Separation of variables

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_variables

 

In mathematics, separation of variables (also known as the Fourier method) is any of several methods for solving ordinary and partial differential equations, in which algebra allows one to rewrite an equation so that each of two variables occurs on a different side of the equation.

Solve proportional first order differential equation

Solve linear first order differential equation by separation of variables.

Ordinary differential equations (ODE)

A differential equation for the unknown ${\displaystyle f(x)}$ will be separable if it can be written in the form

${\displaystyle \frac{d}{dx}f(x)=g(x)h(f(x))}$

where ${\displaystyle g}$ and ${\displaystyle h}$ are given functions. This is perhaps more transparent when written using ${\displaystyle y=f(x)}$ as:

${\displaystyle \frac{dy}{dx}=g(x)h(y).}$

So now as long as h(y) ≠ 0, we can rearrange terms to obtain:

${\displaystyle \frac{dy}{h(y)}=g(x)dx,}$

where the two variables x and y have been separated. Note dx (and dy) can be viewed, at a simple level, as just a convenient notation, which provides a handy mnemonic aid for assisting with manipulations. A formal definition of dx as a differential (infinitesimal) is somewhat advanced.

Alternative notation

Those who dislike Leibniz's notation may prefer to write this as

${\displaystyle \frac{1}{h(y)}\frac{dy}{dx}=g(x),}$

but that fails to make it quite as obvious why this is called "separation of variables". Integrating both sides of the equation with respect to ${\displaystyle x}$, we have

${\displaystyle \int \frac{1}{h(y)}\frac{dy}{dx}dx=\int g(x)dx,}$

(A1)

or equivalently,

${\displaystyle \int \frac{1}{h(y)}dy=\int g(x)dx}$

because of the substitution rule for integrals.

If one can evaluate the two integrals, one can find a solution to the differential equation. Observe that this process effectively allows us to treat the derivative ${\displaystyle \frac{dy}{dx}}$ as a fraction which can be separated. This allows us to solve separable differential equations more conveniently, as demonstrated in the example below.

(Note that we do not need to use two constants of integration, in equation (A1) as in

${\displaystyle \int \frac{1}{h(y)}dy+C_1=\int g(x)dx+C_2,}$

because a single constant ${\displaystyle C=C_2-C_1}$ is equivalent.)

Example

Population growth is often modeled by the "logistic" differential equation

${\displaystyle \frac{dP}{dt}=kP\left(1-\frac{P}{K}\right)}$

where ${\displaystyle P}$ is the population with respect to time ${\displaystyle t}$, ${\displaystyle k}$ is the rate of growth, and ${\displaystyle K}$ is the carrying capacity of the environment. Separation of variables now leads to

${\displaystyle \begin{array}{rl}& \int \frac{dP}{P\left(1-P/K\right)}=\int kdt\end{array}}$

which is readily integrated using partial fractions on the left side yielding

${\displaystyle P(t)=\frac{K}{1+A{e}^{-kt}}}$

where A is the constant of integration. We can find ${\displaystyle A}$ in terms of ${\displaystyle P\left(0\right)=P_0}$ at t=0. Noting ${\displaystyle e^0=1}$ we get

${\displaystyle A=\frac{K-P_0}{P_0}.}$

Generalization of separable ODEs to the nth order

Much like one can speak of a separable first-order ODE, one can speak of a separable second-order, third-order or nth-order ODE. Consider the separable first-order ODE:

${\displaystyle \frac{dy}{dx}=f(y)g(x)}$

The derivative can alternatively be written the following way to underscore that it is an operator working on the unknown function, y:

${\displaystyle \frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{d}{dx}(y)}$

Thus, when one separates variables for first-order equations, one in fact moves the dx denominator of the operator to the side with the x variable, and the d(y) is left on the side with the y variable. The second-derivative operator, by analogy, breaks down as follows:

${\displaystyle \frac{d^{2}y}{d{x}^2}=\frac{d}{dx}\left(\frac{dy}{dx}\right)=\frac{d}{dx}\left(\frac{d}{dx}(y)\right)}$

The third-, fourth- and nth-derivative operators break down in the same way. Thus, much like a first-order separable ODE is reducible to the form

${\displaystyle \frac{dy}{dx}=f(y)g(x)}$

a separable second-order ODE is reducible to the form

${\displaystyle \frac{d^{2}y}{d{x}^2}=f\left(y^{\prime }\right)g(x)}$

and an nth-order separable ODE is reducible to

${\displaystyle \frac{d^{n}y}{d{x}^n}=f\left(y^{(n-1)}\right)g(x)}$

Example

Consider the simple nonlinear second-order differential equation:

$${\displaystyle y^{″}=(y^{\prime }{)}^2.}$$

This equation is an equation only of y'' and y', meaning it is reducible to the general form described above and is, therefore, separable. Since it is a second-order separable equation, collect all x variables on one side and all y' variables on the other to get:

$${\displaystyle \frac{d(y^{\prime })}{(y^{\prime }{)}^2}=dx.}$$

Now, integrate the right side with respect to x and the left with respect to y':

$${\displaystyle \int \frac{d(y^{\prime })}{(y^{\prime }{)}^2}=\int dx.}$$

This gives

$${\displaystyle -\frac{1}{y^{\prime }}=x+C_1,}$$

which simplifies to:

$${\displaystyle y^{\prime }=-\frac{1}{x+C_1}.}$$

This is now a simple integral problem that gives the final answer:

$${\displaystyle y=C_2-\ln |x+C_1|.}$$

Partial differential equations

See also: Separable partial differential equation

The method of separation of variables is also used to solve a wide range of linear partial differential equations with boundary and initial conditions, such as the heat equation, wave equation, Laplace equation, Helmholtz equation and biharmonic equation.

The analytical method of separation of variables for solving partial differential equations has also been generalized into a computational method of decomposition in invariant structures that can be used to solve systems of partial differential equations.

Example: homogeneous case

Consider the one-dimensional heat equation. The equation is

${\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\partial }u}{\mathrm{\partial }t}-\alpha \frac{{\mathrm{\partial }}^{2}u}{\mathrm{\partial }{x}^2}=0}$

(1)

The variable u denotes temperature. The boundary condition is homogeneous, that is

${\displaystyle u{|}_{x=0}=u{|}_{x=L}=0}$

(2)

Let us attempt to find a solution which is not identically zero satisfying the boundary conditions but with the following property: u is a product in which the dependence of u on x, t is separated, that is:

${\displaystyle u(x,t)=X(x)T(t).}$

(3)

Substituting u back into equation (1) and using the product rule,

${\displaystyle \frac{T^{\prime }(t)}{\alpha T(t)}=\frac{X^{″}(x)}{X(x)}.}$

(4)

Since the right hand side depends only on x and the left hand side only on t, both sides are equal to some constant value −λ. Thus:

${\displaystyle T^{\prime }(t)=-\lambda \alpha T(t),}$

(5)

and

${\displaystyle X^{″}(x)=-\lambda X(x).}$

(6)

−λ here is the eigenvalue for both differential operators, and T(t) and X(x) are corresponding eigenfunctions.

