Christianity and other religions documents Christianity's relationship with other world religions, and the differences and similarities.
Christian views on religious pluralism
Classical Christian view
Evangelical Christians believe that religious pluralism is heresy and contradicts the Bible.
Some Christians have argued that religious pluralism is an invalid or
self-contradictory concept. Maximal forms of religious pluralism claim
that all religions are equally true, or that one religion can be true
for some and another for others. Some, but by no means all, Christians
hold such pluralism to be logically impossible. Roman Catholicism
believes that while it is the fullest and most complete revelation of
God to Man, other Christian denominations have also received genuine
revelation from God, although partial and incomplete.
Calvinist Christian views
Although Calvinists
believe God and the truth of God cannot be plural, they also believe
that those civil ordinances of man which restrain man from evil and
encourage toward good, are ordinances of God (regardless of the
religion, or lack of it, of those who wield that power). Christians are
obligated to be at peace with all men, as far as it is up to them, and
to submit to governments for the Lord's sake, and to pray for enemies.
Calvinism is not pacifistic and Calvinists have been involved in religious wars, notably the French Wars of Religion and the English Civil War. Some of the first parts of modern Europe to practice religious tolerance had Calvinistic populations, notably the Netherlands.
Eastern Orthodox views
Modern (post-Enlightenment) Christian views
In
recent years, some Christian groups have become more open to religious
pluralism; this has led to many cases of reconciliation between
Christians and people of other faiths. The liberalization of many
Seminaries and theological institutions, particularly in regards to the
rejection of the notion that the Bible is an infallible document, has
led to a much more human-centered and secular movement within Mainline
Christian denominations, particularly in the United States. Some
Mainline churches no longer hold to exclusivist views on salvation.
In recent years there has been much to note in the way of
reconciliation between some Christian groups and the Jewish people. Many
modern day Christians, including many Catholics and some liberal
Protestants, have developed a view of the New Testament as an extended
covenant; they believe that Jews
are still in a valid relationship with God, and that Jews can avoid
damnation and earn a heavenly reward. For these Christians, the New
Testament extended God's original covenant to cover non-Jews. The
article Christian–Jewish reconciliation deals with this issue in detail.
Multiple smaller Christian groups in the US and Canada have come
into being over the last 40 years, such as "Christians for Israel".
Their website says that they exist in order to "expand Christian-Jewish
dialogue in the broadest sense in order to improve the relationship
between Christians and Jews, but also between Church and Synagogue,
emphasizing Christian repentance, the purging of anti-Jewish preliminary
attitudes and the false 'Replacement' theology rampant throughout
Christian teachings."
A number of large Christian groups, including the Catholic Church
and several large Protestant churches, have publicly declared that they
will no longer proselytize Jews.
Other Modern Christian views, including some conservative Protestants, reject the idea of the New Testament as an extended covenant, and retain the classical Christian view as described earlier.
Modern views specific to Catholicism
For the Catholic Church, there has been a move at reconciliation not only with Judaism, but also Islam. The Second Vatican Council
states that salvation includes others who acknowledge the same creator,
and explicitly lists Muslims among those (using the term Mohammedans,
which was the word commonly used among non-Muslims at the time). The
official Catholic position is therefore that Jews, Muslims and
Christians (including churches outside of Rome's authority) all
acknowledge the same God, though Jews and Muslims have not yet received
the gospel while other churches are generally considered deviant to a
greater or lesser degree.
The most prominent event in the way of dialogue between religions has arguably been the 1986 Peace Prayer in Assisi to which Pope John Paul II, against considerable resistance also from within the Roman Catholic
church, invited representatives of all world religions. John Paul II’s
remarks regarding Christian denominations were found in his Ut unum sint address. This initiative was taken up by the Community of Sant'Egidio,
who, with the support of John Paul II, organized yearly peace meetings
of religious representatives. These meetings, consisting of round tables
on different issues and of a common time of prayer has done much to
further understanding and friendship between religious leaders and to
further concrete peace initiatives. In order to avoid the reproaches of syncretism
that were leveled at the 1986 Assisi meeting where the representatives
of all religions held one common prayer, the follow-up meetings saw the
representatives of the different religions pray in different places
according to their respective traditions.
