With regard to Christianity, religion scholars have differed on whether Mormonism belongs with mainstream Christian tradition as a whole (i.e., Nicene Christianity), with some asserting that it amounts to a distinct Abrahamic religion in itself due to noteworthy theological differences. Rastafari, the heterogenous movement that originated in Jamaica
in the 1930s, is variously classified by religion scholars as either an
international socio-religious movement, a distinct Abrahamic religion,
or simply a new religious movement.
God is conceived as unique and perfect, free from all faults, deficiencies, and defects, and further held to be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, and completely infinite in all of his attributes, who has no partner or equal, being the sole creator of everything in existence. In Judaism, God is never portrayed in any image. The idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical in Judaism—it's considered akin to polytheism.The Torah specifically forbade ascribing partners to share his singular sovereignty, as he is considered to be the absolute one without a second, indivisible, and incomparable being, who is similar to nothing and nothing is comparable to him. Thus, God is unlike anything in or of the world as to be beyond all forms of human thought and expression.
God in Judaism is conceived as anthropomorphic, unique, benevolent, eternal, the creator of the universe, and the ultimate source of morality. Thus, the term God corresponds to an actual ontological reality, and is not merely a projection of the human psyche. Traditional interpretations of Judaism generally emphasize that God is personal yet also transcendent and able to intervene in the world, while some modern interpretations of Judaism emphasize that God is an impersonal force or ideal rather than a supernatural being concerned with the universe.
In mainstream Christianity, theology and beliefs about God are enshrined in the doctrine of monotheisticTrinitarianism,
which holds that the three persons of the trinity are distinct but all
of the same indivisible essence, meaning that the Father is God, the
Holy Spirit is God, and the Son is God, yet there is one God as there is
one indivisible essence. These mainstream Christian doctrines were largely formulated at the Council of Nicaea and are enshrined in the Nicene Creed. The Trinitarian view emphasizes that God has a will, and that God the Son has two natures, divine and human, though these are never in conflict but joined in the hypostatic union.
In the belief system held by the Christian churches that adhere to the Latter Day Saint movement and most Mormon denominations, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the term God refers to Elohim (God the Father), whereas Godhead means a council of three distinct gods: Elohim (the Eternal Father), Jehovah (God the Son, Jesus Christ), and the Holy Ghost, in a Non-trinitarian conception of the Godhead. The Father and Son have perfected, material bodies, while the Holy Ghost is a spirit and does not have a body.
This differs significantly from mainstream Christian Trinitarianism; in
Mormonism, the three persons are considered to be physically separate
beings, or personages, but united in will and purpose. As such, the term Godhead differs from how it is used in mainstream Christianity. This description of God represents the orthodoxy of the LDS Church, established early in the 19th century.
In Islam, God (Allah) (Arabic: ٱللَّٰه, romanized: Allāh, IPA:[ɑɫˈɫɑː(h)]ⓘ, lit. "the God") is the supreme being, all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer, and judge of the universe.Islam puts a heavy emphasis on the conceptualization of God as strictly singular (tawhid). He is considered to be unique (wahid) and inherently one (ahad), all-merciful and omnipotent. According to the Quran, there are 99 Names of God (al-asma al-husna, lit. meaning: "The best names") each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of God. All these names refer to Allah, considered to be the supreme and all-comprehensive divine Arabic name. Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and most frequent of these names are "the Entirely Merciful" (al-Rahman) and "the Especially Merciful" (al-Rahim).
Islam rejects the doctrine of the Incarnation and the notion of a personal God as anthropomorphic, because it is seen as demeaning to the transcendence of God.
The Quran prescribes the fundamental transcendental criterion in the
following verses: "The Lord of the heavens and the earth and what is
between them, so serve Him and be patient in His service. Do you know
any one equal to Him?" (19:65);
"(He is) the Creator of the heavens and the earth: there is nothing
whatever like unto Him, and He is the One that hears and sees (all
things)" (42:11); "And there is none comparable unto Him" (112:4). Therefore, Islam strictly rejects all forms of anthropomorphism and anthropopathism of the concept of God, and thus categorically rejects the Christian concept of the Trinity or division of persons in the Godhead.
Muslims believe that Allah is the same God worshipped by the members of the Abrahamic religions that preceded Islam, i.e. Judaism and Christianity (29:46).
