Pathological science is an area of research where "people are tricked into false results ... by subjective effects, wishful thinking or threshold interactions." The term was coined by Irving Langmuir, Nobel Prize-winning chemist, during a 1953 colloquium at the Knolls Research Laboratory. Langmuir said a pathological science is an area of research that simply
will not "go away"—long after it was given up on as "false" by the
majority of scientists in the field. He called pathological science "the
science of things that aren't so."
In his 2002 book, Undead Science, sociology and
anthropology Professor Bart Simon lists it among practices that are
falsely perceived or presented to be science, "categories ... such as
... pseudoscience, amateur science, deviant or fraudulent science, bad science, junk science, pathological science, cargo cult science, and voodoo science." Examples of pathological science include the Martian canals, N-rays, and cold fusion. The theories and conclusions behind all of these examples are currently rejected or disregarded by the majority of scientists.
Definition
Irving Langmuir coined the term pathological science in a talk in 1953.
Pathological science, as defined by Langmuir, is a psychological process in which a scientist, originally conforming to the scientific method, unconsciously veers from that method, and begins a pathological process of wishful data interpretation (see the observer-expectancy effect and cognitive bias). Some characteristics of pathological science are:
The maximum effect that is observed is produced by a causative
agent of barely detectable intensity, and the magnitude of the effect is
substantially independent of the intensity of the cause.
The effect is of a magnitude that remains close to the limit of
detectability, or multiple measurements are necessary because of the low
statistical significance of the results.
There are claims of great accuracy.
Fantastic theories contrary to experience are suggested.
The ratio of supporters to critics rises and then falls gradually to oblivion.
Langmuir never intended the term to be rigorously defined; it was
simply the title of his talk on some examples of "weird science". As
with any attempt to define the scientific endeavor, examples and
counterexamples can always be found.
Langmuir's examples
Fig. 6,7 from Prosper-René Blondlot: "Registration by Photography of the Action Produced by N Rays on a Small Electric Spark". Nancy, 1904.
Langmuir's discussion of N-rays has led to their traditional characterization as an instance of pathological science.
In 1903, Prosper-René Blondlot was working on X-rays (as were other physicists of the era) and noticed a new visible radiation that could penetrate aluminium.
He devised experiments in which a barely visible object was illuminated
by these N-rays, and thus became "more visible". Blondlot claimed that
N-rays were causing a small visual reaction, too small to be seen under
normal illumination, but just visible when most normal light sources
were removed and the target was just barely visible to begin with.
N-rays became the topic of some debate within the science community. After a time, American physicist Robert W. Wood
decided to visit Blondlot's lab, which had moved on to the physical
characterization of N-rays. An experiment passed the rays from a 2 mm
slit through an aluminium prism, from which he was measuring the index of refraction
to a precision that required measurements accurate to within 0.01 mm.
Wood asked how it was possible that he could measure something to
0.01 mm from a 2 mm source, a physical impossibility in the propagation
of any kind of wave. Blondlot replied, "That's one of the fascinating
things about the N-rays. They don't follow the ordinary laws of science
that you ordinarily think of." Wood then asked to see the experiments
being run as usual, which took place in a room required to be very dark
so the target was barely visible. Blondlot repeated his most recent
experiments and got the same results—despite the fact that Wood had
reached over and covertly sabotaged the N-ray apparatus by removing the
prism.
Other examples
Langmuir offered additional examples of what he regarded as pathological science in his original speech:
The Davis–Barnes effect (1929; after Professor Bergen Davis from Columbia University)
Extrasensory perception (1934), where Rhine consciously discarded contrary test results because he felt they could not be correct.
Later examples
A 1985 version of Langmuir's speech offered more examples, although at least one of
these (polywater) occurred entirely after Langmuir's death in 1957:
Since Langmuir's original talk, a number of newer examples of what appear to be pathological science have appeared. Denis Rousseau has cited as examples the cases of Martin Fleischmann's cold fusion and Jacques Benveniste's "infinite dilution".
In 1989, Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons announced the discovery of a simple and cheap procedure to obtain room-temperature nuclear fusion.
Although there were multiple instances where successful results were
reported, they lacked consistency and hence cold fusion came to be
considered to be an example of pathological science. Two panels convened by the US Department of Energy,
one in 1989 and a second in 2004, did not recommend a dedicated federal
program for cold fusion research. A small number of researchers
continue working in the field.
Jacques Benveniste was a French immunologist who in 1988 published a paper in the prestigious scientific journal Nature describing the action of high dilutions of anti-IgE antibody on the degranulation of human basophils, findings which seemed to support the concept of homeopathy.
Biologists were puzzled by Benveniste's results, as only molecules of
water, and no molecules of the original antibody, remained in these high
dilutions. Benveniste concluded that the configuration of molecules in
water was biologically active. Subsequent investigations have not
supported Benveniste's findings.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Framework (2015) defines scientific literacy as "the ability to engage with science-related issues, and with the ideas of science, as a reflective citizen." A scientifically literate person, therefore, is willing to engage in
reasoned discourse about science and technology which requires the
competencies to:
Explain phenomena scientifically – recognize, offer and evaluate
explanations for a range of natural and technological phenomena.
Evaluate and design scientific inquiry – describe and appraise
scientific investigations and propose ways of addressing questions
scientifically.
Interpret data and evidence scientifically – analyze and evaluate
data, claims and arguments in a variety of representations and draw
appropriate scientific conclusions.
According to the United States National Center for Education
Statistics, "scientific literacy is the knowledge and understanding of
scientific concepts and processes required for personal decision making,
participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic
productivity". A scientifically literate person is defined as one who has the capacity to:
Understand, experiment, and reason as well as interpret scientific facts and their meaning.
Ask, find, or determine answers to questions derived from curiosity about everyday experiences.
Read articles with understanding of science in the popular press and engage in social conversation about the validity of the conclusions.
Identify scientific issues underlying national and local decisions
and express positions that are scientifically and technologically
informed.
Evaluate the quality of scientific information on the basis of its source and the methods used to generate it.
Pose and evaluate arguments based on evidence and to apply conclusions from such arguments appropriately.
Scientific literacy may also be defined in language similar to the definitions of ocean literacy, Earth science literacy and climate literacy. Thus a scientifically literate person can:
Understand the science relevant to environmental and social issues.
Communicate clearly about the science.
Make informed decisions about these issues.
Finally, scientific literacy may involve particular attitudes toward
learning and using science. Scientifically-literate citizens are capable
of researching matters of fact for themselves. Reforms in science education in the United States have often been driven by strategic challenges such as the launch of the Sputnik satellite in 1957 and the Japanese economic boom in the 1980s. The phrase science literacy was popularized by Paul Hurd in 1958, when he charged that the immediate problem in education was "one of
closing the gap between the wealth of scientific achievement and the
poverty of scientific literacy in America". For Hurd, rapid innovation in science and technology demanded an
education "appropriate for meeting the challenges of an emerging
scientific revolution." Underlying Hurd's call was the idea "that some mastery of science is essential preparation for modern life."
Initial definitions of science literacy included elaborations of
the content that people should understand, often following somewhat
traditional lines (biology, chemistry, physics). Earth science
was somewhat narrowly defined as expanded geological processes. In the
decade after those initial documents, ocean scientists and educators
revised the notion of science literacy to include more contemporary,
systems-oriented views of the natural world, leading to scientific
literacy programs for the ocean, climate, earth science, and so on.
Since the 1950s, scientific literacy has increasingly emphasized
scientific knowledge being as socially situated and heavily influenced
by personal experience. Science literacy is seen as a human right and a working knowledge of science and its role in society is seen as a requirement for responsible members of society, one that helps average people to make better decisions and enrich their lives. In the United States, this change in emphasis can be noted in the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the publication of Science for All Americans and Benchmarks for Science Literacy.
The National Science Education Standards
(1996) defined scientific literacy as "the knowledge and understanding
of scientific concepts and processes required for personal decision
making, participation in civic and cultural affairs, and economic
productivity". In addition, it emphasized that scientific literacy was not simply a
matter of remembering specific scientific content. It involved the
development of key abilities or skills. "Scientific literacy means that a
person can ask, find, or determine answers to questions derived from
curiosity about everyday experiences. It means that a person has the
ability to describe, explain, and predict natural phenomena."
Some emphasize the importance of an underlying "ethos" that makes
it possible to participate in scientific debates and communities. Key
norms are that the observations and hypotheses of scientific discovery
are part of a communally shared process; that ideas are important, not
the status of the person who voices them; that what matters is
disinterested evidence, not desired outcomes; and that statements that
go beyond observations should be subject to testing.
More recently, calls for "scientific literacy" have identified misinformation and disinformation
as dangers. They suggest that civic science literacy, digital media
science literacy, and cognitive science literacy are all important
components of education, if individuals are to be scientifically
informed and engage in individual and collective decision-making in a
democratic society.