The question of whether traditional Chinese ancestor veneration,
consists of worshipping a God or veneration of a saint was important to
the Roman Catholic church during the Chinese Rites controversy of the early 18th century. This dispute was between the Dominicans who argued that Confucianism and Chinese folk religion was worship, and therefore incompatible with Catholicism, and the Jesuit who argued the reverse. The pope
ultimately ruled in favor of the Dominicans, a decision which greatly
reduced the role of Catholic missionaries in China. However, this
decision was partially reversed by Pope Pius XII
in 1939; after this, Chinese customs were no longer considered
superstition or idolatry, but a way of honoring esteemed relatives (not
entirely dissimilar to the Catholic practice of praying for the dead).
Relationship with Sikhism
Sikhs
also believe in one God and follow the Ten Sikh Gurus, unlike
Christians who believe in one Almighty God made up of three distinct
persons, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Known as the
Trinity). However, there is no heaven or hell in the Sikh religion.
Relationship with Judaism
Historically, the relationship between Christianity and Judaism has
been strained. In the past, Christians were often taught that "the Jews"
killed Christ, for which "murder" they bear a collective guilt (an interpretation which most major denominations now reject). Jews meanwhile have tended to associate Christianity with various pogroms, or in better times, with the dangers of assimilation. Anti-Semitism has a long history in Christianity (see Christianity and anti-Semitism), and indeed is far from dead (for example, in contemporary Russia). However, since the Holocaust, much dialogue aimed at Christian–Jewish reconciliation has taken place, and relations have greatly improved. Today, many conservative evangelicals support Christian Zionism, much to the irritation of Arab Christians, based partly on the Millennialist belief that the modern state of Israel represents the fulfillment of Biblical prophecy.
The phenomenon of Messianic Judaism has become something of an irritant to Jewish / Christian relations.
Messianic Jews—who generally seek to combine a Jewish identity with the
recognition of Jesus—are rejected by mainstream Jewish groups, who dismiss Messianic Judaism as little more than Christianity with Jewish undertones.
The Jewish conception of the messiah (משיח mashiach in Hebrew) holds certain similarities to that of Christians, yet there are substantial differences. According to Jews, the Hebrew Scriptures contain a small number of prophecies concerning a future descendant of King David,
who will be anointed (Hebrew: moshiach) as the Jewish people's new
leader and will establish the throne of David in Jerusalem forever. In
the Jewish view, this fully human and mortal leader will rebuild the
land of Israel and restore the Davidic Kingdom. This subject is covered in the section on Jewish eschatology. Some Christians have a different understanding of the term messiah, and believe that Jesus is the messiah referred to in the Old Testament prophecies; that the kingdom in these prophecies was to be a heavenly kingdom,
not an earthly one; and that Jesus' words and actions in the New
Testament provide evidence of his identity as messiah and that the
remainder of messianic prophecy will be fulfilled in the Second Coming. Other Christians acknowledge the Jewish definition of messiah,
and hold that Jesus fulfills this, being 'fully man' (in addition to
being 'fully God'), and believe that the Second Coming will establish
the Kingdom of God on earth, where Jesus, as messiah and descendant from
David, will reign from Jerusalem.
Relationship with Islam
Islam shares a number of beliefs with Christianity. They share similar views on judgment, heaven, hell, spirits, angels, and a future resurrection.
Jesus is acknowledged and respected by Muslims as a great prophet.
However, while Islam relegates Jesus to a lesser status than God — "in
the company of those nearest to God" in the Qur'an, mainstream (Trinitarian) Christianity teaches without question that Jesus is God the Son, one of the three Hypostases (common English: persons) of Christianity's Trinity, divinely co-equal with the Father and the Holy Spirit.
The religions both share a belief in the virgin birth of Jesus, his miracles and healings, and that he ascended bodily into heaven. However, Jesus is not accepted as the son by Muslims, who strictly maintain that he was a human being
who was loved by God and exalted by God to ranks of the most righteous.
They believe in God as a single entity, not as the Trinity accepted by
the vast majority of Christians. Neither do Muslims accept Jesus' crucifixion. Since Muslims believe only in the worship of a strictly monotheistic God who never assumed human flesh, they do not accept the use of icons, and see this as shirk (idolatry). Muslim influence played a part in the initiation of iconoclasm and their conquests caused the iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire. For the same reason, they do not worship or pray to Muhammad, Jesus, or any other prophets; only to God.