We will now show that solutions for X(x) for values of λ ≤ 0 cannot occur:

Suppose that λ < 0. Then there exist real numbers B, C such that

${\displaystyle X(x)=B{e}^{\sqrt{-\lambda }x}+C{e}^{-\sqrt{-\lambda }x}.}$

From (2) we get

${\displaystyle X(0)=0=X(L),}$

(7)

and therefore B = 0 = C which implies u is identically 0.

Suppose that λ = 0. Then there exist real numbers B, C such that

${\displaystyle X(x)=Bx+C.}$

From (7) we conclude in the same manner as in 1 that u is identically 0.

Therefore, it must be the case that λ > 0. Then there exist real numbers A, B, C such that

${\displaystyle T(t)=A{e}^{-\lambda \alpha t},}$

and

${\displaystyle X(x)=B\sin (\sqrt{\lambda }x)+C\cos (\sqrt{\lambda }x).}$

From (7) we get C = 0 and that for some positive integer n,

${\displaystyle \sqrt{\lambda }=n\frac{\pi }{L}.}$

This solves the heat equation in the special case that the dependence of u has the special form of (3).

In general, the sum of solutions to (1) which satisfy the boundary conditions (2) also satisfies (1) and (3). Hence a complete solution can be given as

${\displaystyle u(x,t)=\sum _{n=1}^{\mathrm{\infty }}{D}_n\sin \frac{n\pi x}{L}\exp \left(-\frac{n^2{\pi }^2\alpha t}{L^2}\right),}$

where D_n are coefficients determined by initial condition.

Given the initial condition

${\displaystyle u{|}_{t=0}=f(x),}$

we can get

${\displaystyle f(x)=\sum _{n=1}^{\mathrm{\infty }}{D}_n\sin \frac{n\pi x}{L}.}$

This is the sine series expansion of f(x) which is amenable to Fourier analysis. Multiplying both sides with $\sin \frac{n\pi x}{L}$ and integrating over [0, L] results in

${\displaystyle D_n=\frac{2}{L}{\int }_0^{L}f(x)\sin \frac{n\pi x}{L}dx.}$

This method requires that the eigenfunctions X, here ${\left\{\sin \frac{n\pi x}{L}\right\}}_{n=1}^{\mathrm{\infty }}$, are orthogonal and complete. In general this is guaranteed by Sturm–Liouville theory.

Example: nonhomogeneous case

Suppose the equation is nonhomogeneous,

${\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\partial }u}{\mathrm{\partial }t}-\alpha \frac{{\mathrm{\partial }}^{2}u}{\mathrm{\partial }{x}^2}=h(x,t)}$

(8)

with the boundary condition the same as (2).

Expand h(x,t), u(x,t) and f(x) into

${\displaystyle h(x,t)=\sum _{n=1}^{\mathrm{\infty }}{h}_n(t)\sin \frac{n\pi x}{L},}$

(9)

${\displaystyle u(x,t)=\sum _{n=1}^{\mathrm{\infty }}{u}_n(t)\sin \frac{n\pi x}{L},}$

(10)

${\displaystyle f(x)=\sum _{n=1}^{\mathrm{\infty }}{b}_n\sin \frac{n\pi x}{L},}$

(11)

where h_n(t) and b_n can be calculated by integration, while u_n(t) is to be determined.

Substitute (9) and (10) back to (8) and considering the orthogonality of sine functions we get

${\displaystyle u_n^{\prime }(t)+\alpha \frac{n^2{\pi }^2}{L^2}{u}_n(t)=h_n(t),}$

which are a sequence of linear differential equations that can be readily solved with, for instance, Laplace transform, or Integrating factor. Finally, we can get

${\displaystyle u_n(t)=e^{-\alpha \frac{n^2{\pi }^2}{L^2}t}\left(b_n+{\int }_0^t{h}_n(s)e^{\alpha \frac{n^2{\pi }^2}{L^2}s}ds\right).}$

If the boundary condition is nonhomogeneous, then the expansion of (9) and (10) is no longer valid. One has to find a function v that satisfies the boundary condition only, and subtract it from u. The function u-v then satisfies homogeneous boundary condition, and can be solved with the above method.

Example: mixed derivatives

For some equations involving mixed derivatives, the equation does not separate as easily as the heat equation did in the first example above, but nonetheless separation of variables may still be applied. Consider the two-dimensional biharmonic equation

${\displaystyle \frac{{\mathrm{\partial }}^{4}u}{\mathrm{\partial }{x}^4}+2\frac{{\mathrm{\partial }}^{4}u}{\mathrm{\partial }{x}^2\mathrm{\partial }{y}^2}+\frac{{\mathrm{\partial }}^{4}u}{\mathrm{\partial }{y}^4}=0.}$

Proceeding in the usual manner, we look for solutions of the form

${\displaystyle u(x,y)=X(x)Y(y)}$

and we obtain the equation

${\displaystyle \frac{X^{(4)}(x)}{X(x)}+2\frac{X^{″}(x)}{X(x)}\frac{Y^{″}(y)}{Y(y)}+\frac{Y^{(4)}(y)}{Y(y)}=0.}$

Writing this equation in the form

${\displaystyle E(x)+F(x)G(y)+H(y)=0,}$

Taking the derivative of this expression with respect to ${\displaystyle x}$ gives ${\displaystyle E^{\prime }(x)+F^{\prime }(x)G(y)=0}$ which means ${\displaystyle G(y)=const.}$ or ${\displaystyle F^{\prime }(x)=0}$ and likewise, taking derivative with respect to ${\displaystyle y}$ leads to ${\displaystyle F(x)G^{\prime }(y)+H^{\prime }(y)=0}$ and thus ${\displaystyle F(x)=const.}$ or ${\displaystyle G^{\prime }(y)=0}$, hence either F(x) or G(y) must be a constant, say −λ. This further implies that either ${\displaystyle -E(x)=F(x)G(y)+H(y)}$ or ${\displaystyle -H(y)=E(x)+F(x)G(y)}$ are constant. Returning to the equation for X and Y, we have two cases

${\displaystyle \begin{array}{rl}{X}^{″}(x)& =-{\lambda }_{1}X(x)\\ X^{(4)}(x)& ={\mu }_{1}X(x)\\ Y^{(4)}(y)-2{\lambda }_1{Y}^{″}(y)& =-{\mu }_{1}Y(y)\end{array}}$

and

${\displaystyle \begin{array}{rl}{Y}^{″}(y)& =-{\lambda }_{2}Y(y)\\ Y^{(4)}(y)& ={\mu }_{2}Y(y)\\ X^{(4)}(x)-2{\lambda }_2{X}^{″}(x)& =-{\mu }_{2}X(x)\end{array}}$

which can each be solved by considering the separate cases for ${\displaystyle {\lambda }_i<0,{\lambda }_i=0,{\lambda }_i>0}$ and noting that ${\displaystyle {\mu }_i={\lambda }_i^2}$.