Comparisons of the views of citizens and scientists by the Pew Research Center
suggest that they hold very different positions on a range of science,
engineering and technology-related issues. Both citizens and scientists
rate K–12STEM education in the U.S. poorly.
Science, society, and the environment
The interdependence of humans and our natural environment is at the
heart of scientific literacy in the Earth systems. As defined by
nationwide consensus among scientists and educators, this literacy has
two key parts. First, a literate person is defined, in language that
echoes the above definition of scientific literacy. Second, a set of
concepts are listed, organized into six to nine big ideas or essential
principles. This defining process was undertaken first for ocean
literacy, then for the Great Lakes, estuaries, the atmosphere, and climate. Earth science literacy is one of the types of literacy defined for Earth systems; the
qualities of an Earth science literate person are representative of the
qualities for all the Earth system literacy definitions.
According to the Earth Science Literacy Initiative, an Earth-science-literate person:
understands the fundamental concepts of Earth's many systems
knows how to find and assess scientifically credible information about Earth
communicates about Earth science in a meaningful way
is able to make informed and responsible decisions regarding Earth and its resources
All types of literacy in Earth systems have a definition like the
above. Ocean literacy is further defined as "understanding our impact on
the ocean and the ocean's impact on us". Similarly, the climate literacy website includes a guiding principle for
decision making; "humans can take action to reduce climate change and
its impacts". Each type of Earth systems literacy then defines the concepts students
should understand upon graduation from high school. Current educational
efforts in Earth systems literacy tend to focus more on the scientific
concepts than on the decision-making aspect of literacy, but
environmental action remains as a stated goal.
The theme of science in a socially-relevant context appears in
many discussions of scientific literacy. Ideas that turn up in the life
sciences include an allusion to ecological literacy, the "well-being of earth". Robin Wright, a writer for Cell Biology Education,
laments "will [undergraduates'] misunderstandings or lack of knowledge
about science imperil our democratic way of life and national security?" A discussion of physics literacy includes energy conservation, ozone depletion and global warming. The mission statement of the Chemistry Literacy Project includes environmental and social justice. Technological literacy is defined in a three-dimensional coordinate
space; on the knowledge axis, it is noted that technology can be risky,
and that it "reflects the values and culture of society". Energy literacy boasts several websites, including one associated with climate literacy.
Attitudes about science
Attitudes about science can have a significant effect on scientific literacy. In education theory, understanding of content lies in the cognitive domain, while attitudes lie in the affective domain. Thus, negative attitudes, such as fear of science, can act as an affective filter
and an impediment to comprehension and future learning goals. In the
United States, student attitudes toward science are known to decline
beginning in fourth grade and continue to decline through middle and
high school. This beginning of negative feelings about science stems from a greater
emphasis put on grades. Students begin to feel that they are achieving
less which causes them to lose motivation in the classroom and student
participation drops. It has been well documented that students who
retain high motivation for learning will have a more positive attitude
toward the subject. Studies of college students' attitudes about learning physics suggest
that these attitudes may be divided into categories of real world
connections, personal connections, conceptual connections, student
effort and problem-solving.
The decision-making aspect of science literacy suggests further
attitudes about the state of the world, one's responsibility for its
well-being and one's sense of empowerment to make a difference. These
attitudes may be important measures of science literacy, as described in
the case of ocean literacy.
In the K–12 classroom, learning standards do not commonly address
the affective domain due to the difficulty in developing teaching
strategies and in assessing student attitude. Many modern teaching
strategies have been shown to have positive impacts on student attitudes
toward science including the use of student-centered instruction, innovative learning strategies and utilizing a variety of teaching techniques. Project-based learning has also been shown to improve student attitudes about a subject and improve their scientific processing skills.
Teachers can use Likert scales or differential scales to determine and monitor changes in student attitudes towards science and science learning.
Promoting and measuring
Proponents of scientific literacy tend to focus on what is learned by
the time a student graduates from high school. Science literacy has
always been an important element of the standards movement in education.
All science literacy documents have been drafted with the explicit
intent of influencing educational standards, as a means to drive
curriculum, teaching, assessment, and ultimately, learning nationwide. Moreover, scientific literacy provides an important basis for making
informed social decisions. Science is a human process carried out in a
social context, which makes it relevant as a part of our science
education. In order for people to make evidence-informed decision,
everyone should seek to improve their scientific literacy.
Relevant research has suggested ways to promote scientific literacy to students more efficiently. Programs to promote scientific literacy among students abound,
including several programs sponsored by technology companies, as well as
quiz bowls and science fairs. A partial list of such programs includes
the Global Challenge Award, the National Ocean Sciences Bowl and Action Bioscience.
Some organizations have attempted to compare the scientific
literacy of adults in different countries. The OECD found that
scientific literacy in the United States is not measurably different
from the OECD average. Science News
reports "The new U.S. rate, based on questionnaires administered in
2008, is seven percentage points behind Sweden, the only European nation
to exceed the Americans. The U.S. figure is slightly higher than that
for Denmark, Finland, Norway and the Netherlands. And it's double the
2005 rate in the United Kingdom (and the collective rate for the
European Union)."
University educators are attempting to develop reliable instruments to measure scientific literacy, and the use of concept inventories is increasing in the fields of physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology and earth science.
Three-dimensional (3D) models represent a physical body
using a collection of points in 3D space, connected by various
geometric entities such as triangles, lines, curved surfaces, etc. Being a collection of data (points and other information), 3D models can be created manually, algorithmically (procedural modeling), or by scanning. Their surfaces may be further defined with texture mapping.
The product is called a 3D model, while someone who works with 3D models may be referred to as a 3D artist or a 3D modeler.
A 3D model can also be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering or used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena.
3D models may be created automatically or manually. The manual
modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is
similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. The 3D model can be physically created using 3D printing
devices that form 2D layers of the model with three-dimensional
material, one layer at a time. Without a 3D model, a 3D print is not
possible.
Three-dimensional model of a spectrographRotating 3D video-game model3D selfie models are generated from 2D pictures taken at the Fantasitron 3D photo booth at Madurodam.
3D models are now widely used anywhere in 3D graphics and CAD but their history predates the widespread use of 3D graphics on personal computers.
In the past, many computer games used pre-rendered images of 3D models as sprites before
computers could render them in real-time. The designer can then see the
model in various directions and views, this can help the designer see
if the object is created as intended to compared to their original
vision. Seeing the design this way can help the designer or company
figure out changes or improvements needed to the product. Simple wireframes were the first versions of early 3D models, which
were mainly used to view construction plans and mechanical parts. Better
graphics hardware and software allowed for the creation of solid and
surface models in the 1970s and 1980s, giving designers a more realistic
and clear representation of physical objects. By the 1990s, parametric
modeling became popular, letting designers change a model by changing
its basic parameters instead of redrawing it from scratch. Thanks to
virtual reality, artificial intelligence and generative design tools, 3D
modeling today goes past engineering and is influencing fields like
animation, gaming, product design and cinema.
Representation
A modern render of the iconic Utah teapot model developed by Martin Newell (1975). The Utah teapot is one of the most common models used in 3D graphics education.
Almost all 3D models can be divided into two categories:
Solid – These models define the volume of the object they
represent (like a rock). Solid models are mostly used for engineering
and medical simulations, and are usually built with constructive solid geometry.
Shell or boundary – These models represent the
surface, i.e., the boundary of the object, not its volume (like an
infinitesimally thin eggshell). Almost all visual models used in games
and film are shell models.
Solid and shell modeling can create functionally identical objects.
Differences between them are mostly variations in the way they are
created and edited and conventions of use in various fields and
differences in types of approximations between the model and reality.
Shell models must be manifold
(having no holes or cracks in the shell) to be meaningful as a real
object. For example, in a shell model of a cube, all six sides must be
connected with no gaps in the edges or the corners. Polygonal meshes (and to a lesser extent, subdivision surfaces) are by far the most common representation. Level sets are a useful representation for deforming surfaces that undergo many topological changes, such as fluids.
The process of transforming representations of objects, such as the middle point coordinate of a sphere and a point on its circumference, into a polygon representation of a sphere is called tessellation. This step is used in polygon-based rendering, where objects are broken down from abstract representations ("primitives") such as spheres, cones etc., to so-called meshes, which are nets of interconnected triangles. Meshes of triangles (instead of e.g., squares) are popular as they have proven to be easy to rasterize (the surface described by each triangle is planar, so the projection is always convex). Polygon representations are not used in all rendering techniques, and
in these cases the tessellation step is not included in the transition
from abstract representation to rendered scene.
Process
There are four popular ways to represent a model:
Parametric modeling – A feature-based parametric modeling
structure, which relies on parent-child relationships between features,
allowing for a number of methods for building specific models in the
context of mechanical CAD systems.
Polygonal modeling – Points in 3D space, called vertices, are connected by line segments to form a polygon mesh.
The vast majority of 3D models today are built as textured polygonal
models because they are flexible and because computers can render them
so quickly. However, polygons are planar and can only approximate curved
surfaces using many polygons.