Creation and ordering of the universe is seen as an act of prime mercy
for which all creatures sing his glories and bear witness to his unity
and lordship. According to the Quran: "No vision can grasp Him, but His
grasp is over all vision. He is above all comprehension, yet is
acquainted with all things" (6:103). Similarly to Jews, Muslims explicitly reject the divinity of Jesus and don't believe in him as the incarnated God or Son of God, but instead consider him a human prophet and the promised Messiah sent by God, although the Islamic tradition itself is not unanimous on the question of Jesus' death and afterlife.
The writings of the Baháʼí Faith describe a monotheistic,
personal, inaccessible, omniscient, omnipresent, imperishable, and
almighty God who is the creator of all things in the universe. The existence of God and the universe is thought to be eternal, without a beginning or end.
Though transcendent and inaccessible directly, God is nevertheless seen as conscious of the creation, with a will and purpose that is expressed through messengers recognized in the Baháʼí Faith as the Manifestations of God (all the Jewish prophets, Zoroaster, Krishna, Gautama Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and ultimately Baháʼu'lláh). The purpose of the creation is for the created to have the capacity to know and love its creator, through such methods as prayer, reflection, and being of service to humankind.
God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through his
intermediaries, the prophets and messengers who have founded various world religions from the beginning of humankind up to the present day, and will continue to do so in the future.
The Manifestations of God reflect divine attributes, which are
creations of God made for the purpose of spiritual enlightenment, onto
the physical plane of existence. In the Baháʼí view, all physical beings reflect at least one of these attributes, and the human soul can potentially reflect all of them. The Baháʼí conception of God rejects all pantheistic, anthropomorphic, and incarnationist beliefs about God.
A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign (or viceroy) on state occasions; or the seat occupied by a pope or bishop on ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the monarchy itself, an instance of metonymy, and is also used in many expressions such as "the power behind the throne".
A throne is a symbol of divine and secular rule and the
establishment of a throne as a defining sign of the claim to power and
authority. It can be with a high backrest and feature heraldic animals
or other decorations as adornment and as a sign of power and strength. A
throne can be placed underneath a canopy or baldachin. The throne can stand on steps or a dais
and is thus always elevated. The expression "ascend (mount) the throne"
takes its meaning from the steps leading up to the dais or platform, on
which the throne is placed, being formerly comprised in the word's
significance. Coats of arms or insignia can feature on throne or canopy and represent the dynasty. Even in the physical absence of the ruler an empty throne can symbolise the everlasting presence of the monarchical authority.
When used in a political or governmental sense, a throne
typically exists in a civilization, nation, tribe, or other politically
designated group that is organized or governed under a monarchical system. Throughout much of human history societies have been governed under monarchical systems, in the beginning as autocratic systems and later evolved in most cases as constitutional monarchies
within liberal democratic systems, resulting in a wide variety of
thrones that have been used by given heads of state. These have ranged
from stools
in places such as in Africa to ornate chairs and bench-like designs in
Europe and Asia, respectively. Often, but not always, a throne is tied
to a philosophical or religious ideology
held by the nation or people in question, which serves a dual role in
unifying the people under the reigning monarch and connecting the
monarch upon the throne to his or her predecessors, who sat upon the
throne previously. Accordingly, many thrones are typically held to have
been constructed or fabricated out of rare or hard to find materials
that may be valuable or important to the land in question. Depending on
the size of the throne in question it may be large and ornately designed
as an emplaced instrument of a nation's power, or it may be a symbolic
chair with little or no precious materials incorporated into the design.
When used in a religious sense, throne can refer to one of two
distinct uses. The first use derives from the practice in churches of
having a bishop or higher-ranking religious official (archbishop, pope,
etc.) sit on a special chair which in church referred to by written
sources as a "throne", or “cathedra” (Latin for 'chair') and is intended
to allow such high-ranking religious officials a place to sit in their
place of worship. The other use for throne refers to a belief among many
of the world's monotheistic and polytheistic
religions that the deity or deities that they worship are seated on a
throne. Such beliefs go back to ancient times, and can be seen in
surviving artwork and texts which discuss the idea of ancient gods (such
as the Twelve Olympians) seated on thrones. In the major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the Throne of Yahweh
is attested to in religious scriptures and teachings, although the
origin, nature, and idea of the Throne of Yahweh in these religions
differs according to the given religious ideology practiced.