Curvilinear coordinates

In orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, separation of variables can still be used, but in some details different from that in Cartesian coordinates. For instance, regularity or periodic condition may determine the eigenvalues in place of boundary conditions. See spherical harmonics for example.

Applicability

Partial differential equations

For many PDEs, such as the wave equation, Helmholtz equation and Schrodinger equation, the applicability of separation of variables is a result of the spectral theorem. In some cases, separation of variables may not be possible. Separation of variables may be possible in some coordinate systems but not others, and which coordinate systems allow for separation depends on the symmetry properties of the equation. Below is an outline of an argument demonstrating the applicability of the method to certain linear equations, although the precise method may differ in individual cases (for instance in the biharmonic equation above).

Consider an initial boundary value problem for a function ${\displaystyle u(x,t)}$ on ${\displaystyle D=\{(x,t):x\in [0,l],t\ge 0\}}$ in two variables:

${\displaystyle (Tu)(x,t)=(Su)(x,t)}$

where ${\displaystyle T}$ is a differential operator with respect to ${\displaystyle x}$ and ${\displaystyle S}$ is a differential operator with respect to ${\displaystyle t}$ with boundary data:

${\displaystyle (Tu)(0,t)=(Tu)(l,t)=0}$ for ${\displaystyle t\ge 0}$

${\displaystyle (Su)(x,0)=h(x)}$ for ${\displaystyle 0\le x\le l}$

where ${\displaystyle h}$ is a known function.

We look for solutions of the form ${\displaystyle u(x,t)=f(x)g(t)}$. Dividing the PDE through by ${\displaystyle f(x)g(t)}$ gives

${\displaystyle \frac{Tf}{f}=\frac{Sg}{g}}$

The right hand side depends only on ${\displaystyle x}$ and the left hand side only on ${\displaystyle t}$ so both must be equal to a constant ${\displaystyle K}$, which gives two ordinary differential equations

${\displaystyle Tf=Kf,Sg=Kg}$

which we can recognize as eigenvalue problems for the operators for ${\displaystyle T}$ and ${\displaystyle S}$. If ${\displaystyle T}$ is a compact, self-adjoint operator on the space ${\displaystyle L^2[0,l]}$ along with the relevant boundary conditions, then by the Spectral theorem there exists a basis for ${\displaystyle L^2[0,l]}$ consisting of eigenfunctions for ${\displaystyle T}$. Let the spectrum of ${\displaystyle T}$ be ${\displaystyle E}$ and let ${\displaystyle f_{\lambda }}$ be an eigenfunction with eigenvalue ${\displaystyle \lambda \in E}$. Then for any function which at each time ${\displaystyle t}$ is square-integrable with respect to ${\displaystyle x}$, we can write this function as a linear combination of the ${\displaystyle f_{\lambda }}$. In particular, we know the solution ${\displaystyle u}$ can be written as

${\displaystyle u(x,t)=\sum _{\lambda \in E}{c}_{\lambda }(t)f_{\lambda }(x)}$

For some functions ${\displaystyle c_{\lambda }(t)}$. In the separation of variables, these functions are given by solutions to ${\displaystyle Sg=Kg}$

Hence, the spectral theorem ensures that the separation of variables will (when it is possible) find all the solutions.

For many differential operators, such as ${\displaystyle \frac{d^2}{d{x}^2}}$, we can show that they are self-adjoint by integration by parts. While these operators may not be compact, their inverses (when they exist) may be, as in the case of the wave equation, and these inverses have the same eigenfunctions and eigenvalues as the original operator (with the possible exception of zero).

Matrices

The matrix form of the separation of variables is the Kronecker sum.

As an example we consider the 2D discrete Laplacian on a regular grid:

${\displaystyle L={\mathbf{D}}_{\mathbf{x}\mathbf{x}}\oplus {\mathbf{D}}_{\mathbf{y}\mathbf{y}}={\mathbf{D}}_{\mathbf{x}\mathbf{x}}\otimes \mathbf{I}+\mathbf{I}\otimes {\mathbf{D}}_{\mathbf{y}\mathbf{y}},}$

where ${\displaystyle {\mathbf{D}}_{\mathbf{x}\mathbf{x}}}$ and ${\displaystyle {\mathbf{D}}_{\mathbf{y}\mathbf{y}}}$ are 1D discrete Laplacians in the x- and y-directions, correspondingly, and ${\displaystyle \mathbf{I}}$ are the identities of appropriate sizes. See the main article Kronecker sum of discrete Laplacians for details.

Software

Some mathematical programs are able to do separation of variables: Xcas^[6] among others.

Sacrifice zone

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacrifice_zone

A sacrifice zone where Iron hydroxide precipitate from coal mining has damaged a stream and surrounding area

A sacrifice zone or sacrifice area (often termed a national sacrifice zone or national sacrifice area) is a geographic area that has been permanently changed by heavy environmental alterations (often to a negative degree) or economic disinvestment, often through locally unwanted land use (LULU). Commentators including Chris Hedges, Joe Sacco, and Steve Lerner have argued that corporate business practices contribute to producing sacrifice zones. A 2022 report by the United Nations highlighted that millions of people globally are in pollution sacrifice zones, particularly in zones used for heavy industry and mining.

Definition

A sacrifice zone or sacrifice area is a geographic area that has been permanently impaired by environmental damage or economic disinvestment.

Another definition states that sacrifice zones are places damaged through locally unwanted land use causing "chemical pollution where residents live immediately adjacent to heavily polluted industries or military bases."

Origin of the concept

Juskus (2023) refers that the concept of Sacrifice Zone has its origins in the field livestock management, being used to refer to the spaces where farmers concentrated cattle waste in order to protect the remaining pasture land. However, the concept would be appropriated by the American Indian Movement and some environmentalist struggles transforming it from a technical term used for land and animal management to a way of conceiving geographical spaces in which the destruction of natural resources is a problem.

According to Helen Huntington Smith, the term was first used in the U.S. discussing the long-term effects of strip-mining coal in the American West in the 1970s. The National Academy of Sciences/National Academy of Engineering Study Committee on the Potential for Rehabilitating Lands Surface Mined for Coal in the Western United States produced a 1973 report that introduced the term, finding:

In each zone the probability of rehabilitating an area depends upon the land use objectives, the characteristics of the site, the technology available, and the skill with which this technology is applied. At the extremes, if surface mined lands are declared national sacrifice areas, all ecological zones have a high probability of being successfully rehabilitated. If, however, complete restoration is the objective, rehabilitation in each zone has no probability of success.