Curve modeling – Surfaces are defined by curves, which are
influenced by weighted control points. The curve follows (but does not
necessarily interpolate) the points. Increasing the weight for a point
pulls the curve closer to that point. Curve types include nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS), splines, patches, and geometric primitives.
Digital sculpting – There are three types of digital sculpting: Displacement, which is the most widely used among applications at this moment, uses a dense model (often generated by subdivision surfaces
of a polygon control mesh) and stores new locations for the vertex
positions through use of an image map that stores the adjusted
locations. Volumetric, loosely based on voxels,
has similar capabilities as displacement but does not suffer from
polygon stretching when there are not enough polygons in a region to
achieve a deformation. Dynamic tessellation, which is similar to voxel, divides the surface using triangulation
to maintain a smooth surface and allow finer details. These methods
allow for artistic exploration as the model has new topology created
over it once the models form and possibly details have been sculpted.
The new mesh usually has the original high-resolution mesh information
transferred into displacement data or normal map data if it is for a game engine.
A 3D fantasy fish composed of organic surfaces generated using LAI4D
The modeling stage consists of shaping individual objects that are
later used in the scene. There are a number of modeling techniques,
including:
Modeling can be performed by means of a dedicated program (e.g., 3D modeling software like Adobe Substance, Blender, Cinema 4D, LightWave, Maya, Modo, 3ds Max, SketchUp, Rhinoceros 3D, and others) or an application component (Shaper, Lofter in 3ds Max) or some scene description language (as in POV-Ray).
In some cases, there is no strict distinction between these phases; in
such cases, modeling is just part of the scene creation process (this is
the case, for example, with Caligari trueSpace and Realsoft 3D).
3D models can also be created using the technique of Photogrammetry with dedicated programs such as RealityCapture, Metashape and 3DF Zephyr. Cleanup and further processing can be performed with applications such as MeshLab, the GigaMesh Software Framework,
netfabb or MeshMixer. Photogrammetry creates models using algorithms to
interpret the shape and texture of real-world objects and environments
based on photographs taken from many angles of the subject.
There are a variety of 3D modeling programs that can be used in the
industries of engineering, interior design, film and others. Each 3D
modeling software has specific capabilities and can be utilized to
fulfill demands for the industry.
G-code
Many programs include export options to form a g-code,
applicable to additive or subtractive manufacturing machinery. G-code
(computer numerical control) works with automated technology to form a
real-world rendition of 3D models. This code is a specific set of
instructions to carry out steps of a product's manufacturing.
The first widely available commercial application of human virtual models appeared in 1998 on the Lands' End
web site. The human virtual models were created by the company My
Virtual Mode Inc. and enabled users to create a model of themselves and
try on 3D clothing. There are several modern programs that allow for the
creation of virtual human models (Poser being one example).
3D clothing
Dynamic 3D clothing model made in Marvelous Designer
The development of cloth simulation
software such as Marvelous Designer, CLO3D and Optitex, has enabled
artists and fashion designers to model dynamic 3D clothing on the
computer. Dynamic 3D clothing is used for virtual fashion catalogs, as well as for
dressing 3D characters for video games, 3D animation movies, for
digital doubles in movies, as a creation tool for digital fashion brands, as well as for making clothes for avatars in virtual worlds such as SecondLife.
Comparison with 2D methods
3D photorealistic effects are often achieved without wire-frame modeling and are sometimes indistinguishable in the final form. Some graphic art software includes filters that can be applied to 2D vector graphics or 2D raster graphics on transparent layers.
Advantages of wireframe 3D modeling over exclusively 2D methods include:
Flexibility, ability to change angles or animate images with quicker rendering of the changes;
Ease of rendering, automatic calculation and rendering photorealistic effects rather than mentally visualizing or estimating;
Accurate photorealism, less chance of human error in misplacing, overdoing, or forgetting to include a visual effect.
Disadvantages compared to 2D photorealistic rendering may include a
software learning curve and difficulty achieving certain photorealistic
effects. Some photorealistic effects may be achieved with special
rendering filters included in the 3D modeling software. For the best of
both worlds, some artists use a combination of 3D modeling followed by
editing the 2D computer-rendered images from the 3D model.
3D model market
A large market for 3D models (as well as 3D-related content, such as
textures, scripts, etc.) exists—either for individual models or large
collections. Several online marketplaces for 3D content allow individual
artists to sell content that they have created, including TurboSquid, MyMiniFactory, Sketchfab, CGTrader, and Cults.
Often, the artists' goal is to get additional value out of assets they
have previously created for projects. By doing so, artists can earn more
money out of their old content, and companies can save money by buying
pre-made models instead of paying an employee to create one from
scratch. These marketplaces typically split the sale between themselves
and the artist that created the asset, artists get 40% to 95% of the
sales according to the marketplace. In most cases, the artist retains
ownership of the 3d model while the customer only buys the right to use
and present the model. Some artists sell their products directly in
their own stores, offering their products at a lower price by not using
intermediaries.
The architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industry is
the biggest market for 3D modeling, with an estimated value of $12.13
billion by 2028. This is due to the increasing adoption of 3D modeling in the AEC
industry, which helps to improve design accuracy, reduce errors and
omissions and facilitate collaboration among project stakeholders.
Over the last several years numerous marketplaces specializing in 3D rendering and printing models have emerged. Some of the 3D printing marketplaces
are a combination of models sharing sites, with or without a built in
e-com capability. Some of those platforms also offer 3D printing
services on demand, software for model rendering and dynamic viewing of
items.
The term 3D printing or three-dimensional printing is a form of additive manufacturing technology where a three-dimensional object is created from successive layers of material. Objects can be created without the need for complex and expensive molds
or assembly of multiple parts. 3D printing allows ideas to be
prototyped and tested without having to go through a more time-consuming
production process.
3D models can be purchased from online markets and printed by
individuals or companies using commercially available 3D printers,
enabling the home-production of objects such as spare parts and even
medical equipment.
The medical industry uses detailed models of organs created from multiple two-dimensional image slices from an MRI or CT scan. Other scientific fields can use 3D models to visualize and communicate information such as models of chemical compounds. It is also utilized to create patient specific models. These models are
used for pre-operative planning, implant design and surgical guides. It
is often used in tandem with 3d printing to produce anatomical models
and cutting templates.
The movie industry uses 3D models for computer-generated characters and objects in animated and real-life motion pictures. Similarly, the video game industry uses 3D models as assets for computer and video games.
The source of the geometry for the shape of an object can be a
designer, industrial engineer, or artist using a 3D CAD system; an
existing object that has been reverse engineered or copied using a 3D
shape digitizer or scanner; or mathematical data based on a numerical
description or calculation of the object.
The architecture industry uses 3D models to demonstrate proposed buildings and landscapes in lieu of traditional, physical architectural models. Additionally, the use of Level of Detail (LOD)
in 3D models is becoming increasingly important in architecture,
engineering and construction (AEC). 3D modeling is also utilized in
massing, BIM workflows, clash detection, and visualization. This can
provide an idea about the design intent to the stakeholders and connects
to downstream fabrication via CNC and additive manufacturing.
Archeologists create 3D models of cultural heritage items for research and visualization. For example, the International Institute of MetaNumismatics (INIMEN)
studies the applications of 3D modeling for the digitization and
preservation of numismatic artifacts. Moreover, photogrammetry and laser
scanning support documentation of objects. It is used to conserve
heritage and provide access to the public. Virtual reconstruction of
items allows fragile artifacts to be studied without the risk of
physically damaging them and to exhibit them on interactive sites or
museums.
In recent decades, the earth science
community has started to construct 3D geological models as a standard
practice. Analysis of groundwater, hazards and land-use change can be
identified through using 3D terrain and subsurface models to integrate
remote sensing and field data. 3D modelling tools create these models
for planning and educational purposes.
3D models are also used in constructing digital representations of mechanical parts before they are manufactured. Using CAD- and CAM-related software, an engineer can test the functionality of assemblies of parts then use the same data to create toolpaths for CNC machining or 3D printing.
It allows digital prototyping and simulation into product lines which
improves the efficiency and reduces the waste of the process. It
introduces tighter integration with digital twins and model based
definition (MBD) as well as additive workflows.
3D modeling is used in industrial design, wherein products are 3D modeled before representing them to the clients.
In education, student’s conceptual understanding has seen an
improvement with the introduction of 3D models and animations especially
in STEM classrooms. Structured exposure to the 3D modelling field can
also foster creativity and spatial reasoning.
In fashion and apparel, designers can test fit garments through body
scanning and simulation to even check the drape and motion. This
reduces waste and accelerates iterations and prototyping.