Adherents of Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) as People of the Book
since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have
a divine origin. Christians however neither recognize the Qur'an as a genuine book of divine revelation, nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as a mere prophet, on par with Muhammad, nor for that matter accept that Muhammad was a genuine prophet.
Muslims, for their part, believe that parts of the Gospels, Torah
and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted, or
distorted by their followers. Based on that perspective, Muslims view
the Qur'an as correcting the errors of Christianity. For example,
Muslims reject belief in the Trinity, or any other expression of the divinity of Jesus, as incompatible with monotheism.
Not surprisingly, the two faiths have often experienced controversy and conflict (an example being the Crusades). At the same time, much fruitful dialogue has occurred as well. The writings of Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas frequently cite those of the Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides, as well as Muslim thinker Averroes ('Ibn-Rushd).
On May 6, 2001 Pope John Paul II, the first pope to pray in a mosque, delivered an address at Umayyad Mosque in Damascus,
saying: "It is important that Muslims and Christians continue to
explore philosophical and theological questions together, in order to
come to a more objective and comprehensive knowledge of each other's
religious beliefs. Better mutual understanding will surely lead, at the
practical level, to a new way of presenting our two religions not in
opposition, as has happened too often in the past, but in partnership
for the good of the human family." This Mosque of Damascus is famous for
containing the head of John the Baptist.
Relations with Hinduism
Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity differ on fundamental beliefs on heaven, hell and reincarnation, to name a few. From the Hindu perspective, heaven (Sanskrit svarga) and hell (Naraka) are temporary places, where every soul has to live, either for the good deeds done or for their sins committed.
There also exist significant similarities in Christian and Hindu
theology, most notably in that both religions present a trinitarian view
of God. The Holy Trinity of Christianity, consisting of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is sometimes seen as roughly analogous to the Trimurti of Hinduism, whose members -- Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—are seen as the three principal manifestations of Brahman, or Godhead.
Christian-Hindu relations are a mixed affair. On one hand,
Hinduism's natural tendency has been to recognize the divine basis of
various other religions, and to revere their founders and saintly
practitioners. In Western countries, Vedanta has influenced some Christian thinkers, while others in the anti-cult movement have reacted against the activities of immigrant gurus and their followers. (See also: Pierre Johanns, Abhishiktananda, Bede Griffiths, Dalit theology.)
The Christian Ashram Movement, a movement within Christianity in India, embraces Vedanta and the teachings of the East, attempting to combine the Christian faith with the Hindu ashram model and Christian monasticism with the Hindu sannyasa tradition.
Relations with Buddhism
In the 19th century, some scholars began to perceive similarities between Buddhist and Christian practices, e.g. in 1878 T.W. Rhys Davids wrote that the earliest missionaries to Tibet observed that similarities have been seen since the first known contact.
In 1880 Ernest De Bunsen made similar observations in that with the
exception of the death of Jesus on the cross, and of the Christian
doctrine of atonement, the most ancient Buddhist records had
similarities with the Christian traditions.
Buddhism and Protestantism came into political conflict in 19th century Sri Lanka
and in Tibet c. 1904 (the Francis Younghusband Expedition). Various
events have cooperated to introduce various strains of Buddhist theology
and meditation to several generations of Western spiritual seekers
(including some Catholic religious). Relations are generally good
between both religions, except perhaps in South Korea where Christians have damaged Buddhist temples and engaged in other forms of Christian extremism. The Russian republic of Kalmykia recognizes both Tibetan/Lamaist Buddhism and Russian Orthodoxy as its official religions.
Possible relationship with Zoroastrianism through Judaism
Many scholars believe the eschatology of Judaism and possibly the idea of monotheism originated in Zoroastrianism, and may have been transferred to Judaism during the Babylonian captivity,
thus eventually influencing Christian theology. Bible scholar P.R.
Ackroyd states: "the whole eschatological scheme, however, of the Last
Judgment, rewards and punishments, etc., within which immortality is
achieved, is manifestly Zoroastrian in origin and inspiration." However, the theory is questioned by other mainstream historians and scholars. The Oxford History of the Biblical World states "There is little if any effect of Zoroastrian elements on Judaism in the Persian period.".