Similarly in 1975, Genevieve Atwood wrote in Scientific American:

Surface mining without reclamation removes the land forever from productive use; such land can best be classified as a national sacrifice area. With successful reclamation, however, surface mining can become just one of a series of land uses that merely interrupt a current use and then return the land to an equivalent potential productivity or an even higher one.

Huntington Smith wrote in 1975, "The Panel that issued the cautious and scholarly National Academy of Sciences report unwitting touched off a verbal bombshell" with the phrase National Sacrifice Area; "The words exploded in the Western press overnight. Seized upon by a people who felt themselves being served up as 'national sacrifices,' they became a watchword and a rallying cry."^[ The term sparked public debate, including among environmentalists and politicians such as future Colorado governor Richard Lamm

The term continued to be used in the context of strip mining until at least 1999: "West Virginia has become an environmental sacrifice zone".

Cases

Argentina

Further information: Flammable: Environmental Suffering in an Argentine Shantytown

Villa Inflamable neighborhood is located in the city of Dock Sud and is part of the Greater Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area.  The community is situated at the center of a petrochemical development area, where 44 hydrocarbon companies are currently operating. These same companies are mainly responsible for turning the Riachuelo-Matanza basin into one of the most polluted bodies of water in the world.

Reports from Argentinian and foreign public agencies have confirmed the presence of lead, chromium, benzene and other hazardous chemicals in the water supplies of the neighborhood, in amounts far in excess of what is allowed by international regulations. Journalistic and academic research has collected multiple testimonies of serious health diagnoses commonly associated with the presence of these contaminants.   Likewise the book Flammable: Environmental Suffering in an Argentine Shantytown explores the effects of toxicity in the daily lives of the residents of the Inflammable neighborhood, referring to multiple diagnoses of lead poisoning among the inhabitants of Inflammable, especially among children.

Chile

Further information: Pollution in Quintero and Puchuncaví

Reportedly, in 2011 Terram introduced the term sacrifice zone to the Chilean political discourse.

The Chilean port of Quintero and adjacent Puchuncaví have been pointed out as a sacrifice zone. The zone hosts the coal-fired Ventanas Power Plant, an oil refinery, a cement storage, Fundición Ventanas, a copper foundry and refinery, a lubricant factory and a chemical terminal. In total 15 polluting companies operate in the area. In 2011, Escuela La Greda located in Puchuncaví, was engulfed in a chemical cloud from the Ventanas Industrial Complex. The sulfur cloud poisoned an estimated 33 children and 9 teachers, resulting in the relocation of the school. The old location of the school is now abandoned. In August and September 2018 there was a public health crisis in Quintero and Puchuncaví, where over 300 people experienced illness from toxic substances in the air, coming from the polluting industries.

Mexico

The Endhó Dam, often referred to as the "largest septic tank in Latin America" is a heavily polluted body of water that was built in the 1950s to supply irrigation water to the Mezquital Valley region of the State of Hidalgo and today receives about 70% of Mexico City's sewage effluent. The river that feeds the dam is also a major repository for industrial waste from an oil refinery, two large cement factories, and several industrial parks in the region.  These sources of pollution have spread to nearby springs affecting people, animals and crops.

Contamination at the Endhó Dam. The banks of the dam show a turquoise green color due to the presence of heavy metals in the water in addition to the accumulation of multiple solid wastes that are carried by the drainage system of the Mexico City metropolitan area.

Journalist Carlos Carabaña indicates that since 2007, the National Water Commission has issued reports to municipal and state authorities repeatedly informing them of the presence of high levels of heavy metals in the nearby wells, urging the authorities to take action because of the potential health risks posed by the dam. Other effects related to contamination from the dam include damage to crops in the communities neighboring the dam, poisoning of livestock, and stigmatization of agricultural products from the Mezquital Valley region.

United States

See also: Superfund

The US EPA affirmed in a 2004 report in response to the Office of Inspector General, that "the solution to unequal protection lies in the realm of environmental justice for all Americans. No community, rich or poor, black or white, should be allowed to become a 'sacrifice zone'."

Commentators including Chris Hedges, Joe Sacco, Robert Bullard and Stephen Lerner have argued that corporate business practices contribute to producing sacrifice zones and that these zones most commonly exist in low-income and minority, usually African-American communities. Sacrifice zones are a central topic for the graphic novel Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt, written by Hedges and illustrated by Sacco.

In 2012, Hedges stated that examples of sacrifice zones included Pine Ridge, South Dakota and Camden, New Jersey In 2017 a West Calumet public housing project in East Chicago, Indiana built at the former site of a lead smelter needed to be demolished and soil replaced to bring the area up to residential standards, displacing 1000 residents. In 2014, Naomi Klein wrote that "running an economy on energy sources that release poisons as an unavoidable part of their extraction and refining has always required sacrifice zones."

Venezuela

Pollution at Maracaibo Lake

Lake Maracaibo in the state of Zulia is one of the most important bodies of water in the western region of Venezuela.  This lake was also the site of one of the worst environmental catastrophes in Venezuela's history: the Barroso II blowout in 1922; an oil well that began spewing huge quantities of oil for 9 days, spilling around 900,000 barrels in the area. This oil disaster, paradoxically, became a milestone for the abundance of the oil industry in the country.

Erick Camargo indicates that oil spills generated by the lack of maintenance of the complex network of oil infrastructure continue to be a constant and are the main cause of contamination in the lake.  However, he also indicates that the use of agrochemicals on nearby crops and the discharge of sewage worsen the situation.

A 2022 scientific paper reveals the presence of multiple toxic elements in surface sediments in different parts of the lake.  This constitutes a high risk for the flora and fauna of the region, as well as for the health of the human communities living in the areas where the samples were taken. Another study in 2007 revealed the presence of toxic metals in part of the subway aquifers connected to the lake basin; the samples taken had values well above the limits allowed for drinking water according to national and international regulations.

Space industry

Point Nemo is also known as “the oceanic pole of inaccessibility” for being the point in any ocean farthest from land. It serves as a "spacecraft cemetery" for space infrastructure and vessels.

The human-environment interactions that lie at the heart of environmental justice, including sacrifice zones, have been proposed to also include the environmental sacrifice of regions beyond Earth. Klinger states that "the environmental geopolitics of Earth and outer space are inextricably linked by the spatial politics of privilege and sacrifice - among people, places and institutions". Dunnett has called outer space the 'ultimate sacrifice zone' that exemplifies a colonially framed pursuit of infinite opportunities for accumulation, exploitation, and pollution. This manifests in both terrestrial and space-based sacrifice zones related to launch infrastructure, waste, and orbital debris.

Point Nemo is an oceanic point of inaccessibility located inside the South Pacific Gyre. It is selected as the most remote location in the world and serves as a "spacecraft cemetery" for space infrastructure and vessels. Since 1971, 273 spacecraft and satellites have been directed to Point Nemo; this number includes the Mir Space Station (142 tonnes) and will include the International Space Station (240 tonnes).

