A Medley of Potpourri: Malaysia

ⁱ/məˈleɪsiə/ mə-LAY-see-ə) (Malaysian pronunciation: [məlejsiə]) is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of 329,847 square kilometres (127,350 sq mi) separated by the South China Sea into two similarly sized regions, Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia (Malaysian Borneo). Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, and Indonesia. East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. In 2010 the population was 28.33 million, with 22.6 million living in Peninsular Malaysia. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics. It is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species.

Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, became subject to the British Empire. The first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946. Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963, with si being added to give the new country the name Malaysia. Less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation.

The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a large role in politics. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while protecting freedom of religion. The government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. He is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister.

Since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6.5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its natural resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce and medical tourism. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia and 29th largest in the world. It is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the East Asia Summit and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, and a member of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Non-Aligned Movement.

Etymology

"Malaysia" used as a label for the Malay Archipelago on a 1914 map from a United States atlas

The name "Malaysia" is a combination of the word "Malay" and the Latin-Greek suffix "-sia"/-σία.^[12] The word "melayu" in Malay may derive from the Tamil words "malai" and "ur" meaning "mountain" and "city, land", respectively.^[13]^[14]^[15] "Malayadvipa" was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula.^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20] Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word "melayu" or "mlayu" may have been used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the strong current of the river Melayu in Sumatra.^[21] The name was later adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra.^[22]^[23]

Before the onset of European colonisation, the Malay Peninsula was known natively as "Tanah Melayu" ("Malay Land").^[24]^[25] Under a racial classification created by a German scholar Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, the natives of maritime Southeast Asia were grouped into a single category, the Malay race.^[26]^[27] Following the expedition of French navigator Jules Dumont d'Urville to Oceania in 1826, he later proposed the terms of "Malaysia", "Micronesia" and "Melanesia" to the Société de Géographie in 1831, distinguishing these Pacific cultures and island groups from the existing term "Polynesia". Dumont d'Urville described Malaysia as "an area commonly known as the East Indies".^[28] In 1850, the English ethnologist George Samuel Windsor Earl, writing in the Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, proposed naming the islands of Southeast Asia as "Melayunesia" or "Indunesia", favouring the former.^[29] In modern terminology, "Malay" remains the name of an ethnoreligious group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and portions of the adjacent islands of Southeast Asia, including the east coast of Sumatra, the coast of Borneo, and smaller islands that lie between these areas.^[30]

The state that gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1957 took the name the "Federation of Malaya", chosen in preference to other potential names such as "Langkasuka", after the historic kingdom located at the upper section of the Malay Peninsula in the first millennium CE.^[31]^[32] The name "Malaysia" was adopted in 1963 when the existing states of the Federation of Malaya, plus Singapore, North Borneo and Sarawak formed a new federation.^[33] One theory suggests the name was chosen due to the addition of "si" to "Malaya", representing the inclusion of Singapore, North Borneo, and Sarawak, in Malaya in 1963.^[33] Politicians in the Philippines contemplated renaming their state "Malaysia" before the modern country took the name.^[34]

History

Evidence of modern human habitation in Malaysia dates back 40,000 years.^[35] In the Malay Peninsular, the first inhabitants are thought to be Negritos.^[36] Traders and settlers from India and China arrived as early as the first century AD, establishing trading ports and coastal towns in the second and third centuries. Their presence resulted in strong Indian and Chinese influences on the local cultures, and the people of the Malay Peninsula adopted the religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Sanskrit inscriptions appear as early as the fourth or fifth century.^[37] The Kingdom of Langkasuka arose around the second century in the northern area of the Malay Peninsula, lasting until about the 15th century.^[31] Between the 7th and 13th centuries, much of the southern Malay Peninsula was part of the maritime Srivijaya Empire. After the fall of Srivijaya, the Majapahit Empire had influence over most of Peninsular Malaysia and the Malay Archipelago.^[38] Islam began to spread among Malays in the 14th century.^[3] In the early 15th century, Parameswara, a prince of the former Srivijayan Empire, founded the Malacca Sultanate, commonly considered the first independent state in the peninsula area.^[39] Malacca was an important commercial centre during this time, attracting trade from around the region.