Nevertheless, scholars such as Soloman Nigosian contend, in regarding
the similar ideas of Zoroaster and later Jewish writers, that "the ideas
were indigenous to Iran...it is hardly conceivable that some of the
characteristic ideas and practices in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
came into being without Zoroastrian influence."
The new faith (Zoroastrianism) emerged in larger Persian empires."
Zoroastrianism reflected the cosmopolitan society of the empires".
During this time Zoroastrianism profoundly effected the beliefs and
values of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam ("Traditions &
Encounters: A brief global History", Jerry H. Bentley. pg. 93). It is
also possible that Zoroastrianism and later Jewish theology came from a
common source.
In the Younger Avesta, three divinities of the Zoroastrian pantheon are repeatedly identified as ahuric, meaning that each, as Ahura, act together in both representing and protecting Asha, or the divine truth governing the universe. These three are Ahura Mazda, Mithra and Burz,
and hence known as the "Ahuric triad." Similarities with the Christian
Trinity can be seen between Ahura Mazda and God the Father, Mithra and
Christ the Logos, as well as between Burz and the Holy Spirit, both of
which are associated symbolically with water. Both Zoroastrianism and
Christianity consider themselves to be monotheistic, but like all other
monotheisms they have highlighted certain aspects or energies of the
divine to emphasize, and these are not meant to be interpreted as
separate divinities. In both religions there are guardian angels, or fravashi, which are considered to be created beings and are distinct from the Energies of God or divine emanations. The Zoroastrian term yazata,
however, has variously been interpreted as meaning emanations or
"sparks" of the divine, or as being roughly synonymous with the term
"angels." There have been various theories on the possible relationship
between these aspects of Zoroastrianism and ideas of divine emanation
in esoteric Christianity, Jewish Kabbalah, Islamic mysticism (Sufism), and other religious systems, such as Gnosticism, Yazidism, and the Druze, among others.
Relationship with Mithraism and Sol Invictus
There are many parallels between Mithraism, the religion of Sol Invictus, and Christianity. Aurelian is believed to have established the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (Day of the Birth of Sol Invictus) as an annual festival[citation needed] held on the day when the sun's daily declination visibly starts rising again after the winter solstice,
namely on December 25; the birth of the central figure was thus
celebrated on the day which Christians later used to celebrate Jesus'
birth (having always celebrated this at Epiphany). Other similarities include the stories of Christ and Mithra as children being visited by shepherds, the trinity, and the immortal soul. Sunday itself was imposed as the official day of rest by Constantine, who referred to it as the Day of the venerable Sun. (Although Christians worshiped on Sunday from at least 150 years before Constantine)
The earliest attestation of Mithraism is Plutarch's record of it being practised in 68BC by Cilician pirates, the first mithraists. Tertullian,
a Christian writer who lived between the 2nd and 3rd centuries,
admitted there was a strong similarity between the practises of the two
faiths:
- the devil, ... mimics even the essential portions of the divine sacraments...he baptises some, that is his own believers, ... he promises the forgiveness of sins... Mithraism, .... also celebrates the oblation of bread, and introduces a symbol of the resurrection... - Tertullian,
Justin Martyr, an earlier 2nd century Church Father, agreed that the similarities existed, claiming that Mithraism had copied the Eucharist. Justin argued that the devil had invented Mithraism to mock Christianity. Christian apologist Ronald H. Nash stated
- allegations of an early Christian dependence on Mithraism have been rejected on many grounds. Mithraism had no concept of the death and resurrection of its god and no place for any concept of rebirth -- at least during its early stages...During the early stages of the cult, the notion of rebirth would have been foreign to its basic outlook...Moreover, Mithraism was basically a military cult. Therefore, one must be skeptical about suggestions that it appealed to nonmilitary people like the early Christians.
Relationship with the Bahá'í Faith
The Bahá'í Faith believes that there is one God who sends divine messengers to guide humanity throughout time, which is called Progressive revelation (Bahá'í)—and is different from the Christian belief of Progressive revelation (Christian). They believe in the divine knowledge and essence of Jesus, among other messengers such as Muhammad, Zoroaster, Moses, Buddha, Krishna, and others. Interpretations vary, but the Bahá'í Faith is sometimes considered an Abrahamic faith.