In the west, a throne is most identified as the seat upon which a person holding the title King, Queen, Emperor, or Empress sits in a nation using a monarchy
political system, although there are a few exceptions, notably with
regards to religious officials such as the pope and bishops of various
sects of the Christian faith. Changing geo-political tides have resulted
in the collapse of several dictatorial and autocratic governments,
which in turn have left a number of throne chairs empty. Many of these
thrones—such as China's Dragon Throne—survive today as historic examples of nation's previous government.
Thrones were found throughout the canon of ancient furniture. The depiction of monarchs and deities as seated on chairs is a common topos in the iconography of the Ancient Near East.
The word throne itself is from Greekθρόνος (thronos), "seat, chair", in origin a derivation from the PIE root *dher- "to support" (also in dharma "post, sacrificial pole"). Early Greek Διὸς θρόνους (Dios thronous) was a term for the "support of the heavens", i.e. the axis mundi, which term when Zeus became an anthropomorphic god was imagined as the "seat of Zeus". In Ancient Greek, a "thronos" was a specific but ordinary type of chair with a footstool, a high status object but not necessarily with any connotations of power. The Achaeans (according to Homer) were known to place additional, empty thrones in the royal palaces and temples so that the gods could be seated when they wished to be. The most famous of these thrones was the throne of Apollo in Amyclae.
The Romans also had two types of thrones—one for the emperor and one for the goddess Roma whose statues were seated upon thrones, which became centers of worship.
In Persia, the traditional name of the throne is the Takht-e Padeshah. From the Achaemenid era to the last Iranian dynasty Pahlavi, the throne was used for sitting shahs.
Hebrew Bible
The word "throne" in English translations of the Bible renders Hebrewכסאkissē'. The pharaoh of the Exodus is described as sitting on a throne (Exodus 11:5, 12:29), but mostly the term refers to the throne of the kingdom of Israel, often called the "throne of David" or "throne of Solomon". The literal throne of Solomon is described in 1 Kings 10:18–20:
"Moreover the king made a great throne of ivory, and overlaid it with
the best gold.. The throne had six steps, and the top of the throne was
round behind: and there were stays on either side on the place of the
seat, and two lions stood beside the stays. And twelve lions stood there
on the one side and on the other upon the six steps: there was not the
like made in any kingdom." In the Book of Esther (5:3), the same word refers to the throne of the king of Persia.
The God of Israel himself is frequently described as sitting on a throne, referred to outside of the Bible as the Throne of God, in the Psalms, and in a vision Isaiah (6:1), and notably in Isaiah 66:1, YHWH says of himself "The heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool" (this verse is alluded to by Matthew 5:34-35).
In the Old Testament, Book of Kings I
explicits the throne of Solomon: "Then the king made a great throne
covered with ivory and overlaid with fine gold. The throne had six
steps, and its back had a rounded top. On both sides of the seat were
armrests, with a lion standing beside each of them. Twelve lions stood
on the six steps, one at either end of each step" in Chapter 10 18-20.
In the New Testament, the angel Gabriel also refers to this throne in the Gospel of Luke (1:32–33): "He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Highest; and the LordGod
will give Him the throne of His father David. And He will reign over
the house of Jacob forever, and of His kingdom there will be no end."
In Medieval times the "Throne of Solomon" was associated with the Virgin Mary, who was depicted as the throne upon which Jesus sat.
The ivory in the biblical description of the Throne of Solomon was
interpreted as representing purity, the gold representing divinity, and
the six steps of the throne stood for the six virtues. Psalm 45:9 was also interpreted as referring to the Virgin Mary, with the entire Psalm describing a royal throne room.
Ecclesiastical
Throne of the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople in the Phanar, Istanbul. On the dais the Gospel is enthroned on a curule chair, in front of it, lower down is the patriarch's throne.
From ancient times, bishops of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and other churches where episcopal offices exist, have been formally seated on a throne, called a cathedra (Greek: κάθεδρα, seat). Traditionally located in the sanctuary, the cathedra symbolizes the bishop's authority to teach the faith (hence the expression "ex cathedra") and to govern his flock.
Ex cathedra refers to the explicative authority, notably the extremely rarely used procedure required for a papal declaration to be 'infallible' under Roman Catholic canon law. In several languages the word deriving from cathedra is commonly used for an academic teaching mandate, the professorial chair.