Right to a healthy environment

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_a_healthy_environment

 

The right to a healthy environment or the right to a sustainable and healthy environment is a human right advocated by human rights organizations and environmental organizations to protect the ecological systems that provide human health. The right was acknowledged by the United Nations Human Rights Council during its 48th session in October 2021 in HRC/RES/48/13 and subsequently by the United Nations General Assembly on July 28, 2022 in A/RES/76/300. The right is often the basis for human rights defense by environmental defenders, such as land defenders, water protectors and indigenous rights activists.

The right is interconnected with other health-focused human rights, such as the right to water and sanitation, right to food and right to health. The right to a healthy environment uses a human rights approach to protect environmental quality; this approach addresses the impact of environmental harm upon individual humans, as opposed to the more traditional approach of environmental regulation which focuses on impacts to other states or the environment itself. Yet another approach to environmental protection is rights of nature which tries to extend the rights enjoyed by humans and corporations to nature as well.

Slash and burn deforestation along the Rio Xingu, Brazil endangers both indigenous rights to the land as well as the larger right to a healthy environment. Case law like the Colombian Climate case protecting the Amazon forest from deforestation have historically relied on the rights of nature and children, the right to a healthy environment would provide additional protection.

Role of the state

The right creates an obligation of the state to regulate and enforce environmental laws, control pollution, and otherwise provide justice and protections for communities harmed by environmental problems. The right to a healthy environment has been an important right for creating environmental legal precedents for climate change litigation and other environmental issues.

Attempts to amend constitutions

An environmental rights amendment, also called a green amendment, is type of amendment usually proposed to a constitution or a bill of rights. These amendments guarantee citizens the right to a healthy environment. Related rights included in these proposals often include a right to a stable climate, clean air and water, environmental justice, preservation of natural, scenic, esthetic and historic values of the environment.

The right to a healthy environment can be implemented into constitutional law other ways, such as written into constitutions in their drafting, such as in Tunisia, or enforced through climate change litigation, such as in Colombia. In the United States, most advocates are focused on amending existing state constitutions or enforcing existing state constitutions, such as in Held v. Montana, where youth sued for enforcement of the existing state constitution.

International approaches

Historically, major United Nations' human rights instruments, like the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights or International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights do not recognize the right to a healthy environment. The 1972 Stockholm Declaration recognizes the right, but is not a legally binding document. The 1992 Rio Declaration does not use the language of human rights, although it does state that individuals shall have access to information regarding environmental matters, participation in decision-making, and access to justice. The currently proposed UN resolution, the Global Pact for the Environment, if adopted, would be the first UN human rights instrument to include the right to a healthy environment.

Over 150 states in the UN have independently recognized the right in some form via legislation, litigation, constitutional law, treaty law or other legal authority. The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, American Convention on Human Rights, Escazu Agreement, Arab Charter on Human Rights, and ASEAN Declaration on Human Rights each include a right to a healthy environment. Other human rights frameworks, such as the Convention on the Rights of the Child refer to environmental issues as they relate to the framework's focus, in this case children's rights.

UN Special Rapporteurs on Human Rights and the Environment John H. Knox (2012–2018) and David R. Boyd (2018–) have made recommendations on how to formalize these rights in international law. This was endorsed by a number of committees at the UN level, as well as local legal communities such as the New York City Bar, in 2020.

The right to a healthy environment is at the core of the international approach to human rights and climate change. The effects of climate change on human rights are presented by OHCHR in a fact sheet with the most frequently asked questions on the subject.

UN Human Rights Council Resolution

Main article: HRC/RES/48/13

In 2021 during its 48th session, the United Nations Human Rights Council adopted a resolution (put forward by the core group comprising Costa Rica, Morocco, Slovenia, Switzerland and the Maldives, with Costa Rica being penholder), recognizing "The human right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment", marking the first time that the body declared a human right. The resolution is not legally binding, but it "invites the United Nations General Assembly to consider the matter".

UN General Assembly Resolution

In 2022 during its 76th session, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution put forward by a core group including Costa Rica, Morocco, Slovenia, Switzerland, and the Maldives once again recognizing the human right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment. Although General Assembly resolutions are not legally binding, this resolution was welcomed by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet, multiple special rapporteurs and members of some civil society organizations.

Citizens Against Government Waste

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_Against_Government_Waste

Citizens Against Government Waste

Abbreviation	CAGW
Formation	1984
Type	Advocacy group
Headquarters	1100 Connecticut Avenue NW
Location	Washington, D.C.
Region served	United States
President	Thomas A. Schatz
Website	http://www.cagw.org

Citizens Against Government Waste (CAGW) is a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization in the United States. It functions as a "government watchdog" and advocacy group for fiscally conservative causes. The Council for Citizens Against Government Waste (CCAGW) is the lobbying arm of CAGW, organized as a section 501(c)(4) organization and therefore is permitted to engage in direct lobbying activities. According to its website, "CAGW is a private, non-partisan, non-profit organization representing more than one million members and supporters nationwide. CAGW's stated mission is to eliminate waste, mismanagement, and inefficiency in the federal government."

History

CAGW was founded in 1984 by industrialist J. Peter Grace and syndicated columnist Jack Anderson. Grace was chairman of President Ronald Reagan's Grace Commission (also known as the President's Private Sector Survey on Cost Control).

CAGW is located in Washington, D.C. Thomas A. Schatz has been president since 1992.

Publications

CAGW produces a number of publications critical of government expenditures known colloquially as "pork-barrel" projects. The CAGW-published Congressional Pig Book Summary (Pig Book) is an annual list of such projects and their sponsors. The 2008 Pig Book identified 10,610 projects in that year's congressional appropriations bills that constitute the discretionary portion of the federal budget for fiscal 2008, costing taxpayers $17.2 billion.

Related publications include Prime Cuts, a list of recommendations for eliminating waste in the federal government and Porker of the Month, a monthly press release.

Since 1989, the CCAGW has examined congressional roll-call votes to determine which members of Congress are voting in what they view as the interest of taxpayers. CAGW makes public what legislators are engaging in "pork-barrel" spending based on 'key' votes for each congressional session.

Activities

CAGW and CCAGW seek to influence public policy through public education, lobbying, and mobilization for email and letter campaigns to elected officials. CAGW claims to have helped save taxpayers $944 billion through its campaigns.

CAGW was one of the critics of a $23.5 billion Air Force plan in 2001 to lease and then buy 100 refueling tankers from Boeing. Congress squashed the plan after it was revealed that an Air Force official inflated the price in exchange for an executive job at Boeing.