Due to the fact that software ecosystems vary across domains, it is
common to differentiate between digital content creation (DCC) tools
(which consist of polygonal/ subdivision modelling, sculpting and
rigging), CAD, CAM ( it is the parametric and solid modeling for
mechanical design and manufacturing), BIM (which is building information
modelling for AEC), and domain specific platforms (for example medical
or geospatial). Open-source tools (for instance Blender, FreeCAD,
MeshLab, OpenSCAD) coexist with commercial packages (some examples are:
Autodesk Maya/3ds Max/Fusion 360, SolidWorks, CATIA, Cinema 4D, ZBrush,
Rhino, Houdini, SketchUp, CLO 3D/Marvelous Designer, Revit, Archicad).
The OWL 2 translation of the vocabulary of X3D can be used to provide semantic descriptions for 3D models, which is suitable for indexing and retrieval of 3D models
by features such as geometry, dimensions, material, texture, diffuse
reflection, transmission spectra, transparency, reflectivity,
opalescence, glazes, varnishes and enamels (as opposed to unstructured textual descriptions or 2.5D virtual museums and exhibitions using Google Street View on Google Arts & Culture, for example). The RDF representation of 3D models can be used in reasoning, which enables intelligent 3D applications which, for example, can automatically compare two 3D models by volume.
Overall, these examples are an illustration of 3D modelling being
a tool of general purpose representational layer that creates a bridge
between sensing to analysis, design, communication and fabrication.
Challenges and limitations
Despite 3D modelling being widely adopted in various domains, several
constraints shape how the technology is utilized. Access and cost
remain an issue in many regions of the world. Commercial licences,
training, and capable hardware can be difficult to find in select
regions. It can also be out of reach for students and small studios that
can not afford it. Open-source ecosystems and school programs can aid
in making this less of an issue, but availability and support are uneven
which in turn creates an equity gap in who can learn and apply 3D
modelling.
Workflow complexity is another limitation. To practice 3D
modelling effectively it requires knowledge of many different things. A
3D modelling specialist needs to understand topology, UV mapping,
rigging, simulation and rendering for DCC. For CAD/CAM modelling
parametric constraints, tolerances and manufacturing constraints must be
known by the developer. Information schema and coordination are both
required for BIM. Moving assets between tools can introduce
incompatibility issues (meshes vs. NURBS/solids/parametric features;
unit scaling; normals; material definitions), and format conversions may
cause data loss without careful management.
At scale, energy consumption can be large (this is due to high
resolution simulations and rendering and dense 3D scans), which directs
teams to try and optimize design complexity and adopting more efficient
pipelines. In research and heritage work, there is another constraint
where ethical and policy questions include provenance, licensing and
representation (how “authoritative” a reconstruction should be
labelled), especially as these reconstruction are utilized for public
communication and educational purposes.
Finally, classroom and outreach deployments must take into
account pedagogical support: learners need step by step guidance and
clear examples and models to follow. Without this, the tool’s complexity
will be more of a barrier that slows students down instead of enabling
them to understand and be creative.
Sustainability via 3D modeling
Minimizing the need for real prototypes – Designers can do early-stage usability testing without creating a physical prototype by using 3D CAD models as virtualreplicas, which reduces waste and material consumption.
Early discovery of design flaws – Testing with virtual models
can help designers see ergonomic or usability problems early on and can
lower the chance of making defective items. By doing this, waste from
discarded physical prototypes is reduced.
Quick iteration with minimal environmental effect – Digital
modifications to CAD models are almost instantaneous when compared to
retooling or rebuilding physical prototypes. This speeds up the design
cycle without requiring more materials.
Simulations
In 3D modeling, simulations are digital processes that copy how
things behave in the real world, in a virtual space. Without creating
actual prototypes, it lets designers and animators test how objects
move, interact, or react to forces. By recreating processes such as
collisions, fluid movement, fabric draping, or particle motion,
simulations help increase design accuracy, enhance visual effects, and
save both time and materials.
Education is a wide phenomenon that applies to all age groups and covers formal education (top row) as well as non-formal and informal education (bottom row).
In prehistory, education happened informally through oral communication and imitation. With the rise of ancient civilizations, writing was invented,
and the amount of knowledge grew. This caused a shift from informal to
formal education. Initially, formal education was mainly available to
elites and religious groups. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century made books more widely available. This increased general literacy.
Beginning in the 18th and 19th centuries, public education became more
important. This development led to the worldwide process of making
primary education available to all, free of charge, and compulsory up to a certain age. Today, over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary school.
The term "education" is derived from the Latin words educare, meaning "to bring up" and educere, meaning "to bring forth". The definition of education has been explored by theorists from various fields. Many agree that education is a purposeful activity aimed at achieving goals like the transmission of knowledge, skills, and character traits. Extensive debate surrounds its exact nature beyond these general
features. One approach views education as a process that occurs during
events such as schooling, teaching, and learning. Another outlook understands education not as a process but as the mental states and dispositions of educated persons that result from this process. Additionally, the term may also refer to the academic field that
studies the methods, processes, and social institutions involved in
teaching and learning. Having a clear idea of what the term means matters when trying to
identify educational phenomena, measure educational success, and improve
educational practices. Some theorists provide precise definitions by identifying the
specific features that are exclusive to all forms of education.
Education theorist R. S. Peters,
for instance, outlines three essential features of education, which
include that knowledge and understanding are imparted to the student and that this process is beneficial and done in a morally appropriate manner. Such precise definitions often succeed at characterizing the most
typical forms of education. However, they often face criticism because
less common types of education occasionally fall outside their
parameters. The difficulty of dealing with counterexamples not covered by precise
definitions can be avoided by offering less exact definitions based on family resemblance instead. This means that all forms of education are similar to one another, but they need not share a set of essential features. Some education theorists, such as Keira Sewell and Stephen Newman, hold that the term "education" is context-dependent.
Evaluative or thick conceptions of education state that it is part of the nature of education to lead
to some kind of improvement. They contrast with thin conceptions, which
provide a value-neutral explanation. Some theorists provide a descriptive conception of education by observing how the term is commonly used in ordinary language. Prescriptive conceptions, by contrast, define what good education is or how education should be practiced. Many thick and prescriptive conceptions see education as an activity that tries to achieve certain aims, which may range from acquiring knowledge and learning to think rationally to nurturing character traits like kindness and honesty.
Various scholars stress the role of critical thinking to distinguish education from indoctrination. They state that mere indoctrination is only interested in instilling
beliefs in the student, independent of whether the beliefs are rational; whereas education also fosters the rational ability to critically reflect on and question those beliefs. It is not universally accepted that these two phenomena can be clearly
distinguished since some forms of indoctrination may be necessary in the
early stages of education while the child's mind is not yet
sufficiently developed. This applies to cases in which young children
need to learn something without being able to understand the underlying
reasons, like certain safety rules and hygiene practices.
Education can be characterized from the teacher's or the
student's perspective. Teacher-centered definitions focus on the
perspective and role of the teacher in the transmission of knowledge and
skills in a morally appropriate way. Student-centered definitions analyze education from the student's
involvement in the learning process and hold that this process
transforms and enriches their subsequent experiences. Definitions taking both perspectives into account are also possible.
This can take the form of describing education as a process of a shared
experience of discovering a common world and solving problems.
Types
There are many classifications of education. One of them depends on
the institutional framework and distinguishes between formal,
non-formal, and informal education. Another classification includes
distinct levels of education based on factors like the student's age and
the complexity of the content. Further categories focus on the topic,
teaching method, medium used, and funding.
Formal, non-formal, and informal
Tutoring is an example of non-formal education, while learning to cook from one's parents is an example of informal education.
The most common division is between formal, non-formal, and informal education.Formal education happens in a complex institutional framework. Such
frameworks have a chronological and hierarchical order: the modern
schooling system has classes based on the student's age and progress,
extending from primary school to university. Formal education is usually
controlled and guided by the government. It tends to be compulsory up to a certain age.
Non-formal and informal education take place outside the formal
schooling system. Non-formal education is a middle ground. Like formal
education, it is organized, systematic, and carried out with a clear
purpose, as in the case of tutoring, fitness classes, and the scouting movement. Informal education happens in an unsystematic way through daily
experiences and exposure to the environment. Unlike formal and
non-formal education, there is usually no designated authority figure
responsible for teaching. Informal education takes place in many different settings and
situations throughout one's life, usually in a spontaneous way. This is
how children learn their first language from their parents and how people learn to prepare a dish by cooking together.
Some theorists distinguish the three types based on the location of learning: formal education takes place in school,
non-formal education happens in places that are not regularly visited,
like museums, and informal education occurs in places of everyday
routines. There are also differences in the source of motivation. Formal education tends to be driven by extrinsic motivation for external rewards. In non-formal and informal education, enjoyment of the learning process usually provides intrinsic motivation. The distinction between the three types is normally clear, but some forms of education do not easily fall into one category.
In primitive cultures, most education occurred informally, and
there was little distinction between educational activities and other
activities. Instead, the whole environment acted as a form of school,
and most adults acted as teachers. Informal education is often not
efficient enough to teach large quantities of knowledge.