From the presence of this cathedra (throne), which can be as
elaborate and precious as fits a secular prince (even if the prelate is
not a prince of the church in the secular sense), a bishop's primary church is called a cathedral. In the Roman Catholic Church, a basilica—from the Greek basilikos 'royal'—now refers to the presence there of a papal canopy (ombrellino), part of his regalia, and applies mainly to many cathedrals and Catholic churches of similar importance or splendor. In Roman Antiquity
a basilica was secular public hall. Thus, the term basilica may also
refer to a church designed after the manner of the ancient Roman
basilica. Many of the churches built by the emperor Constantine the Great and Justinian are of the basilica style.
Some other prelates besides bishops are permitted the use of thrones, such as abbots and abbesses.
These are often simpler than the thrones used by bishops and there may
be restrictions on the style and ornamentation used on them, according
to the regulations and traditions of the particular denomination.
As a mark of distinction, Roman Catholic bishops and higher
prelates have a right to a canopy above their thrones at certain
ecclesiastical functions. It is sometimes granted by special privilege
to prelates inferior to bishops, but always with limitations as to the
days on which it may be used and the character of its ornamentation. The
liturgical color
of the canopy should correspond with that of the other vestments. When
ruling monarchs attend services, they are also allowed to be seated on a
throne that is covered by a canopy, but their seats must be outside the
sanctuary.
In the Greek Orthodox Church, the bishop's throne will often combine features of the monastic choir stall (kathisma) with appurtenances inherited from the Byzantine court, such as a pair of lions seated at the foot of the throne.
The term "throne" is often used in reference to patriarchs to designate their ecclesiastical authority; for instance, "the Ecumenical Throne" refers to the authority of the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople.
Western bishops may also use a faldstool to fulfill the liturgical purpose of the cathedra when not in their own cathedral.
In the apse of Saint Peter's Basilica, above the "Altar of the Chair" lies the Cathedra Petri, a throne believed to have been used by St Peter himself and other earlier popes; this relic is enclosed in a gilt bronze casting and forms part of a huge monument designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
Unlike at his cathedral (Archbasilica of St. John Lateran), there is no permanent cathedra
for the pope in St Peter's Basilica, so a removable throne is placed in
the basilica for the pope's use whenever he presides over a liturgical
ceremony. Prior to the liturgical reforms that occurred in the wake of
the Second Vatican Council,
a huge removable canopied throne was placed above an equally removable
dais in the choir side of the "Altar of the Confession" (the high altar above the tomb of St Peter and beneath the monumental bronze baldachin); this throne stood between the apse and the Altar of the Confession.
This practice has fallen out of use with the 1960s and 1970s
reform of Papal liturgy and, whenever the pope celebrates Mass in St.
Peter's Basilica, a simpler portable throne is now placed on platform in
front of the Altar of the Confession. Whenever Pope Benedict XVI celebrated the Liturgy of the Hours
at St Peter's, a more elaborate removable throne was placed on a dais
to the side of the Altar of the Chair. When the pope celebrates Mass on
the basilica steps facing St. Peter's Square, portable thrones are also used.
In the past, the pope was also carried on occasions in a portable throne, called the sedia gestatoria. Originally, the sedia was used as part of the elaborate procession surrounding papal ceremonies that was believed to be the most direct heir of pharaonic splendor, and included a pair of flabella (fans made from ostrich feathers) to either side. Pope John Paul I at first abandoned the use of these implements, but later in his brief reign began to use the sedia so that he could be seen more easily by the crowds. The use of the sedia was abandoned by Pope John Paul II in favor of the so-called "popemobile"
when outside. Near the end of his pontificate, Pope John Paul II had a
specially constructed throne on wheels that could be used inside.
Prior to 1978, at the papal conclave, each cardinal was seated on a throne in the Sistine Chapel during the balloting. Each throne had a canopy
over it. After a successful election, once the new pope accepted
election and decided by what name he would be known, the cardinals would
all lower their canopies, leaving only the canopy over the newly
elected pope. This was the new pope's first throne. This tradition was
dramatically portrayed in the 1968 film The Shoes of the Fisherman.
In European feudal countries, monarchs often were seated on thrones,
based in all likelihood on the Roman magisterial chair. These thrones
were originally quite simple, especially when compared to their Asian
counterparts. One of the grandest and most important was the Throne of Ivan "the Terrible".