CAGW was a critic of Sen. John Thune (R-S.D.) and his efforts to secure a $2.3 billion federal loan for a railroad company that once employed him as a lobbyist. The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) cited an "unacceptably high risk to taxpayers" in denying the loan to the Dakota, Minnesota, and Eastern Railroad (DM&E) in 2007.

CAGW named Sen. Christopher Dodd (D-Conn.) its June 2008 Porker of the Month for accepting a preferential mortgage deal from Countrywide Financial which stood to benefit from a mortgage bailout bill he was pushing through Congress.

Microsoft's antitrust case litigation

In 2001, the Los Angeles Times reported that at least two dead people had sent a form letter by CAGW opposing the antitrust case against Microsoft to Mark Shurtleff, then Attorney General of Utah. State officials found that the decedents' family members had crossed out the names on the form letters and signed for them; another letter had come from the nonexistent city of "Tuscon, Utah".

Freeware initiative

In 2003, CAGW put out a press release opposed to what it called the "Freeware Initiative" in the State of Massachusetts, which it claimed would have required "that all IT expenditures in 2004 and 2005 be made on an open-source/Linux format."

Responding to the press release, a state official denied the existence of such an initiative and said the state was simply considering ways to integrate disparate systems using open standards such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), XML (Extensible Markup Language) and Java.

CAGW and tobacco

The St. Petersburg Times reported that CAGW "got at least $245,000 from the tobacco industry" and subsequently lobbied on its behalf. Internal tobacco industry documents made available by the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement indicate that CAGW and its affiliates supported the tobacco industry in several instances. Specifically, in 2001 when an industry-sponsored bill entitled the "Youth Smoking Reduction Act" was introduced in Congress, CAGW provided a letter of support, despite the opposition of most public health organizations. CAGW was also contacted by Phillip Morris to include ASSIST (Alcohol, Smoking and Substance Involvement Screening Test), a federal tobacco control program, in their Pig Book. ASSIST was considered an imminent threat to industry activities at the time.

Asked about his group's tobacco work, CAGW president Tom Schatz said, "We have always welcomed contributions to support the issues we support. Many of them have to do with fighting higher taxes and more regulations."

Other

Throughout its history, CAGW has been accused of fronting lobbying efforts of corporations to give them the appearance of "grassroots" support.

According to the St. Petersburg Times in 2006, the Pig Book has been used to benefit corporate donors, specifically health clubs who donated to CAGW. It listed federal grants to YMCAs who compete with those health clubs as waste. CAGW's president countered that "The Ys are there because they qualify as pork. Period."

A Senate Finance Committee investigating ties between CAGW (and other non-profits) and Jack Abramoff in 2006 stated in a report that the non-profits: 'probably violated their tax-exempt status "by laundering payments and then disbursing funds at Mr. Abramoff's direction; taking payments in exchange for writing newspaper columns or press releases that put Mr. Abramoff's clients in a favorable light; introducing Mr. Abramoff's clients to government officials in exchange for payment; and agreeing to act as a front organization for congressional trips paid for by Mr. Abramoff's clients."'

In 2007, CAGW supported a bill that would limit damages resulting from malpractice lawsuits. Many consumer watchdog groups opposed the bill.

"Chinese Professor" ad

The CAGW launched an ad, now commonly referred to as "Chinese Professor" for the 2010 midterm elections, which portrays a 2030 conquest of an indebted United States by China. Local Asian American extras were used to portray the Chinese students, although the actors were not informed of the nature of the shoot. Columnist Jeff Yang said that in the campaign there was a "blurry line between Chinese and Chinese-Americans". Larry McCarthy, the producer of "Chinese Professor," defended his work by saying that "this ad is about America, it's not about China."

CARES Act

During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the group received assistance between $150,000 and $350,000 in federally backed small business loan from Truist Bank as part of the Paycheck Protection Program, saying that the funds would allow them to keep 17 jobs. Their loan was seen as notable, since they campaign against excess government spending and are small-government advocates. CAGW said it was the first time they have accepted government money. Danny Westneat of The Seattle Times quipped that "We're all socialists now, apparently", calling CAGW an anti-debt crusader.

Market economy

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_economy

Pike Place Market, Seattle, Washington, United States, 1968

A market economy is an economic system in which the decisions regarding investment, production and distribution to the consumers are guided by the price signals created by the forces of supply and demand. The major characteristic of a market economy is the existence of factor markets that play a dominant role in the allocation of capital and the factors of production. Market economies range from minimally regulated free-market and laissez-faire systems where state activity is restricted to providing public goods and services and safeguarding private ownership, to interventionist forms where the government plays an active role in correcting market failures and promoting social welfare, as seen in some mixed economies. State intervention can happen at the production, distribution, trade and consumption areas in the economy. The distribution of basic need services and goods like health care may be entirely regulated by an egalitarian public health care policy (while having the production provided by private enterprise), effectively eliminating the forces of supply and demand.

State-directed or dirigist economies are those where the state plays a directive role in guiding the overall development of the market through industrial policies or indicative planning—which guides yet does not substitute the market for economic planning—a form sometimes referred to as a mixed economy.

Market economies are contrasted with planned economies where investment and production decisions are embodied in an integrated economy-wide economic plan. In a centrally planned economy, economic planning is the principal allocation mechanism between firms rather than markets, with the economy's means of production being owned and operated by a single organizational body.

Characteristics

Property rights

For market economies to function efficiently, governments must establish clearly defined and enforceable property rights for assets and capital goods. However, property rights does not specifically mean private property rights and market economies do not logically presuppose the existence of private ownership of the means of production. Market economies can and often do include various types of cooperatives or autonomous state-owned enterprises that acquire capital goods and raw materials in capital markets. These enterprises utilize a market-determined free price system to allocate capital goods and labor. In addition, there are many variations of market socialism where the majority of capital assets are socially owned with markets allocating resources between socially owned firms. These models range from systems based on employee-owned enterprises based on self-management to a combination of public ownership of the means of production with factor markets.

Supply and demand

Market economies rely upon a price system to signal market actors to adjust production and investment. Price formation relies on the interaction of supply and demand to reach or approximate an equilibrium where unit price for a particular good or service is at a point where the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied.

Rwanda fruits at the market

Governments can intervene by establishing price ceilings or price floors in specific markets (such as minimum wage laws in the labor market), or use fiscal policy to discourage certain consumer behavior or to address market externalities generated by certain transactions (Pigovian taxes). Different perspectives exist on the role of government in both regulating and guiding market economies and in addressing social inequalities produced by markets. Fundamentally, a market economy requires that a price system affected by supply and demand exists as the primary mechanism for allocating resources irrespective of the level of regulation.

Capitalism

Main article: Capitalism

 

Capitalism is an economic system where the means of production are largely or entirely privately owned and operated for a profit, structured on the process of capital accumulation. In general, in capitalist systems investment, distribution, income and prices are determined by markets, whether regulated or unregulated.

