A catapult is a ballistic device used to launch a projectile a great distance without the aid of gunpowder or other propellants – particularly various types of ancient and medieval siege engines. A catapult uses the sudden release of stored potential energy to propel its payload. Most convert tension or torsion
energy that was more slowly and manually built up within the device
before release, via springs, bows, twisted rope, elastic, or any of
numerous other materials and mechanisms.
In use since ancient times, the catapult has proven to be one of
the most persistently effective mechanisms in warfare. In modern times
the term can apply to devices ranging from a simple hand-held implement
(also called a "slingshot") to a mechanism for launching aircraft from a ship.
The earliest catapults date to at least the 7th century BC, with King Uzziah, of Judah, recorded as equipping the walls of Jerusalem with machines that shot "great stones". Catapults are mentioned in Yajurveda under the name "Jyah" in chapter 30, verse 7. In the 5th century BC the mangonel appeared in ancient China, a type of traction trebuchet and catapult. Early uses were also attributed to Ajatashatru of Magadha in his, 5th century BC, war against the Licchavis. Greek catapults were invented in the early 4th century BC, being attested by Diodorus Siculus as part of the equipment of a Greek army in 399 BC, and subsequently used at the siege of Motya in 397 BC.
Etymology
The word 'catapult' comes from the Latin 'catapulta', which in turn comes from the GreekAncient Greek: καταπέλτης (katapeltēs), itself from κατά (kata), "downwards" and πάλλω (pallō), "to toss, to hurl". Catapults were invented by the ancient Greeks and in ancient India where they were used by the Magadhan Emperor Ajatashatru around the early to mid 5th century BC.
Ancient mechanical artillery: Catapults (standing), the chain drive of Polybolos (bottom center), Gastraphetes (on wall)Engraving illustrating a Roman catapult design, 1581Roman "catapult-nest" in the Trajan's Dacian Wars
The catapult and crossbow
in Greece are closely intertwined. Primitive catapults were essentially
"the product of relatively straightforward attempts to increase the
range and penetrating power of missiles by strengthening the bow which
propelled them". The historian Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC), described the invention of a mechanical arrow-firing catapult (katapeltikon) by a Greek task force in 399 BC. The weapon was soon after employed against Motya (397 BC), a key Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily. Diodorus is assumed to have drawn his description from the highly rated history of Philistus,
a contemporary of the events then. The introduction of crossbows
however, can be dated further back: according to the inventor Hero of Alexandria (fl. 1st century AD), who referred to the now lost works of the 3rd-century BC engineer Ctesibius, this weapon was inspired by an earlier foot-held crossbow, called the gastraphetes, which could store more energy than the Greek bows. A detailed description of the gastraphetes, or the "belly-bow", along with a watercolor drawing, is found in Heron's technical treatise Belopoeica.
A third Greek author, Biton (fl. 2nd century BC), whose reliability has been positively reevaluated by recent scholarship, described two advanced forms of the gastraphetes, which he credits to Zopyros, an engineer from southern Italy. Zopyrus has been plausibly equated with a Pythagorean of that name who seems to have flourished in the late 5th century BC. He probably designed his bow-machines on the occasion of the sieges of Cumae and Milet between 421 BC and 401 BC. The bows of these machines already featured a winched pull back system and could apparently throw two missiles at once.
Philo of Byzantium provides probably the most detailed account on the establishment of a theory of belopoietics (belos = "projectile"; poietike
= "(art) of making") circa 200 BC. The central principle to this theory
was that "all parts of a catapult, including the weight or length of
the projectile, were proportional to the size of the torsion springs".
This kind of innovation is indicative of the increasing rate at which
geometry and physics were being assimilated into military enterprises.
From the mid-4th century BC onwards, evidence of the Greek use of
arrow-shooting machines becomes more dense and varied: arrow firing
machines (katapaltai) are briefly mentioned by Aeneas Tacticus in his treatise on siegecraft written around 350 BC. An extant inscription from the Athenian
arsenal, dated between 338 and 326 BC, lists a number of stored
catapults with shooting bolts of varying size and springs of sinews. The later entry is particularly noteworthy as it constitutes the first clear evidence for the switch to torsion catapults, which are more powerful than the more-flexible crossbows and which came to dominate Greek and Roman artillery design thereafter. This move to torsion springs was likely spurred by the engineers of Philip II of Macedonia. Another Athenian inventory from 330 to 329 BC includes catapult bolts with heads and flights.
