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicuña wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings. Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit. Qiviut is the fine inner wool of the muskox.
Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 1000~1500 CE.
Sea silk
is an extremely fine, rare, and valuable fabric that is made from the
silky filaments or byssus secreted by a gland in the foot of pen shells.
Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm
which is spun into a smooth fabric prized for its softness. There are
two main types of the silk: 'mulberry silk' produced by the Bombyx Mori, and 'wild silk' such as Tussah silk
(wild silk). Silkworm larvae produce the first type if cultivated in
habitats with fresh mulberry leaves for consumption, while Tussah silk
is produced by silkworms feeding purely on oak leaves. Around
four-fifths of the world's silk production consists of cultivated silk.
Plant
Grass, rush, hemp, and sisal are all used in making rope. In the first two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, while in the last two, only fibres from the plant are utilized. Coir (coconut fibre) is used in making twine, and also in floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking.
Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok.
Cotton, flax, jute, hemp, modal and even bamboo fibre are all used in clothing. Piña (pineapple fibre) and ramie
are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other
fibres such as cotton. Nettles have also been used to make a fibre and
fabric very similar to hemp or flax. The use of milkweed stalk fibre has
also been reported, but it tends to be somewhat weaker than other
fibres like hemp or flax.
The inner bark of the lacebark tree is a fine netting that has been used to make clothing and accessories as well as utilitarian articles such as rope.
Seaweed is used in the production of textiles: a water-soluble fibre known as alginate is produced and is used as a holding fibre; when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leaving an open area.
Rayon
is a manufactured fabric derived from plant pulp. Different types of
rayon can imitate the feel and texture of silk, cotton, wool, or linen.
Fibres from the stalks of plants, such as hemp, flax, and nettles, are also known as 'bast' fibres.
Mineral
Asbestos and basalt fibre
are used for vinyl tiles, sheeting and adhesives, "transite" panels and
siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and fire blankets.
Glass fibre
is used in the production of ironing board and mattress covers, ropes
and cables, reinforcement fibre for composite materials, insect netting,
flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and
insulating fibres. Glass fibres are woven and coated with Teflon to produce beta cloth, a virtually fireproof fabric which replaced nylon in the outer layer of United States space suits since 1968.
Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewellery. Hardware cloth (US term only) is a coarse woven mesh of steel wire, used in construction. It is much like standard window screening, but heavier and with a more open weave.
Minerals and natural and synthetic fabrics may be combined, as in emery cloth, a layer of emery
abrasive glued to a cloth backing. Also, "sand cloth" is a U.S. term
for fine wire mesh with abrasive glued to it, employed like emery cloth
or coarse sandpaper.
Synthetic
Woven tartan of Clan Campbell, Scotland
Embroidered skirts by the Alfaro-Nùñez family of Cochas, Peru, using traditional Peruvian embroidery methods
Synthetic textiles are used primarily in the production of clothing, as well as the manufacture of geotextiles.
Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.
Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools, including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.
Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk; it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.
Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane product that can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make activewear, bras, and swimsuits.
Olefin fibre
is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are
hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin
fibres is sold under the trade name Tyvek.
Ingeo is a polylactide
fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing.
It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick
away perspiration.
Lurex is a metallic fibre used in clothing embellishment.
Milk proteins have also been used to create synthetic fabric. Milk or casein fibre cloth was developed during World War I in Germany, and further developed in Italy and America during the 1930s.
Milk fibre fabric is not very durable and wrinkles easily, but has a pH
similar to human skin and possesses anti-bacterial properties. It is
marketed as a biodegradable, renewable synthetic fibre.
Carbon fibre is mostly used in composite materials, together with resin, such as carbon fibre reinforced plastic. The fibres are made from polymer fibres through carbonization.