Dating from the mid-16th century, it is shaped as a high-backed chair
with arm rests, and adorned with ivory and walrus bone plaques
intricately carved with mythological, heraldic and life scenes. The
plaques carved with scenes from the biblical account of King David's life are of particular relevance, as David was seen as the ideal for Christian monarchs.
In practice, any chair the monarch occupied in a formal setting served
as a "throne", though there were often special chairs used only for this
kept in places the monarch often went to. Thrones began to be made in
pairs, for the king and queen, which remained common in later periods.
Sometimes they are identical, or the queen's throne may be slightly less
grand.
The throne of the Byzantine Empire (Magnaura) included elaborate automatons of singing birds. In the 'regency' (nominally an Ottoman province, de facto an independent realm) of the bey of Tunis, the throne was called kursi.
Although medieval examples tended to be retained in the early modern period,
having acquired the aura of tradition, when new thrones were made they
either continued medieval styles or were just very grand and elaborate
versions of contemporary chairs or armchairs.
In the Indian subcontinent, the traditional Sanskrit name for the throne was siṃhāsana (lit., seat of a lion). In the Mughal times the throne was called Shāhī takht ([ˈʃaːhiːˈtəxt]). The term gadi or gaddi (Hindustani pronunciation:[ˈɡəd̪ːi], also called rājgaddī) referred to a seat with a cushion used as a throne by Indian princes. That term was usually used for the throne of a Hindu princely state's ruler, while among Muslim princes or Nawabs, save exceptions such as the Travancore State royal family, the term musnad ([ˈməsnəd]), also spelt as musnud, was more common, even though both seats were similar.
The Peacock Throne was the seat of the Mughal emperors of India. It was commissioned in the early 17th century by Emperor Shah Jahan and was located in the Red Fort of Delhi. The original throne was subsequently captured and taken as a war trophy in 1739 by the Persian king Nadir Shah and has been lost ever since. A replacement throne based on the original was commissioned afterwards and existed until the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh's throne
was made by the goldsmith Hafez Muhammad Multani about 1820 to 1830.
Made of wood and resin core, covered with sheets of repoussé, chased and
engraved gold.
In Burma, the traditional name for a throne is palin, from the Pali term pallaṅka, which means "couch" or "sofa." The Burmese palin in pre-colonial times was used to seat the sovereign and his main consort, and is today used to seat religious leaders such as sayadaws, and images of the Buddha. Royal thrones are called yazapalin (ရာဇပလ္လင်), while thrones seating images or statues of the Buddha are called gaw pallin (ဂေါ့ပလ္လင်) or samakhan (စမ္မခဏ်), from the Pali term sammakhaṇḍa.
East Asia
The Takamikura throne kept in the Kyoto Imperial Palace is used for accession ceremonies. The metonym "Chrysanthemum Throne" is also used.
The Dragon Throne is the term used to identify the throne of the emperor of China. As the dragon was the emblem of divine imperial power, the throne of the emperor, who was considered a living god, was known as the Dragon Throne. The term can refer to very specific seating, as in the special seating in various structures in the Forbidden City of Beijing or in the palaces of the Old Summer Palace. In an abstract sense, the "Dragon Throne" also refers rhetorically to the head of state and to the monarchy itself. The Daoguang Emperor is said to have referred to his throne as "the divine utensil."
The throne of the emperors of Vietnam are often referred to as ngai vàng ("golden throne") or ngôi báu (大寳/寶座) literally "great precious" (seat/position). The throne is always adorned with the pattern and motif of the Vietnamese dragon,
which is the exclusive and privileged symbol of the Vietnamese
emperors. The last existing imperial throne in Vietnam is the throne of
the Nguyễn emperors placed in the Hall of Supreme Harmony at the Imperial City of Huế. It is designated as a national treasure of Vietnam. In Vietnamese folk religion,
the gods, deities and ancestral spirits are believed to seat
figuratively on thrones at places of worship. Therefore, on Vietnamese
altars, there are various types of liturgical "throne" often decorated
with red paint and golden gilding.
The Chrysanthemum Throne (皇位, kōi, lit. "Imperial position/rank") is the term used to identify the throne of the emperor of Japan. The term also can refer to very specific seating, such as the takamikura (高御座) throne in the Shishin-den at Kyoto Imperial Palace.