Stadthuys, a site built by the Dutch in 1650, with Dutch architecture

In 1511, Malacca was conquered by Portugal,^[3] after which it was taken by the Dutch in 1641. In 1786, the British Empire established a presence in Malaya, when the Sultan of Kedah leased Penang to the British East India Company. The British obtained the town of Singapore in 1819,^[40] and in 1824 took control of Malacca following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty. By 1826, the British directly controlled Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and the island of Labuan, which they established as the crown colony of the Straits Settlements. By the 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, known together as the Federated Malay States, had British residents appointed to advise the Malay rulers, to whom the rulers were bound to defer to by treaty.^[41] The remaining five states in the peninsula, known as the Unfederated Malay States, while not directly under British rule, also accepted British advisers around the turn of the 20th century. Development on the peninsula and Borneo were generally separate until the 19th century. Under British rule the immigration of Chinese and Indians to serve as labourers was encouraged.^[42] The area that is now Sabah came under British control as North Borneo when both the Sultan of Brunei and the Sultan of Sulu transferred their respective territorial rights of ownership, between 1877 and 1878.^[43] In 1842, Sarawak was ceded by the Sultan of Brunei to James Brooke, whose successors ruled as the White Rajahs over an independent kingdom until 1946, when it became a crown colony.^[44]

The proclamation on the forming of the independent Federation of Malaysia by Lee Kuan Yew (top) for Singapore, Tun Fuad Stephens (centre) for North Borneo and Stephen Kalong Ningkan (bottom) for Sarawak. However, Singapore was pulled out less than two years after the merger due to racial issues.

In the Second World War, the Japanese Army invaded and occupied Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore for over three years. During this time, ethnic tensions were raised and nationalism grew.^[45] Popular support for independence increased after Malaya was reconquered, by Allied forces.^[46] Post-war British plans to unite the administration of Malaya under a single crown colony called the "Malayan Union" met with strong opposition from the Malays, who opposed the weakening of the Malay rulers and the granting of citizenship to the ethnic Chinese. The Malayan Union, established in 1946, and consisting of all the British possessions in the Malay Peninsula with the exception of Singapore, was quickly dissolved and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the autonomy of the rulers of the Malay states under British protection.^[47] During this time, mostly Chinese rebels under the leadership of the Malayan Communist Party launched guerrilla operations designed to force the British out of Malaya. The Malayan Emergency lasted from 1948 to 1960, and involved a long anti-insurgency campaign by Commonwealth troops in Malaya.^[48] After this a plan was put in place to federate Malaya with the crown colonies of North Borneo (which joined as Sabah), Sarawak, and Singapore. The proposed date of federation was 31 August 1963; however, the date was delayed until 16 September 1963 due to opposition from Indonesia's Sukarno and the Sarawak United Peoples' Party.^[49]

Federation brought heightened tensions including a conflict with Indonesia, Singapore's eventual exit in 1965,^[50]^[51] and racial strife. This strife culminated in the 13 May race riots in 1969.^[52] After the riots, the controversial New Economic Policy was launched by Prime Minister Tun Abdul Razak, trying to increase the share of the economy held by the bumiputera.^[53] Under Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad there was a period of rapid economic growth and urbanisation beginning in the 1980s. The economy shifted from being agriculturally based to one based on manufacturing and industry. Numerous mega-projects were completed, such as the Petronas Towers, the North-South Expressway, the Multimedia Super Corridor, and the new federal administrative capital of Putrajaya.^[33] However, in the late 1990s the Asian financial crisis almost caused the collapse of the currency and the stock and property markets.^[54]

Government and politics

Perdana Putra houses the office complex of the Prime Minister of Malaysia.