To do so, a formal setting and well-trained teachers are usually
required. This was one of the reasons why formal education became
increasingly important throughout history. In this process, the
experience of education and the discussed topics became more abstract
and removed from daily life while more emphasis was put on grasping
general patterns and concepts instead of observing and imitating
particular forms of behavior.
Early childhood education, also known as preschool education or nursery education, begins with birth and lasts until the start of primary school.
It follows the holistic aim of fostering early childhood development
across the physical, mental, and social domains. It plays a key role in
socialization and personality development
and includes various basic skills in the areas of communication,
learning, and problem-solving. This way, it aims to prepare children for
their entry into primary education. Preschool education is usually optional, but in some countries, such as Brazil, it is mandatory starting from the age of four.
Primary school classroom in Ethiopia
Primary (or elementary) education usually starts between the ages of
five and seven and lasts for four to seven years. It has no further
entry requirements, and its main goal is to teach basic skills in
reading, writing, and mathematics. It also covers core knowledge in
other fields, such as history, geography, the sciences, music, and art. A further aim is to foster personal development. Today, primary education is compulsory in almost all countries, and
over 90% of all primary-school-age children worldwide attend primary
school.
Secondary education follows primary education and usually covers
the ages of 12 to 18 years. It is commonly divided into lower secondary
education (middle school or junior high school) and upper secondary education (high school, senior high school, or college
depending on the country). Lower secondary education normally has the
completion of primary school as its entry requirement. It aims to extend
and deepen learning outcomes, is more focused on subject-specific curricula,
and has teachers who specialize in only one or a few subjects. One of
its aims is to familiarize students with the basic theoretical concepts
in the different subjects. This helps create a solid basis for lifelong learning. In some cases, it also includes basic forms of vocational training. Lower secondary education is compulsory in many countries in Central
and East Asia, Europe, and America. In some countries, it is the last
stage of compulsory education. Mandatory lower secondary education is
not as prevalent in Arab states, sub-Saharan Africa, and South and West
Asia.
A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in the United States
Upper secondary education starts roughly at the age of 15 and aims to
provide students with the skills and knowledge needed for employment or
tertiary education. Its requirement is usually the completion of lower
secondary education. Its subjects are more varied and complex and
students can often choose between a few subjects. Its successful
completion is commonly tied to a formal qualification in the form of a high school diploma. Some types of education after secondary education do not belong to
tertiary education and are categorized as post-secondary non-tertiary
education. They are similar in complexity to secondary education but
tend to focus more on vocational training to prepare students for the
job market.
In some countries, tertiary education is used as a synonym of higher education, while in others, tertiary education is the wider term. Tertiary education expands upon the foundations of secondary education
but has a more narrow and in-depth focus on a specific field or subject.
Its completion leads to an academic degree. It can be divided into four levels: short-cycle tertiary, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral
level education. These levels often form a hierarchical structure with
later levels depending on the completion of previous levels. Short-cycle tertiary education focuses on practical matters. It includes advanced vocational and professional training to prepare students for the job market in specialized professions. Bachelor's level education, also referred to as undergraduate education,
tends to be longer than short-cycle tertiary education. Universities
usually offer it as an intermediate academic certification, namely a
bachelor's degree. Master's level education is more specialized than undergraduate
education. Many programs require independent research in the form of a
master's thesis for successful completion. Doctoral level education leads to an advanced research qualification, normally in the form of a doctor's degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It usually requires the submission of a substantial academic work, such as a dissertation. More advanced levels include post-doctoral studies and habilitation.
Successful participation in formal education usually results in a
form of certification that is required for higher levels of education
and certain professions. Undetected cheating in exams, for example, by using a cheat sheet, threatens to undermine this system if unqualified students are certified.
In most countries, primary and secondary education are free of
charge. There are significant global differences in the cost of tertiary
education. A few countries, like Sweden, Finland, Poland, and Mexico,
offer tertiary education for free or at a low cost. In some countries,
like the United States and Singapore, tertiary school tuition fees are high and students often have to take substantial loans to afford their studies. High costs of education can constitute a significant barrier to students in developing countries whose families may be unable to afford school fees, uniforms, and textbooks.
Others
The academic literature discusses many other types of education and distinguishes between traditional and alternative education.
Traditional education concerns long-established and mainstream
schooling practices. It uses teacher-centered education and takes place
in a well-regulated school environment. Regulations cover many aspects
of education, such as the curriculum and the timeframe when classes
start and end.
Homeschooling is one form of alternative education.
Alternative education is an umbrella term for forms of schooling that
differ from the mainstream traditional approach. Differences may
include learning environment, subjects, or the teacher-student
relationship. Alternative schooling is characterized by voluntary
participation, relatively small class and school sizes, and personalized
instruction. This often results in a more welcoming and emotionally
safe atmosphere. Alternative education encompasses many types like charter schools and special programs for problematic or gifted children. It also includes homeschooling and unschooling. There are many alternative schooling traditions, like Montessori schools, Waldorf schools, Round Square schools, Escuela Nueva schools, free schools, and democratic schools. Alternative education also includes indigenous education,
which focuses on the transmission of knowledge and skills from an
indigenous heritage and employs methods like narration and storytelling. Further types of alternative schools include gurukul schools in India, madrasa schools in the Middle East, and yeshivas in Jewish tradition.
Some distinctions focus on who receives education. Categories by
the age of the learner are childhood education, adolescent education,
adult education, and elderly education. Categories by biological sex of the students include single-sex education and mixed-sex education. Special education is education that is specifically adapted to meet the unique needs of students with disabilities. It covers various forms of impairments on the intellectual, social, communicative, and physical
levels. It aims to overcome the challenges posed by these impairments.
This way, it provides the affected students with access to an
appropriate educational structure. When understood in the broadest
sense, special education also includes education for very gifted children who need adjusted curricula to reach their fullest potential.
Classifications based on the teaching method include
teacher-centered education, in which the teacher takes center stage in
providing students with information, and student-centered education, in which students take on a more active and responsible role in shaping classroom activities. For conscious education, learning and teaching happen with a clear
purpose in mind. Unconscious education occurs on its own without being
consciously planned or guided. This may happen in part through the personality of teachers and adults, which can have indirect effects on the development of the student's personality. Evidence-based education
uses scientific studies to determine which methods of education work
best. Its goal is to maximize the effectiveness of educational practices
and policies by ensuring that they are informed by the best available empirical evidence. It includes evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research.
Autodidacticism,
or self-education, happens without the guidance of teachers and
institutions. It mainly occurs in adult education and is characterized
by the freedom to choose what to study and when, which can make it a
more fulfilling learning experience. The lack of structure and guidance
can result in aimless learning, and the absence of external feedback may lead autodidacts to develop false ideas and inaccurately assess their learning progress. Autodidacticism is closely related to lifelong education, which is an ongoing learning process throughout a person's entire life.
Categories of education based on the subject include science education, language education, art education, religious education, physical education, and sex education. Special mediums, such as radio or websites, are used in distance education. Examples include e-learning (use of computers), m-learning (use of mobile devices), and online education. They often take the form of open education,
in which courses and materials are made available with minimal barriers
to access. They contrast with regular classroom or on-site education.
Some forms of online education are not open education, such as full
online degree programs offered by some universities.
State education, also referred to as public education, is funded and controlled by the government and available to the general
public. It normally does not require tuition fees and is thus a form of
free education. Private education,
by contrast, is funded and managed by private institutions. Private
schools often have a more selective admission process and offer paid
education by charging tuition fees. A more detailed classification focuses on the social institution
responsible for education, like family, school, civil society, state,
and church.
Compulsory education is education that people are legally
required to receive. It concerns mainly children who need to visit
school up to a certain age. It contrasts with voluntary education, which
people pursue by personal choice without a legal requirement.
Role in society
Highly specialized professionals, like medical researchers, often require extensive education to master their fields and contribute to society.
Education plays various roles in society, including in social,
economic, and personal fields. On a social level, education makes it
possible to establish and sustain a stable society
or can act as a driver of societal transformation. It helps people
acquire the basic skills needed to interact with their environment and
fulfill their needs and desires. In modern society, this involves a wide
range of skills like being able to speak, read, write, solve arithmetic problems, and handle information and communications technology. Socialization also includes learning the dominant social and cultural norms and what kinds of behavior are considered appropriate in different contexts. Education enables the social cohesion,
stability, and peace needed for people to productively engage in daily
business. Socialization happens throughout life but is of special
relevance to early childhood education. Education plays a key role in democracies by increasing civic participation in the form of voting and organizing, and through its tendency to promote equal opportunity for all.
On an economic level, people become productive members of society
through education by acquiring the technical and analytical skills
needed to pursue their profession, produce goods, and provide services
to others. In early societies, there was little specialization,
and each child would generally learn most of the skills that the
community required to function. Modern societies are increasingly
complex and many professions are only mastered by relatively few people
who receive specialized training in addition to general education. Some
of the skills and tendencies learned to function in society may conflict
with each other, and their value depends on the context of their usage.