In some countries with a monarchy, thrones are still used and
have important symbolic and ceremonial meaning. Among the most famous
thrones still in usage are St Edward's Chair, on which the British monarch is crowned, and the thrones used by monarchs during the state opening of parliaments in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Canada, Australia, and Japan (see above) among others.
In religion, transcendence is the aspect of existence that is completely independent of the material universe, beyond all known physical laws. This is related to the nature and power of deities as well as other spiritual or supernatural beings and forces. This is contrasted with immanence, where a god is said to be fully present in the physical world and thus accessible to creatures in various ways. In religious experience,
transcendence is a state of being that has overcome the limitations of
physical existence, and by some definitions, has also become independent
of it. This is typically manifested in prayer, rituals, meditation, psychedelics and paranormal visions.
It is affirmed in various religious traditions' concept of the divine, which contrasts with the notion of a god (or, the Absolute) that exists exclusively in the physical order (immanentism), or is indistinguishable from it (pantheism).
Transcendence can be attributed in knowledge as well as or instead of
its being. Thus, an entity may transcend both the universe and knowledge
(is beyond the grasp of the human mind).
Although transcendence is defined as the opposite of immanence, the two are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Some theologians and metaphysicians of various religious traditions affirm that a god is both within and beyond the universe (panentheism); in it, but not of it; simultaneously pervading it and surpassing it.
In Jewish Kabbalisticcosmology, God is described as the "Ein Sof"
(literally, without end) as reference to God's divine simplicity and
essential unknowability. The emanation of creation from the Ein Sof is
explained through a process of filtering. In the Kabbalistic creation myth
referred to as the "breaking of the vessels," filtering was necessary
because otherwise this intense, simple essence would have overwhelmed
and made impossible the emergence of any distinct creations. Each
filter, described as a vessel, captured the emanation of this creative
force until it was overwhelmed and broken by the intensity of God's
simple essence. Once broken, the vessel's shards, full of absorbed
"divine sparks," fell into a vessel below. This process ultimately
continued until the "light" of Godliness was sufficiently reduced to
allow the world we inhabit to be sustained without breaking. The
creation of this world, however, comes with the consequence that Godly
transcendence is hidden, or "exiled" (from the immanent world). Only
through the revelation of sparks hidden within the shards embedded in
our material world can this transcendence be recognized again. In Hasidic thought, divine sparks are revealed through the performance of commandments or "mitzvot," (literally, the obligations and prohibitions described in the Torah).
A Kabbalistic explanation for the existence of malevolence in the world
is that such terrible things are possible with the divine sparks being
hidden. Thus there is some urgency to performing mitzvot in order to
liberate the hidden sparks and perform a "tikkun olam"
(literally, healing of the world). Until then, the world is presided
over by the immanent aspect of God, often referred to as the Shekhinah or divine spirit, and in feminine terms.
Christianity
The Catholic Church, as do other Christian denominations, holds that God transcends all creation. According to Aquinas, "concerning God, we cannot grasp what he is, but only what he is not, and how other beings stand in relation to him."
Anthropomorphic depictions of God are largely metaphorical and reflect
the challenge of "human modes of expression" in attempting to describe
the infinite. St. Augustine observed "...[I]t is only by the use of such human expressions that Scripture can make its many kinds of readers whom it wants to help to feel, as it were, at home." The "sense of transcendence" and therefore, an awareness of the "sacred", is an important component of the liturgy. Thus, God is recognized as both transcendent and immanent.
Tawhid is the act of believing and affirming that God (Arabic: Allah) is one and unique (wāḥid).
The Qur'an asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that
transcends the world; a unique and indivisible being who is independent
of the entire creation. According to the Qur'an, as mentioned in Surat al-Ikhlas:
1. Say: He, Allah, is Ahad
(the Unique One of Absolute Oneness, who is indivisible in nature, who
is unique in His essence, attributes, names and acts, the One who has no
second, no associate, no parents, no offspring, no peers, free from the
concept of multiplicity, and far from conceptualization and limitation, and there is nothing like Him in any respect).