There are different variations of capitalism with different relationships to markets. In laissez-faire and free-market variations of capitalism, markets are utilized most extensively with minimal or no state intervention and minimal or no regulation over prices and the supply of goods and services. In interventionist, welfare capitalism and mixed economies, markets continue to play a dominant role, but they are regulated to some extent by government in order to correct market failures or to promote social welfare. In state capitalist systems, markets are relied upon the least, with the state relying heavily on either indicative planning and/or state-owned enterprises to accumulate capital.

Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of mercantilism. However, it is argued that the term mixed economies more precisely describes most contemporary economies due to their containing both private-owned and state-owned enterprises. In capitalism, prices determine the demand-supply scale. Higher demand for certain goods and services lead to higher prices and lower demand for certain goods lead to lower prices.

Free-market capitalism

See also: Free market

A capitalist free-market economy is an economic system where prices for goods and services are set freely by the forces of supply and demand and are expected by its supporters to reach their point of equilibrium without intervention by government policy. It typically entails support for highly competitive markets, private ownership of productive enterprises. Laissez-faire is a more extensive form of free-market economy where the role of the state is limited to protecting property rights and enforcing contracts.

Laissez-faire

Main article: Laissez-faire

See also: Economic liberalism

Laissez-faire is synonymous with what was referred to as strict free-market economy during the early and mid-19th century as a classical liberal ideal to achieve. It is generally understood that the necessary components for the functioning of an idealized free market include the complete absence of government regulation, subsidies, artificial price pressures and government-granted monopolies (usually classified as coercive monopoly by free market advocates) and no taxes or tariffs other than what is necessary for the government to provide protection from coercion and theft, maintaining peace and property rights and providing for basic public goods. Right-libertarian advocates of anarcho-capitalism see the state as morally illegitimate and economically unnecessary and destructive. Although laissez-faire has been commonly associated with capitalism, there is a similar left-wing laissez-faire system called free-market anarchism, also known as free-market anti-capitalism and free-market socialism to distinguish it from laissez-faire capitalism. Thus, critics of laissez-faire as commonly understood argues that a truly laissez-faire system would be anti-capitalist and socialist.

Welfare capitalism

Main article: Welfare capitalism

Welfare capitalism is a capitalist economy that includes public policies favoring extensive provisions for social welfare services. The economic mechanism involves a free market and the predominance of privately owned enterprises in the economy, but public provision of universal welfare services aimed at enhancing individual autonomy and maximizing equality. Examples of contemporary welfare capitalism include the Nordic model of capitalism predominant in Northern Europe.

Regional models

Anglo-Saxon model

Main article: Anglo-Saxon model

Anglo-Saxon capitalism is the form of capitalism predominant in Anglophone countries and typified by the economy of the United States. It is contrasted with European models of capitalism such as the continental social market model and the Nordic model. Anglo-Saxon capitalism refers to a macroeconomic policy regime and capital market structure common to the Anglophone economies. Among these characteristics are low rates of taxation, more open international markets, lower labor market protections and a less generous welfare state eschewing collective bargaining schemes found in the continental and northern European models of capitalism.

East Asian model

Main article: East Asian model

The East Asian model of capitalism involves a strong role for state investment and in some instances involves state-owned enterprises. The state takes an active role in promoting economic development through subsidies, the facilitation of "national champions" and an export-based model of growth. The actual practice of this model varies by country. This designation has been applied to the economies of China, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Vietnam.

A related concept in political science is the developmental state.

Social market economy

Main article: Social market economy

The social market economy was implemented by Alfred Müller-Armack and Ludwig Erhard after World War II in West Germany. The social market economic model, sometimes called Rhine capitalism, is based upon the idea of realizing the benefits of a free-market economy, especially economic performance and high supply of goods while avoiding disadvantages such as market failure, destructive competition, concentration of economic power and the socially harmful effects of market processes. The aim of the social market economy is to realize greatest prosperity combined with best possible social security. One difference from the free market economy is that the state is not passive, but instead takes active regulatory measures. The social policy objectives include employment, housing and education policies, as well as a socio-politically motivated balancing of the distribution of income growth. Characteristics of social market economies are a strong competition policy and a contractionary monetary policy. The philosophical background is neoliberalism or ordoliberalism.

Socialism

Main article: Market socialism

Market socialism is a form of market economy where the means of production are socially owned. In a market socialist economy, firms operate according to the rules of supply and demand and operate to maximize profit; the principal difference between market socialism and capitalism being that the profits accrue to society as a whole as opposed to private owners.

The distinguishing feature between non-market socialism and market socialism is the existence of a market for factors of production and the criteria of profitability for enterprises. Profits derived from publicly owned enterprises can variously be used to reinvest in further production, to directly finance government and social services, or be distributed to the public at large through a social dividend or basic income system.

Advocates of market socialism such as Jaroslav Vaněk argue that genuinely free markets are not possible under conditions of private ownership of productive property. Instead, he contends that the class differences and inequalities in income and power that result from private ownership enable the interests of the dominant class to skew the market to their favor, either in the form of monopoly and market power, or by utilizing their wealth and resources to legislate government policies that benefit their specific business interests. Additionally, Vaněk states that workers in a socialist economy based on cooperative and self-managed enterprises have stronger incentives to maximize productivity because they would receive a share of the profits (based on the overall performance of their enterprise) in addition to receiving their fixed wage or salary. The stronger incentives to maximize productivity that he conceives as possible in a socialist economy based on cooperative and self-managed enterprises might be accomplished in a free-market economy if employee-owned companies were the norm as envisioned by various thinkers including Louis O. Kelso and James S. Albus.

Models of market socialism

Market socialism traces its roots to classical economics and the works of Adam Smith, the Ricardian socialists and mutualist philosophers.

In the 1930s, the economists Oskar Lange and Abba Lerner developed a model of socialism that posited that a public body (dubbed the Central Planning Board) could set prices through a trial-and-error approach until they equaled the marginal cost of production in order to achieve perfect competition and pareto optimality. In this model of socialism, firms would be state-owned and managed by their employees and the profits would be disbursed among the population in a social dividend. This model came to be referred to as market socialism because it involved the use of money, a price system and simulated capital markets, all of which were absent from traditional non-market socialism.

A more contemporary model of market socialism is that put forth by the American economist John Roemer, referred to as economic democracy. In this model, social ownership is achieved through public ownership of equity in a market economy. A Bureau of Public Ownership would own controlling shares in publicly listed firms, so that the profits generated would be used for public finance and the provision of a basic income.

Some anarchists and libertarian socialists promote a form of market socialism in which enterprises are owned and managed cooperatively by their workforce so that the profits directly remunerate the employee-owners. These cooperative enterprises would compete with each other in the same way private companies compete with each other in a capitalist market. The first major elaboration of this type of market socialism was made by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and was called mutualism.