For example, cultivating the tendency to be inquisitive and question
established teachings promotes critical thinking and innovation, but in
some cases, obedience to an authority is required to ensure social
stability.
Income and wealth, by educational level (US)
Median annual salaries across educational levels varied by a factor of about 3.
Median accumulated household wealth across educational levels varied by a factor of over 50.
By helping people become productive members of society, education stimulates economic growth and reduces poverty.
It helps workers become more skilled and thereby increases the quality
of the produced goods and services, which in turn leads to prosperity and increased competitiveness. Public education is often understood as a long-term investment to
benefit society as a whole. The rate of return is especially high for
investments in primary education. Besides increasing economic prosperity, it can also lead to
technological and scientific advances as well as decrease unemployment
while promoting social equity. Increased education is associated with lower birth rates, in part because education augments the awareness of family planning, creates new opportunities for women, and tends to raise the age of marriage. However, the rate of return of education can vary due to overqualification.
Education can prepare a country to adapt to changes and
successfully face new challenges. It can help raise awareness and
contribute to the solution of contemporary global problems, such as climate change, sustainability, and the widening inequalities between the rich and the poor. By making students aware of how their lives and actions affect others,
it may inspire some to work toward realizing a more sustainable and fair
world. This way, education serves not just the purpose of maintaining the societal status quo, but can also be an instrument of social development. That applies also to changing circumstances in the economic sector. For
example, technological advances, particularly increased automation, are accompanied by new demands on the workforce, which education can help address. Changing circumstances may render currently taught skills and knowledge
redundant while shifting the importance to other areas. Education can
be used to prepare people for such changes by adjusting the curriculum,
introducing subjects like digital literacy, promoting skills in handling new technologies, and including new forms of education such as massive open online courses.
On a more individual level, education promotes personal development. This can include factors such as learning new skills, developing talents, fostering creativity, and increasing self-knowledge as well as improving problem-solving and decision-making abilities. Education also has positive effects on health and well-being. Key
factors responsible for these effects are that educated individuals tend
to be better informed about health issues and adjust their behavior
accordingly, have a better social support network and coping strategies, and have a higher income, which allows them access to high-quality healthcare services. The social importance of education is recognized by the annual International Day of Education on January 24. The United Nations declared the year 1970 the International Education Year.
Organized institutions play a key role in various aspects of education. Institutions like schools, universities, teacher training
institutions, and ministries of education make up the education sector.
They interact both with each other and with other stakeholders, such as
parents, local communities, religious groups, non-governmental organizations, professionals in healthcare, law enforcement,
media platforms, and political leaders. Many people are directly
involved in the education sector, like students, teachers, and school
principals as well as school nurses and curriculum developers.
Various aspects of formal education are regulated by the policies
of governmental institutions. These policies determine at what age
children need to attend school and at what times classes are held as
well as issues pertaining to the school environment, like
infrastructure. Regulations also cover the exact qualifications and
requirements that teachers need to fulfill. An important aspect of
education policy concerns the curriculum used for teaching at schools,
colleges, and universities. A curriculum is a plan of instruction or a
program of learning that guides students to achieve their educational
goals. The topics are usually selected based on their importance and
depend on the type of school. The goals of public school curricula are
usually to offer a comprehensive and well-rounded education, while
vocational training focuses more on specific practical skills within a
field. The curricula also cover various aspects besides the topic to be
discussed, such as the teaching method, the objectives to be reached,
and the standards for assessing progress. By determining the curricula,
governmental institutions have a strong impact on what knowledge and
skills are transmitted to the students. Examples of governmental institutions include the Ministry of Education in India, the Department of Basic Education in South Africa, and the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico.
International organizations, such as UNESCO, have wielded significant influence in shaping educational standards and policies worldwide.
Some influential organizations are not intergovernmental, but non-governmental. For example, the International Association of Universities promotes collaboration and the exchange of knowledge between colleges and universities around the world, while the International Baccalaureate offers international diploma programs. Institutions like the Erasmus Programme facilitate student exchanges between countries, while initiatives such as the Fulbright Program provide a similar service for teachers.
Factors of educational success
Educational success, also called student and academic achievement,
refers to the extent to which educational aims are reached, for example,
the amount of knowledge and abilities that students acquire. For
practical purposes, it is often measured primarily in terms of official
exam scores, but there are many additional indicators, such as attendance rates, graduation rates, dropout rates, student attitudes, and post-school indicators like later income and incarceration rates. Several factors influence educational achievement, including psychological factors, which concern the student as an individual, and sociological factors, which pertain to the student's social environment. Further factors are access to educational technology, teacher quality, and parent involvement. Many of these factors overlap and influence each other.
Psychological
On a psychological level, relevant factors include motivation, intelligence, and personality. Motivation is the internal force propelling people to engage in learning. Motivated students are more likely to interact with the content to be
learned by participating in classroom activities like discussions, which
often results in a deeper understanding of the subject. Motivation can
also help students overcome difficulties and setbacks. An important
distinction is between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsically
motivated students are driven by an interest in the subject and the
learning experience itself. Extrinsically motivated students seek
external rewards like good grades and recognition from peers. Intrinsic
motivation tends to be more beneficial by leading to increased
creativity and engagement as well as long-term commitment. Educational psychologists try to discover how to increase motivation.
This can be achieved, for instance, by encouraging some competition
among students while ensuring a balance of positive and negative
feedback in the form of praise and criticism.
Intelligence influences how people respond to education. It is a
mental quality linked to the ability to learn from experience, to
understand, and to employ knowledge and skills to solve problems. Those
who have higher scores in intelligence metrics tend to perform better at
school and go on to higher levels of education. Intelligence is often primarily associated with the so-called IQ,
a standardized numerical metric for assessing intelligence by focusing
on mathematical-logical and verbal skills. However, it has been argued
that there are more types of intelligence. According to the psychologist Howard Gardner, there are distinct forms of intelligence belonging to fields like mathematics, logic, spatial cognition,
language, and music. Further types affect how a person interacts with
other people and with themselves. These types of intelligence are
largely independent of each other, meaning that someone may excel at one
type while scoring low on another.
According to proponents of learning style
theory, the preferred method of acquiring knowledge and skills is
another factor. They hold that students with an auditory learning style
find it easy to comprehend spoken lectures and discussions, whereas
visual learners benefit from information presented visually, such as in
diagrams and videos. To facilitate efficient learning, it may be
advantageous to incorporate a wide variety of learning modalities. Learning styles have been criticized for ambiguous empirical evidence
of student benefits and unreliability of student learning style
assessment by teachers. The learner's personality may also influence educational achievement. For instance, characteristics such as conscientiousness and openness to experience, identified in the Big Five personality traits, are associated with academic success. Other mental factors include self-efficacy, self-esteem, and metacognitive abilities.
Sociological
Sociological factors focus not on psychological attributes of
learners but on their environment and position in society. They include socioeconomic status, ethnicity, cultural background, and gender. They are of interest to researchers since they are associated with inequality and discrimination. For this reason, they play a key role in policy-making in attempts to mitigate their effects.
Socioeconomic status depends on income but includes other factors, such as financial security, social status, social class, and quality of life
attributes. Low socioeconomic status affects educational success in
various ways. It is linked to slower cognitive developments in language
and memory and higher dropout rates. Poor families may not have enough
money to meet basic the nutritional needs of their children, causing
poor development. They may also lack the means to invest in educational
resources like stimulating toys, books, and computers. Additionally,
they may be unable to afford tuition at prestigious schools and are more
likely to attend schools in poorer areas. Such schools tend to offer
lower standards of teaching because of teacher shortages or because they
lack educational materials and facilities, like libraries. Poor parents
may also be unable to afford private lessons if their children fall
behind. In some cases, students from an economically disadvantaged
background are forced to dropout from school to provide income to their
families. They also have less access to information on higher education
and may face additional difficulties in securing and repaying student loans. Low socioeconomic status also has many indirect negative effects by being linked to lower physical and mental health. Due to these factors, social inequalities on the level of the parents are often reproduced in the children.
Ethnic background is linked to cultural differences and language
barriers, which make it more difficult for students to adapt to the
school environment and follow classes. Additional factors are explicit
and implicit biases and discrimination toward ethnic minorities.
This may affect the students' self-esteem and motivation as well as
their access to educational opportunities. For example, teachers may
hold stereotypical views even if they are not overtly racist, which can lead them to grade comparable performances differently based on the child's ethnicity.
Historically, gender has been a central factor in education since
the roles of men and women were defined differently in many societies.
Education tended to strongly favor men, who were expected to provide for
the family. Women, by contrast, were expected to manage the household
and rear children, which barred most educational opportunities available
to them. While these inequalities have improved in most modern
societies, there are still gender differences in education. Among other things, this concerns biases and stereotypes linked to the role of gender in education. They affect subjects like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, which are often presented as male fields. This discourages female students from following them. In various cases, discrimination based on gender and social factors
happens openly as part of official educational policy, such as the severe restrictions on female education instituted by the Taliban in Afghanistan and the school segregation of migrants and locals in urban China under the hukou system.