2. Allah is al-Samad (the Ultimate Source of all existence, the uncaused cause
who created all things out of nothing, who is eternal, absolute,
immutable, perfect, complete, essential, independent, and
self-sufficient; Who does not need to eat or drink, sleep or rest; Who
needs nothing while all of creation is in absolute need of Him; the one
eternally and constantly required and sought, depended upon by all
existence and to whom all matters will ultimately return).
3. He begets not, nor is He begotten (He is Unborn and Uncreated, has no parents, wife or offspring).
4. And there is none comparable (equal, equivalent or similar) to Him.
According to Vincent J. Cornell, the Qur'an also provides a monist
image of God by describing the reality as a unified whole, with God
being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing
things: "God is the First and the Last, the Outward and the Inward; God is the Knower of everything." [Qur'an 57:3]
All Muslims have however vigorously criticized interpretations that
would lead to a monist view of God for what they see as blurring the
distinction between the creator and the creature, and its
incompatibility with the radical monotheism of Islam.
In order to explain the complexity of unity of God and of the
divine nature, the Qur'an uses 99 terms referred to as "Most Beautiful
Names of Allah" (Sura 7:180)[12]. Aside from the supreme name "Allah"
and the neologism al-Rahman (referring to the divine beneficence that
constantly (re)creates, maintains and destroys the universe), other
names may be shared by both God and human beings. According to the
Islamic teachings, the latter is meant to serve as a reminder of God's immanence rather than being a sign of one's divinity or alternatively imposing a limitation on God's transcendent nature.
Tawhid or Oneness of God constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession. To attribute divinity to a created entity is the only unpardonable sin mentioned in the Qur'an. Muslims believe that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.
Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith believes in a single, imperishable god, the creator of all things, including all the creatures and forces in the universe.
In the Baháʼí tradition, god is described as "a personal god,
unknowable, inaccessible, the source of all Revelation, eternal,
omniscient, omnipresent, and almighty."
Though inaccessible directly, God is nevertheless seen as conscious of
his creation, with a mind, will, and purpose. Baháʼís believe that God
expresses this will at all times and in many ways, including through a
series of divine messengers referred to as Manifestations of God or sometimes divine educators. In expressing God's intent, these manifestations are seen to establish religion in the world. Baháʼí teachings state that God is too great for humans to fully comprehend, nor to create a complete and accurate image.
In Indian religions
Buddhism
In Buddhism, "transcendence", by definition, belongs to the mortal beings of the formless realms of existence. However, although such beings are at 'the peak' of Samsara,
Buddhism considers the development of transcendence to be both
temporary and a spiritual cul-de-sac which, therefore, does not
eventuate a permanent cessation of Samsara. This assertion was a primary
differentiator from the other Sramana teachers during Gautama Buddha's own training and development.
Alternatively, in the various forms of Buddhism—Theravada,
Mahayana (especially Pure Land and Zen) and Vajrayana—the notion of
transcendence sometimes includes a soteriological
application. Except for Pure Land and Vajrayana, the role played by
transcendent beings is minimal and at most a temporary expedient.
However some Buddhists believe that Nirvana
is an eternal, transcendental state beyond name and form, so for these
Buddhists, Nirvana is the main concept of transcendence. The more usual
interpretation of Nirvana in Buddhism is that it is a cessation—a
permanent absence of something (namely suffering), and therefore it is
not in any way a state which could be considered transcendent.
Primordial enlightenment and the dharma are sometimes portrayed
as transcendent, since they can surpass all samsaric obstructions.
Hinduism
In the Bhagavad Gita,
transcendence is described as a level of spiritual attainment, or a
state of being open to all spiritual aspirants (the end goal of yoga
practice). In this state one is no longer under the control of any
materialistic desires and is aware of a higher spiritual reality.
When the yogī,
by practice of yoga, disciplines his mental activities and becomes
situated in transcendence — devoid of all material desires — he is said
to be well established in yoga.
The exact nature of this transcendence is given as being "above the modes of material nature", which are known as gunas (ropes) that bind the living entity to the world of samsara (karmic cycle) in Hindu philosophy.
Transcendence is described and viewed from diverse perspectives in Hinduism. Traditions such as Advaita Vedanta, in transcendence, view God as the Nirguna Brahman (God without attributes) - the absolute. Other traditions such as Bhakti yoga, in transcendence, view God as being with attributes (Saguna Brahman), the Absolute being a personal deity (Ishvara), such as Vishnu or Shiva.