A. C. Lawrence Leather Co. c. 1910 Peabody, Massachusetts, US
Production methods
| Top five exporters of textiles—2013 ($ billion) | |
|---|---|
| China | 274 |
| India | 40 |
| Italy | 36 |
| Germany | 35 |
| Bangladesh | 28 |
Weaving is a textile production method which involves interlacing a set of longer threads (called the warp) with a set of crossing threads (called the weft). This is done on a frame or machine known as a loom, of which there are a number of types. Some weaving is still done by hand, but the vast majority is mechanized.
Knitting, looping, and crocheting involve interlacing loops of yarn, which are formed either on a knitting needle, needle, or on a crochet hook,
together in a line. The processes are different in that knitting has
several active loops at one time, on the knitting needle waiting to
interlock with another loop, while Looping and crocheting never have
more than one active loop on the needle. Knitting can be performed by
machine, but crochet can only be performed by hand.
Spread Tow
is a production method where the yarn are spread into thin tapes, and
then the tapes are woven as warp and weft. This method is mostly used
for composite materials; spread tow fabrics can be made in carbon, aramide, etc.
Braiding or plaiting involves twisting threads together into cloth. Knotting involves tying threads together and is used in making tatting and macrame.
Lace
is made by interlocking threads together independently, using a backing
and any of the methods described above, to create a fine fabric with
open holes in the work. Lace can be made by either hand or machine.
Carpets, rugs, velvet, velour, and velveteen are made by interlacing a secondary yarn through woven cloth, creating a tufted layer known as a nap or pile.
Felting involves pressing a mat of fibres together, and working
them together until they become tangled. A liquid, such as soapy water,
is usually added to lubricate the fibres, and to open up the
microscopic scales on strands of wool.
Nonwoven
textiles are manufactured by the bonding of fibres to make fabric.
Bonding may be thermal or mechanical, or adhesives can be used.
Bark cloth is made by pounding bark until it is soft and flat.
Treatments
Textiles are often dyed,
with fabrics available in almost every colour. The dyeing process often
requires several dozen gallons of water for each pound of clothing.[19] Coloured designs in textiles can be created by weaving together fibres of different colours (tartan or Uzbek Ikat), adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery), creating patterns by resist dyeing methods, tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dyeing), or drawing wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), or using various printing processes on finished fabric. Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220 CE in China. Textiles are also sometimes bleached, making the textile pale or white.
Textiles are sometimes finished by chemical processes to change their
characteristics. In the 19th century and early 20th century starching was commonly used to make clothing more resistant to stains and wrinkles.
Eisengarn, meaning "iron yarn" in English, is a light-reflecting, strong material invented in Germany
in the 19th century. It is made by soaking cotton threads in a starch
and paraffin wax solution. The threads are then stretched and polished
by steel rollers and brushes. The end result of the process is a
lustrous, tear-resistant yarn which is extremely hardwearing.
Since the 1990s, with advances in technologies such as permanent press process, finishing agents have been used to strengthen fabrics and make them wrinkle free.
More recently, nanomaterials research has led to additional
advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons
developing permanent treatments based on metallic nanoparticles for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.
Textiles receive a range of treatments before they reach the end-user. From formaldehyde
finishes (to improve crease-resistance) to biocidic finishes and from
flame retardants to dyeing of many types of fabric, the possibilities
are almost endless. However, many of these finishes may also have
detrimental effects on the end user. A number of disperse, acid and
reactive dyes (for example) have been shown to be allergenic to
sensitive individuals. Further to this, specific dyes within this group have also been shown to induce purpuric contact dermatitis.
Although formaldehyde levels in clothing are unlikely to be at levels high enough to cause an allergic reaction,
due to the presence of such a chemical, quality control and testing are
of utmost importance. Flame retardants (mainly in the brominated form)
are also of concern where the environment, and their potential toxicity,
are concerned.
Testing for these additives is possible at a number of commercial
laboratories, it is also possible to have textiles tested for according
to the Oeko-tex certification standard which contains limits levels for the use of certain chemicals in textiles products.