The followers of the Bahá'í Faith believe in God, as do Christians, and
recognize Jesus' teachings, but they have different views of the Trinity
and divinity of Jesus. The Bahá'í view of prophets is that although
they have both human and divine characteristics, they are not themselves
God, but rather "divine manifestations." They also see the Trinity as
symbolic where Jesus and the Holy Spirit are polished mirrors that
reflect the pure light from God. Although Bahá'ís affirm the Bible as
sacred scripture, they do not consider the Bible to be wholly authentic
as Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith,
affirmed that "The Bible is not wholly authentic, and in this respect
not to be compared with the Qur’án, and should be wholly subordinated to
the authentic Sayings of Bahá’u’lláh."
Bahá'ís share some views with Christianity regarding moral and immoral behavior. Bahá'ís condemn polygamy, premarital sex, and homosexual acts while treating everyone, including homosexuals, with love, respect, and dignity. (See Homosexuality and Bahá'í Faith.)
Relationship with Scientology
Hubbard described Scientology as "the Western Anglicized continuance of many earlier forms of wisdom." Hubbard includes the teachings of Jesus among belief systems cited as these "earlier forms of wisdom". Jesus is recognized in Scientology as part of its "religious heritage", though "is seen as only one of many good teachers".
In the 2008 book Vintage Jesus: Timeless Answers to Timely Questions,
authors Mark Driscoll and Gerry Breshears write: "According to
Scientology, Jesus is an "implant" forced upon a Thetan about a million
years ago", and Jack Huberman writes in 101 People Who Are Really Screwing America that in Scientology Jesus is seen as having been "implanted in humanity's collective memory", by the character Xenu from Scientology space opera.
Sociological aspects
The
spread of Christianity has been international, in some cases entirely
displacing the religions and altering the customs encountered among
those people to whom it has come. This centuries-long process has been
met with violent opposition at times, and likewise the spread of
Christianity has in some cases been carried out with martial force. The
relationship of Christianity to other faiths is encumbered to some
extent by this history, with modern Christians, particularly in the
West, expressing embarrassment over the violence in Christianity's past.
Converting adherents of other religions
is widely accepted within Christianity. Many Christian organizations
believe that they have a duty to make converts among every people. In
recent years, ecumenism
and dialogue between different religions has been endorsed by many
official representatives of the Christian churches, as a way of
effecting reconciliation between Christian people and people of other
faiths, leading to many cases of reconciliation. In some cases, this
endorsement is accompanied by a complete disavowal of all proselytizing
efforts under the banner of religious pluralism.
This is specially marked by the inauguration, or installation, of Archbishop of York Dr John Sentamu
from Uganda, on November 29, 2005. Dr Sentamu is the first black
African archbishop of the Church of England. He is also the first
archbishop to beat bongo drums in the cathedral at his own inauguration.
The newspaper Guardian, which dedicated its double middle page of the
following day to a full picture of the grinning archbishop in full
apparel at the porch of the cathedral, says that:
"Dr Sentamu's sermon was a stern lecture to the Church of England to
grow out of being a 'judgmental and moralising' congregation of
'pew-fillers, sermon-taters, Bible readers, even born-again believers
and Spirit-filled charismatics' and go out to make friends in the world.
'We have lost the joy and power that makes real disciples and we've
become consumers of religion, not disciples of Jesus-Christ', he said.
'Christians, go and make friends among Buddhists, Hindus, Jews, Muslims,
Sikhs, agnostics, atheists, not for the purpose of converting them to
your beliefs but for friendship, understanding, listening, hearing.' His
remarks were greeted with applause, not with silence as the order of
the service instructed."
A special case is the issue of Christian–Jewish reconciliation, in which significant reconciliation has been reached.
Syncretism
Christian converts have often carried some of their previous customs to their new faith. This on occasion has led to syncretisms, that are often not accepted by mainstream Christians:
- In Cuban Santería, the West African orishas are venerated in the shape of Catholic saints.
- The Chinese Taiping Rebellion put the Bible in the place of the Confucian classics.
- The God's Army of Myanmar mixed Karen traditions with Protestantism.