Sikhism
Waheguru (Punjabi: ਵਾਹਿਗੁਰੂ, Vāhigurū) is a term most often used in Sikhism
to refer to God, the Supreme Being or the creator of all. It means
"Wonderful Teacher" in the Punjabi language, but in this case is used to
refer to the God in Sikhism. Wahi means "wonderful" (a Middle Persian borrowing) and "Guru" (Sanskrit: गुरु) is a term denoting "teacher". Waheguru is also described by some as an experience of ecstasy which is beyond all descriptions.
Cumulatively, the name implies wonder at the Divine Light
eliminating spiritual darkness. It might also imply, "Hail the Lord
whose name eliminates spiritual darkness." Earlier, Shaheed Bhai Mani Singh, Sikhan di Bhagat Mala, gave a similar explication, also on the authority of Guru Nanak.
Considering the two constituents of "Vahiguru" ("vahi" + "guru")
implying the state of wondrous ecstasy and offering of homage to the
Lord, the first one was brought distinctly and prominently into the
devotional system by Guru Nanak, who has made use of this interjection,
as in Majh ki Var (stanza 24), and Suhi ki Var, shloka to pauri 10.
Sikh doctrine identifies one panentheistic god (Ik Onkar) who is omnipresent and has infinite qualities, whose name is true (Satnam),
is the Creator (Karta Purkh), has no fear (Nirb hau), is not the enemy
of anyone (Nirvair), is beyond time (Akaal), has no image (Murat), is
beyond birth and death circulation (Ajunee), is self-existent (Sai
Bhang) and possesses the grace of word guru (eternal light) we can meet
him (Gurprasaad). Sikhs do not identify a gender for Ek Onkar, nor do
they believe it takes a human form. In the Sikh tradition, all human
beings are considered equal regardless of their religion, sex, or race.
All are sons and daughters of Waheguru, the Almighty.
In 1961, Christian theologian Gabriel Vahanian published The Death of God.
Vahanian argued that modern secular culture had lost all sense of the
sacred, lacking any sacramental meaning, no transcendental purpose or
sense of providence. He concluded that for the modern secular mind "God
is dead", but he did not mean that God did not exist. In Vahanian's
vision a transformed post-Christian and post-modern culture was needed
to create a renewed experience of deity.
Paul Van Buren and William Hamilton both agreed that the concept
of transcendence had lost any meaningful place in modern secular
thought. According to the norms of contemporary modern secular thought,
God is dead. In responding to this denial of transcendence Van Buren and
Hamilton offered secular people the option of Jesus as the model human
who acted in love. The encounter with the Christ of faith would be open
in a church-community.
Thomas J. J. Altizer offered a radical theology of the death of God that drew upon William Blake,
Hegelian thought and Nietzschean ideas. He conceived of theology as a
form of poetry in which the immanence (presence) of God could be
encountered in faith communities. However, he no longer accepted the
possibility of affirming his belief in a transcendent God. Altizer
concluded that God had incarnated in Christ and imparted his immanent
spirit which remained in the world even though Jesus was dead. It is
important that such ideas are understood as socio-cultural developments
and not as ontological realities. As Vahanian expressed it in his book,
the issue of the denial of God lies in the mind of secular man, not in
reality.
Critiquing the death of God theology, Joseph Papin, the founder
of the Villanova Theology Institute, noted: "Rumbles of the new theology
of the 'Requiem for God," (theologians of the death of God) proved to
be a totally inadequate foundation for spanning a theological river with
a bridge. The school of the theology of the "Requiem of God," not even
implementing a "Requiem for Satan," will constitute only a footnote to
the history of theology. . . . 'The Grave of God,' was the death rattle
for the continuancy of the aforementioned school without any noticeable
echo." Professor Piet Schoonenberg
(Nijmegen, Netherlands) directly critiqued Altizer concluding: "Rightly
understood the transcendence of God does not exclude His immanence, but
includes it."
Schoonenberg went on to say: "We must take God's transcendence
seriously by not imposing any limits whatsoever, not even the limits
that our images or concepts of transcendence evoke. This however occurs
when God's transcendence is expressed as elevated over the world to the
exclusion of his presence in this world; when his independence is
expressed by excluding his real relation and reaction to the world; or
when we insist upon his unchangeable eternity to the exclusion of his
real partnership in human history."
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