One aspect of many social factors is given by the expectations
associated with stereotypes. They work both on an external level, based
on how other people react to a person belonging to a certain group, and
on an internal level, based on how the person internalizes them and acts
accordingly. In this sense, the expectations may turn into self-fulfilling prophecies by causing the educational outcomes they anticipate. This can happen both for positive and negative stereotypes.
Technology
plays another significant role in educational success. Educational
technology is commonly associated with the use of modern digital
devices, like computers. But understood in the broadest sense, it
involves a wide range of resources and tools for learning, including
basic aids that do not involve the use of machines, like regular books
and worksheets.
Educational technology can benefit learning in various ways. In the
form of media, it often takes the role of the primary supplier of
information in the classroom. This means that the teacher can focus
their time and energy on other tasks, like planning the lesson and
guiding students as well as assessing educational performance. Educational technology can also make information easier to understand
by presenting it using graphics, audio, and video rather than through
mere text. In this regard, interactive elements may be used to make the
learning experience more engaging in the form of educational games.
Technology can be employed to make educational materials accessible to
many people, like when using online resources. It additionally
facilitates collaboration between students and communication with
teachers. The use of artificial intelligence
in education holds various potentials, such as providing new learning
experiences to students and assisting teachers in their work, but also
poses new risks associated with data privacy, false information, and manipulation. Various organizations promote student access to educational technologies, such as the One Laptop per Child initiative, the African Library Project, and Pratham.
School infrastructure also influences educational success. It
includes physical aspects of the school, like its location and size as
well as the available school facilities and equipment. A healthy and
safe environment, well-maintained classrooms, and suitable classroom
furniture as well as the availability of a library and a canteen tend to contribute to educational success. The quality of the teacher also has an important impact on student
achievement. Skilled teachers know how to motivate and inspire students
and are able to adjust their instructions to the students' abilities and
needs. Important in this regard are the teacher's own education and
training as well as their past teaching experience. A meta-analysis by Engin Karadağ et al. concludes that, compared to
other influences, factors related to the school and the teacher have the
biggest impact on educational success.
Parent involvement also boosts achievement and can make children
more motivated and invested if they are aware that their parents care
about their educational efforts. This tends to lead to increased
self-esteem, better attendance rates, and more constructive behavior at
school. Parent involvement also includes communication with teachers and
other school staff to make other parties aware of current issues and
how they may be resolved. Further relevant factors sometimes discussed in the academic literature
include historical, political, demographic, religious, and legal
aspects.
The main discipline investigating education is called education
studies, also referred to as education sciences. It tries to determine
how people transmit and acquire knowledge by studying the methods and
forms of education. It is interested in its aims, effects, and value as
well as the cultural, societal, governmental, and historical contexts
that shape education. Education theorists integrate insights from many other fields of inquiry, including philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, history, politics, and international relations. Because of these influences, some theorists claim that education studies is not an independent academic discipline like physics or history since its method and subject are not as clearly defined. Education studies differs from regular training programs, such as
teacher training, since its focus on academic analysis and critical
reflection goes beyond the skills needed to be a good teacher. It is not
restricted to the topic of formal education but examines all forms and
aspects of education.
Various research methods are used to study educational phenomena. They roughly divide into quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. Quantitative research emulates the methods found in the natural sciences by using precise numerical measurements to gather data from many observations and employs statistical
tools to analyze it. It aims to arrive at an objective and impersonal
understanding. Qualitative research usually has a much smaller sample size
and tries to get an in-depth insight into more subjective and personal
factors, like how different actors experience the process of education.
Mixed-methods research aims to combine data gathered from both
approaches to arrive at a balanced and comprehensive understanding. Data
can be collected in various ways, like using direct observation or test scores as well as interviews and questionnaires. Some research projects study basic factors affecting all forms of
education, while others concentrate on one specific application, look
for solutions to concrete problems, or examine the effectiveness of
educational projects and policies. Educational research was found to have low reproducibility.
Subfields
Education studies encompasses various subfields like pedagogy, comparative education, and the philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, and history of education. The philosophy of education is the branch of applied philosophy
that examines many of the basic assumptions underlying the theory and
practice of education. It studies education both as a process and as a
discipline while trying to provide exact definitions of its nature and
how it differs from other phenomena. It further examines the purpose of
education, its different types, and how to conceptualize teachers,
students, and their relation. It includes educational ethics, which investigates the moral
implications of education; for example, what ethical principles direct
it and how teachers should apply them to specific cases. The philosophy
of education has a long history and was discussed in ancient Greek philosophy.
The term "pedagogy" is sometimes used as a synonym for education
studies, but when understood in a more restricted sense, it refers to
the subfield interested in teaching methods. It studies how the aims of education, like the transmission of knowledge or fostering skills and character traits, can be realized. It is interested in the methods and practices used for teaching in
regular schools. Some definitions restrict it to this domain, but in a
wider sense, it covers all types of education, including forms of
teaching outside schools. In this general sense, it explores how teachers can bring about experiences in learners to advance their understanding of the studied topic and how the learning itself takes place.
The psychology of education studies how education happens on the
mental level, specifically how new knowledge and skills are acquired as
well as how personal growth takes place. It examines what factors
influence educational success, how they may differ between individuals,
and to what extent nature or nurture is responsible. Influential psychological theories of education are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Closely related fields are the neurology of education and educational neuroscience, which are interested in the neuropsychological processes and changes brought about through learning.
The sociology of education is concerned with how education leads to socialization. It examines how social factors and ideologies
affect what kind of education is available to a person and how
successful they are. Closely related questions include how education
affects different groups in society and how educational experiences can
form someone's personal identity.
The sociology of education is specifically interested in the causes of
inequalities, and its insights are relevant to education policy by
trying to identify and mitigate factors that cause inequality. Two influential schools of thought are consensus theory and conflict theory.
Consensus theorists hold that education benefits society as a whole by
preparing people for their roles. Conflict theories have a more negative
outlook on the resulting inequalities and see education as a force used
by the ruling class to promote their own agenda.
The economics of education is the field of inquiry studying how
education is produced, distributed, and consumed. It tries to determine
how resources should be used to improve education, for example, by
examining to what extent the quality of teachers is increased by raising
their salary. Other questions are how smaller class sizes
affect educational success and how to invest in new educational
technologies. This way, the economics of education helps policy-makers
decide how to distribute the limited resources most efficiently to
benefit society as a whole. It also tries to understand what long-term
role education plays for the economy of a country by providing a highly
skilled labor force and increasing its competitiveness. A closely
related issue concerns the economic advantages and disadvantages of
different systems of education.
Comparative education uses tools like the Education Index
to compare educational systems in different countries. Countries with a
high score are shown in green, while red indicates a low score.
Comparative education is the discipline that examines and contrasts
systems of education. Comparisons can happen from a general perspective
or focus on specific factors, like social, political, or economic
aspects. Comparative education is often applied to different countries
to assess the similarities and differences of their educational institutions
and practices as well as to evaluate the consequences of the distinct
approaches. It can be used to learn from other countries which education
policies work and how one's own system of education may be improved. This practice is known as policy borrowing and comes with many
difficulties since the success of policies can depend to a large degree
on the social and cultural context of students and teachers. A closely
related and controversial topic concerns the question of whether the
educational systems of developed countries are superior and should be exported to less developed countries. Other key topics are the internationalization of education and the role of education in transitioning from an authoritarian regime to a democracy.
The history of education examines the evolution of educational
practices, systems, and institutions. It discusses various key
processes, their possible causes and effects, and their relations to
each other.
Aims and ideologies
Propaganda poster in a primary school in North Korea. Authoritarian regimes often use education to indoctrinate students.
A central topic in education studies concerns the question of how
people should be educated and what goals should guide this process. Many
aims of education have been suggested, such as the acquisition of
knowledge and skills as well as personal development and fostering of
character traits. Common suggestions encompass features like curiosity,
creativity, rationality, and critical thinking as well as the tendency
to think, feel, and act morally. Some scholars focus on liberal values
linked to freedom, autonomy, and open-mindedness, while others prioritize qualities like obedience to authority, ideological purity, piety, and religious faith.
Some education theorists focus a single overarching purpose of education and see the more specific aims as means to this end. On a personal level, this purpose is often identified with helping the student lead a good life. On a societal level, education makes people productive members of society. It is controversial whether the primary aim of education is to benefit the educated person or society as a whole.