As the use of catapults became more commonplace, so did the training
required to operate them. Many Greek children were instructed in
catapult usage, as evidenced by "a 3rd Century B.C. inscription from the
island of Ceos in the Cyclades [regulating] catapult shooting
competitions for the young". Arrow firing machines in action are reported from Philip II's siege of Perinth (Thrace) in 340 BC.
At the same time, Greek fortifications began to feature high towers
with shuttered windows in the top, which could have been used to house
anti-personnel arrow shooters, as in Aigosthena. Projectiles included both arrows and (later) stones that were sometimes lit on fire. Onomarchus of Phocis first used catapults on the battlefield against Philip II of Macedon. Philip's son, Alexander the Great, was the next commander in recorded history to make such use of catapults on the battlefield as well as to use them during sieges.
The Romans started to use catapults as arms for their wars against Syracuse, Macedon, Sparta and Aetolia (3rd and 2nd centuries BC). The Roman machine known as an arcuballista was similar to a large crossbow. Later the Romans used ballista catapults on their warships.
Other ancient catapults
In chronological order:
19th century BC, Egypt, walls of the fortress of Buhen appear to contain platforms for siege weapons.
c.750 BC, Judah, King Uzziah is documented as having overseen the construction of machines to "shoot great stones".
between 484 and 468 BC, India, Ajatashatru is recorded in Jaina texts as having used catapults in his campaign against the Licchavis.
between 500 and 300 BC, China, recorded use of mangonels. They were probably used by the Mohists as early as the 4th century BC, descriptions of which can be found in the Mojing (compiled in the 4th century BC). In Chapter 14 of the Mojing, the mangonel is described hurling hollowed out logs filled with burning charcoal at enemy troops. The mangonel was carried westward by the Avars
and appeared next in the eastern Mediterranean by the late 6th century
AD, where it replaced torsion powered siege engines such as the ballista
and onager due to its simpler design and faster rate of fire. The Byzantines adopted the mangonel possibly as early as 587, the
Persians in the early 7th century, and the Arabs in the second half of
the 7th century. The Franks and Saxons adopted the weapon in the 8th century.
Medieval catapults
Replica of a Petraria ArcatinusPetraria Arcatinus catapult in Mercato San Severino, ItalyCatapult 1 Mercato San Severino
Castles and fortified walled cities were common during this period and catapults were used as siege weapons against them. As well as their use in attempts to breach walls, incendiary missiles, or diseased carcasses or garbage could be catapulted over the walls.
Defensive techniques in the Middle Ages progressed to a point that rendered catapults largely ineffective. The Viking siege of Paris
(885–6 A.D.) "saw the employment by both sides of virtually every
instrument of siege craft known to the classical world, including a
variety of catapults", to little effect, resulting in failure.
The most widely used catapults throughout the Middle Ages were as follows:
Ballistae were similar to giant crossbows and were designed to work
through torsion. The projectiles were large arrows or darts made from
wood with an iron tip. These arrows were then shot "along a flat
trajectory" at a target. Ballistae were accurate, but lacked firepower
compared with that of a mangonel or trebuchet. Because of their
immobility, most ballistae were constructed on site following a siege
assessment by the commanding military officer.
The springald's design resembles that of the ballista, being a
crossbow powered by tension. The springald's frame was more compact,
allowing for use inside tighter confines, such as the inside of a castle
or tower, but compromising its power.
This machine was designed to throw heavy projectiles from a
"bowl-shaped bucket at the end of its arm". Mangonels were mostly used
for “firing various missiles at fortresses, castles, and cities,” with a
range of up to 1,300 ft (400 m). These missiles included anything from
stones to excrement to rotting carcasses. Mangonels were relatively
simple to construct, and eventually wheels were added to increase
mobility.