Self-managed market socialism was promoted in Yugoslavia by economists Branko Horvat and Jaroslav Vaněk. In the self-managed model of socialism, firms would be directly owned by their employees and the management board would be elected by employees. These cooperative firms would compete with each other in a market for both capital goods and for selling consumer goods.

Socialist market economy

Following the 1978 reforms, China developed what it calls a socialist market economy in which most of the economy is under state ownership, with the state enterprises organized as joint-stock companies with various government agencies owning controlling shares through a shareholder system. Prices are set by a largely free-price system and the state-owned enterprises are not subjected to micromanagement by a government planning agency. A similar system called socialist-oriented market economy has emerged in Vietnam following the Đổi Mới reforms in 1986. This system is frequently characterized as state capitalism instead of market socialism because there is no meaningful degree of employee self-management in firms, because the state enterprises retain their profits instead of distributing them to the workforce or government and because many function as de facto private enterprises. The profits neither finance a social dividend to benefit the population at large, nor do they accrue to their employees. In China, this economic model is presented as a preliminary stage of socialism to explain the dominance of capitalistic management practices and forms of enterprise organization in both the state and non-state sectors.

In religion

A wide range of philosophers and theologians have linked market economies to concepts from monotheistic religions. Michael Novak described capitalism as being closely related to Catholicism, but Max Weber drew a connection between capitalism and Protestantism. The economist Jeffrey Sachs has stated that his work was inspired by the healing characteristics of Judaism. Chief Rabbi Lord Sacks of the United Synagogue draws a correlation between modern capitalism and the Jewish image of the Golden Calf.

Christianity

In the Christian faith, the liberation theology movement advocated involving the church in labor market capitalism. Many priests and nuns integrated themselves into labor organizations while others moved into the slums to live among the poor. The Holy Trinity was interpreted as a call for social equality and the elimination of poverty. However, the Pope John Paul II was highly active in his criticism of liberation theology. He was particularly concerned about the increased fusion between Christianity and Marxism. He closed Catholic institutions that taught liberation theology and dismissed some of its activists from the church.

Buddhism

The Buddhist approach to the market economy was dealt with in E. F. Schumacher’s 1966 essay "Buddhist Economics". Schumacher asserted that a market economy guided by Buddhist principles would more successfully meet the needs of its people. He emphasized the importance or pursuing occupations that adhered to Buddhist teachings. The essay would later become required reading for a course that Clair Brown offered at University of California, Berkeley.

Criticism

The economist Joseph Stiglitz argues that markets suffer from informational inefficiency and the presumed efficiency of markets stems from the faulty assumptions of neoclassical welfare economics, particularly the assumption of perfect and costless information and related incentive problems. Neoclassical economics assumes static equilibrium and efficient markets require that there be no non-convexities, even though nonconvexities are pervasive in modern economies. Stiglitz's critique applies to both existing models of capitalism and to hypothetical models of market socialism. However, Stiglitz does not advocate replacing markets, but instead states that there is a significant role for government intervention to boost the efficiency of markets and to address the pervasive market failures that exist in contemporary economies. A fair market economy is in fact a martingale or a Brownian motion model and for a participant competitor in such a model there is no more than 50% of success chances at any given moment. Due to the fractal nature of any fair market and being market participants subject to the law of competition which impose reinvesting an increasing part of profits, the mean statistical chance of bankruptcy within the half life of any participant is also 50% and 100% whether an infinite sample of time is considered.

Robin Hahnel and Michael Albert claim that "markets inherently produce class division". Albert states that even if everyone started out with a balanced job complex (doing a mix of roles of varying creativity, responsibility and empowerment) in a market economy, class divisions would arise, arguing:

Without taking the argument that far, it is evident that in a market system with uneven distribution of empowering work, such as Economic Democracy, some workers will be more able than others to capture the benefits of economic gain. For example, if one worker designs cars and another builds them, the designer will use his cognitive skills more frequently than the builder. In the long term, the designer will become more adept at conceptual work than the builder, giving the former greater bargaining power in a firm over the distribution of income. A conceptual worker who is not satisfied with his income can threaten to work for a company that will pay him more. The effect is a class division between conceptual and manual laborers, and ultimately managers and workers, and a de facto labor market for conceptual workers.

David McNally argues in the Marxist tradition that the logic of the market inherently produces inequitable outcomes and leads to unequal exchanges, arguing that Adam Smith's moral intent and moral philosophy espousing equal exchange was undermined by the practice of the free markets he championed. The development of the market economy involved coercion, exploitation and violence that Smith's moral philosophy could not countenance. McNally also criticizes market socialists for believing in the possibility of fair markets based on equal exchanges to be achieved by purging parasitical elements from the market economy such as private ownership of the means of production. McNally argues that market socialism is an oxymoron when socialism is defined as an end to wage-based labor.

The role of supply and demand in a market economy

Supply and demand play an instrumental role in driving market economies by setting both prices and quantities traded in markets. Supply is defined as any increase in price leading to an increase in supply from producers; demand on the other hand means any drop leads to an increase in desired quantities from consumers; these two laws meet at equilibrium when provided quantity equals quantity demanded - known as equilibrium price/quantity equilibrium point. Prices play an extremely vital role in market economies by providing important information about commodity and service availability. When there is strong demand but limited supply, prices increase, signaling to producers that there may be opportunities to increase profits by producing more of that product. Conversely, when there is low demand with increased supply then prices reduce, showing manufacturers they must either reduce output or find methods of cutting costs in order to stay competitive and remain profitable.

External factors, including shifting technological standards, new government laws, and natural catastrophes can have a substantial impact on supply and demand. Technological innovations may increase supply, while laws issued by governments could decrease it or even demand. Natural disasters have the ability to severely disrupt supply chains, creating shortages of key items that increase costs while simultaneously decreasing demand. Supply and demand play an indispensable role in any market economy by ensuring prices reflect market forces accurately, adapting accordingly as conditions shift between supply and demand situations, while producers adjust production according to price signals from consumers, fulfilling customers' requests while giving individuals freedom in making purchasing choices based on personal preferences or financial constraints. Thus supply and demand play an instrumental part in shaping and stabilizing economies governed by market forces.

Sustainable market economy

A sustainable market economy seeks to balance economic expansion and environmental preservation. It acknowledges that sustainable environmental protection and resource management are essential for long-term economic growth. To achieve this balance, implementing sustainable practices across sectors, such as lowering carbon emissions, developing renewable energy sources, and putting circular economy ideas into practice. Tax incentives, carbon trading programs, and environmental requirements are just a few ways government rules and policies encourage enterprises to adopt sustainable practices.

At the same time, consumer demand for eco-friendly goods and services and understanding of these issues may influence market dynamics to favour more sustainable options. A sustainable market economy may encourage innovation, provide green employment, and guarantee the welfare of future generations by incorporating environmental factors into economic decision-making. Prioritizing sustainability while preserving economic development needs cooperation between governments, corporations, and people.