Educational ideologies are systems of basic philosophical
assumptions and principles that can be used to interpret, understand,
and evaluate existing educational practicies and policies. They cover
various additional issues besides the aims of education, like what
topics are learned and how the learning activity is structured. Other
themes include the role of the teacher, how educational progress should
be assessed, and how institutional frameworks and policies should be
structured. There are many ideologies, and they often overlap in various
ways. Teacher-centered ideologies place the main emphasis on the
teacher's role in transmitting knowledge to students, while
student-centered ideologies give a more active role to the students in
the process. Process-based ideologies focus on what the processes of
teaching and learning should be like and contrast with product-based
ideologies, which discuss education from the perspective of the result
to be achieved. Conservative ideologies rely on traditional and well-established practices while Progressive ideologies emphasize innovation and creativity. Further categories are humanism, romanticism, essentialism, encyclopaedism, and pragmatism as well as authoritarian and democratic ideologies.
Learning theories
Learning theories try to explain how learning happens. Influential theories are behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism understands learning as a
change in behavior in response to environmental stimuli. This happens by
presenting the learner with a stimulus, associating this stimulus with
the desired response, and solidifying this stimulus-response pair.
Cognitivism sees learning as a change in cognitive structures and
focuses on the mental processes involved in storing, retrieving, and
processing information. Constructivism holds that learning is based on
the personal experience of each individual and puts more emphasis on
social interactions and how they are interpreted by the learner. These
theories have important implications for how to teach. For example,
behaviorists tend to focus on drills, while cognitivists may advocate
the use of mnemonics, and constructivists tend to employ collaborative learning strategies.
Various theories suggest that learning is more efficient when it
is based on personal experience. An additional factor is to aim at a
deeper understanding by connecting new to pre-existing knowledge rather
than merely memorizing a list of unrelated facts. An influential developmental theory of learning is proposed by psychologist Jean Piaget,
who outlines four stages of learning through which children pass on
their way to adulthood: the sensorimotor, the pre-operational, the
concrete operational, and the formal operational stage. They correspond
to different levels of abstraction with early stages focusing more on
simple sensory and motor activities, while later stages include more
complex internal representations and information processing in the form
of logical reasoning.
Teaching methods
The teaching method concerns the way the content is presented by the
teacher, for example, whether group work is used instead of a focus on
individual learning. There are many teaching methods available and which
one is most efficient in a case depends on factors like the subject
matter and the learner's age and competence level. This is reflected in the fact that modern school systems organize students by age, competence, specialization, and native language
into different classes to ensure a productive learning process.
Different subjects frequently use different approaches; for instance,
language education often focuses on verbal learning, while mathematical
education is about abstract and symbolic thinking together with deductive reasoning. One central requirement for teaching methodologies is to ensure that the learner remains motivated because of interest and curiosity or through external rewards.
Teaching method also encompasses the use of instructional media used, such as books, worksheets, and audio-visual recordings, and having some form of test or assessment to evaluate the learning progress. Educational assessment
is the process of documenting the student's knowledge and skills, which
can happen formally or informally and may take place before, during, or after the learning activity.
An important pedagogical aspect in many forms of modern education is
that each lesson is part of a larger educational enterprise governed by a
syllabus, which often covers several months or years. According to Herbartianism,
teaching is divided into phases. The initial phase consists of
preparing the student's mind for new information. Next, new ideas are
first presented to the learner and then associated with ideas with which
the learner is already familiar. In later phases, the understanding
shifts to a more general level behind the specific instances, and the
ideas are then put into concrete practice.
The history of education studies the processes, methods, and
institutions involved in teaching and learning. It tries to explain how
they have interacted with each other and shaped educational practice
until the present day.
Prehistory
Education in prehistory took place as a form of enculturation
and focused on practical knowledge and skills relevant to everyday
concerns, for example, in relation to food, clothing, shelter, and
protection. There were no formal schools or specialized teachers, and
most adults in the community performed that role and learning happened
informally during everyday activities, for example, when children
observed and imitated their elders. For these oral societies, storytelling played a key role in transferring cultural and religious ideas from one generation to the next. Beginning with the emergence of agriculture
around 9000 BCE, a slow educational change towards more specialization
began to occur as people formed larger groups and more complex artisanal
and technical skills were needed.
Ancient era
Starting in the 4th millennium BCE and continuing through the
following millennia, a major shift in educational practices started to
take place with the invention of writing in regions such as Mesopotamia, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley, and ancient China. This development had a significant influence on the history of
education as a whole. Through writing, it was possible to store,
preserve, and communicate information. This facilitated various
subsequent developments; for example, the creation of educational tools,
like textbooks, and the formation of institutions, like schools.
Plato's Academy is often seen as the first school of higher learning. (Mosaic from Pompeii).
Another key aspect of ancient education was the establishment of
formal education. This became necessary since the amount of knowledge
grew as civilizations evolved, and informal education proved
insufficient to transmit all requisite knowledge between generations.
Teachers would act as specialists to impart knowledge, and education
became more abstract and further removed from daily life. Formal
education was still quite rare in ancient societies and was restricted
to the intellectual elites. It covered fields like reading and writing, record keeping, leadership,
civic and political life, religion, and technical skills associated
with specific professions. Formal education introduced a new way of teaching that gave more
emphasis to discipline and drills than the earlier informal modes of
education. Two often-discussed achievements of ancient education are the establishment of Plato's Academy in Ancient Greece, which is sometimes considered the first institute of higher learning, and the creation of the Great Library of Alexandria in Ancient Egypt as one of the most prestigious libraries of the ancient world.
Many aspects of education in the medieval period were shaped by religious traditions. In Europe, the Catholic Church wielded a significant influence over formal education. In the Arab world, the newly founded religion of Islam spread rapidly and led to various educational developments during the Islamic Golden Age, for example, by integrating classical and religious knowledge and by establishing madrasa schools. In Jewish communities, yeshivas were established as institutions dedicated to the study of religious texts and Jewish law. In China, an expansive state educational and exam system influenced by Confucian teachings was established. New complex societies began to evolve in other regions, such as Africa,
the Americas, Northern Europe, and Japan. Some incorporated preexisting
educational practices, while others developed new traditions.
Additionally, this period saw the establishment of various
institutes of higher education and research. The first universities in
Europe were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and Oxford University. Other influential centers of higher learning were the Al-Qarawiyyin University in Morocco, the Al-Azhar University in Egypt, and the House of Wisdom in Iraq. Another key development was the creation of guilds, which were associations of skilled craftsmen
and merchants who controlled the practice of their trades. They were
responsible for vocational education, and new members had to pass
through different stages on their way to masterhood.
Modern era
The invention of the printing press made written media widely available and led to a significant increase in general literacy.
Starting in the early modern period, education in Europe during the Renaissance slowly began to shift from a religious approach towards one which was more secular.
This development was tied to an increased appreciation of the
importance of education and a broadened range of topics, including a
revived interest in ancient literary texts and educational programs. The turn toward secularization was accelerated during the Age of Enlightenment starting in the 17th century, which emphasized the role of reason and the empirical sciences. European colonization affected education in the Americas through Christian missionary initiatives. In China, the state educational system was further expanded and focused more on the teachings of neo-Confucianism. In the Islamic world, the outreach of formal education increased and remained under the influence of religion. A key development in the early modern period was the invention and popularization of the printing press
in the middle of the 15th century, which had a profound impact on
general education. It significantly reduced the cost of producing books,
which were hand-written before, and thereby augmented the dissemination
of written documents, including new forms like newspapers and pamphlets. The increased availability of written media had a major influence on the general literacy of the population.
These changes prepared the rise of public education in the 18th
and 19th centuries. This period saw the establishment of publicly funded
schools with the aim of providing education for all. This contrasts with earlier periods when formal education was primarily
provided by private schools, religious institutions, and individual
tutors. Aztec
civilization was an exception in this regard since formal education was
mandatory for the youth regardless of social class as early as the 14th
century. Closely related changes were to make education compulsory and free of charge for all children up to a certain age.
Contemporary era
Initiatives to promote public education and universal access to education
made significant progress in the 20th and the 21st centuries and were
promoted by intergovernmental organizations like the UN. Examples
include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Education for All initiative, the Millennium Development Goals, and the Sustainable Development Goals. These efforts resulted in a steady rise of all forms of education but
affected primary education in particular. In 1970, 28% of all
primary-school-age children worldwide did not attend school; by 2015,
this number dropped to 9%.
The establishment of public education was accompanied by the
introduction of standardized curricula for public schools as well as
standardized tests to assess the student's progress. Contemporary
examples include the Test of English as a Foreign Language, which is a globally used test to assess English language proficiency of non-native English speakers, and the Programme for International Student Assessment,
which evaluates education systems worldwide based on how 15-year-old
students perform in the fields of reading, mathematics, and science.
Similar changes also affected teachers by setting in place institutions
and norms to guide and oversee teacher training, like certification
requirements for teaching at public schools.
Emerging educational technologies have shaped contemporary
education. The widespread availability of computers and the internet
dramatically increased access to educational resources and made new
types of education possible, such as online education. This was of
particular relevance during the COVID-19 pandemic when schools globally closed for extended periods and many offered remote learning through video conferencing or pre-recorded video lessons to continue instruction.[206] Contemporary education is also shaped by the increased globalization and internationalization of education.
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