Mangonels are also sometimes referred to as Onagers. Onager
catapults initially launched projectiles from a sling, which was later
changed to a "bowl-shaped bucket". The word Onager is derived from the Greek word onagros for "wild ass", referring to the "kicking motion and force"
that were recreated in the Mangonel's design. Historical records
regarding onagers are scarce. The most detailed account of Mangonel use
is from “Eric Marsden's translation of a text written by Ammianus
Marcellius in the 4th Century AD” describing its construction and combat
usage.
Mongol warriors using trebuchet to besiege a city
Trebuchets were probably the most powerful catapult employed in the
Middle Ages. The most commonly used ammunition were stones, but "darts
and sharp wooden poles" could be substituted if necessary. The most
effective kind of ammunition though involved fire, such as "firebrands,
and deadly Greek Fire".
Trebuchets came in two different designs: Traction, which were powered
by people, or Counterpoise, where the people were replaced with "a
weight on the short end". The most famous historical account of trebuchet use dates back to the siege of Stirling Castle in 1304, when the army of Edward I constructed a giant trebuchet known as Warwolf, which then proceeded to "level a section of [castle] wall, successfully concluding the siege".
A simplified trebuchet, where the trebuchet's single counterweight is split, swinging on either side of a central support post.
Leonardo da Vinci's catapult
Leonardo da Vinci sought to improve the efficiency and range of earlier designs. His design incorporated a large wooden leaf spring as an accumulator to power the catapult. Both ends of the bow are connected by a rope, similar to the design of a bow and arrow.
The leaf spring was not used to pull the catapult armature directly,
rather the rope was wound around a drum. The catapult armature was
attached to this drum which would be turned until enough potential
energy was stored in the deformation of the spring. The drum would then
be disengaged from the winding mechanism, and the catapult arm would
snap around. Though no records exist of this design being built during Leonardo's lifetime, contemporary enthusiasts have reconstructed it.
The last large scale military use of catapults was during the trench warfare of World War I. During the early stages of the war, catapults were used to throw hand grenades across no man's land into enemy trenches. They were eventually replaced by small mortars.
The SPBG (Silent Projector of Bottles and Grenades) was a soviet
proposal anti-tank weapon that launched grenades from a spring loaded
shuttle up to 100 m (330 ft).
In the 1840s, the invention of vulcanizedrubber
allowed the making of small hand-held catapults, either improvised from
Y-shaped sticks or manufactured for sale; both were popular with
children and teenagers. These devices were also known as slingshots in the United States.
Special variants called aircraft catapults
are used to launch planes from land bases and sea carriers when the
takeoff runway is too short for a powered takeoff or simply impractical
to extend. Ships also use them to launch torpedoes and deploy bombs against submarines. Small catapults, referred to as "traps", are still widely used to launch clay targets into the air in the sport of clay pigeon shooting.
Entertainment
In the 1990s and early 2000s, a powerful catapult, a trebuchet, was
used by thrill-seekers first on private property and in 2001–2002 at
Middlemoor Water Park, Somerset, England, to experience being catapulted
through the air for 100 feet (30 m). The practice has been discontinued
due to a fatality at the Water Park. There had been an injury when the
trebuchet was in use on private property. Injury and death occurred when
those two participants failed to land onto the safety net.
The operators of the trebuchet were tried, but found not guilty of
manslaughter, though the jury noted that the fatality might have been
avoided had the operators "imposed stricter safety measures."Human cannonballcircus acts use a catapult launch mechanism, rather than gunpowder, and are risky ventures for the human cannonballs.
Early launched roller coasters used a catapult system powered by a diesel engine or a dropped weight to acquire their momentum, such as Shuttle Loop installations between 1977 and 1978. The catapult system for roller coasters has been replaced by flywheels and later linear motors.
Pumpkin chunking
is another widely popularized use, in which people compete to see who
can launch a pumpkin the farthest by mechanical means (although the
world record is held by a pneumatic air cannon).
Other
In January 2011, a homemade catapult was discovered that was used to smugglecannabis
into the United States from Mexico. The machine was found 20 ft (6.1 m)
from the border fence with 4.4 pounds (2.0 kg) bales of cannabis ready
to launch.
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