Malaysia is a federal constitutional elective monarchy. The system of government is closely modelled on that of the Westminster parliamentary system, a legacy of British colonial rule.^[55] The head of state is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, commonly referred to as the King. The King is elected to a five-year term by and from among the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states; the other four states, which have titular Governors, do not participate in the selection. By informal agreement the position is systematically rotated among the nine,^[55] and has been held by Abdul Halim of Kedah since December 2011.^[56] The King's role has been largely ceremonial since changes to the constitution in 1994, picking ministers and members of the upper house.^[57]

Legislative power is divided between federal and state legislatures. The bicameral federal parliament consists of the lower house, the House of Representatives and the upper house, the Senate.^[58] The 222-member House of Representatives is elected for a maximum term of five years from single-member constituencies. All 70 senators sit for three-year terms; 26 are elected by the 13 state assemblies, and the remaining 44 are appointed by the King upon the Prime Minister's recommendation.^[3] The parliament follows a multi-party system and the government is elected through a first-past-the-post system. Since independence Malaysia has been governed by a multi-party coalition known as the Barisan Nasional.^[3]

Each state has a unicameral State Legislative Assembly whose members are elected from single-member constituencies. State governments are led by Chief Ministers,^[3] who are state assembly members from the majority party in the assembly. In each of the states with a hereditary ruler, the Chief Minister is normally required to be a Malay, appointed by the ruler upon the recommendation of the Prime Minister.^[59] Parliamentary elections are held at least once every five years, the most recent of which took place in May 2013.^[3] Registered voters of age 21 and above may vote for the members of the House of Representatives and, in most of the states, for the state legislative chamber. Voting is not mandatory.^[60] Except for state elections in Sarawak, by convention state elections are held concurrently with the federal election.^[57]

Najib Razak, Prime Minister since 2009.

Executive power is vested in the Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister. The prime minister must be a member of the house of representatives, who in the opinion of the King, commands a majority in parliament. The cabinet is chosen from members of both houses of Parliament.^[3] The Prime Minister is both the head of cabinet and the head of government.^[57] The incumbent, Najib Razak, appointed in 2009, is the sixth prime minister.^[61]

Malaysia's legal system is based on English Common Law.^[3] Although the judiciary is theoretically independent, its independence has been called into question and the appointment of judges lacks accountability and transparency.^[62] The highest court in the judicial system is the Federal Court, followed by the Court of Appeal and two high courts, one for Peninsular Malaysia and one for East Malaysia. Malaysia also has a special court to hear cases brought by or against royalty.^[63] The death penalty is in use for crimes such as murder, terrorism and drug trafficking.^[64] Separate from and running parallel to the civil courts^[65] are the Syariah Courts, which apply Shariah law to Muslims^[66] in the areas of family law and religious observances.

Race is a significant force in politics, and many political parties are ethnically based.^[3] Affirmative actions such as the New Economic Policy^[53] and the National Development Policy which superseded it, were implemented to advance the standing of the bumiputera, consisting of Malays and the indigenous tribes who are considered the original inhabitants of Malaysia, over non-bumiputera such as Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indians.^[67] These policies provide preferential treatment to bumiputera in employment, education, scholarships, business, and access to cheaper housing and assisted savings. However, it has generated greater interethnic resentment.^[68] There is ongoing debate over whether the laws and society of Malaysia should reflect secular or Islamic principles.^[69] Islamic criminal laws passed by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party in state legislative assembly of Kelantan have been blocked by the federal government on the basis that criminal laws are the responsibility of the federal government.^[70]

Foreign relations and military

Najib Razak with Vladimir Putin.

A founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)^[71] and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC),^[72] the country participates in many international organisations such as the United Nations,^[73] the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation,^[74] the Developing 8 Countries,^[75] and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).^[76] It has chaired ASEAN, the OIC, and the NAM in the past.^[3] A former British colony, it is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations.^[77] Kuala Lumpur was the site of the first East Asia Summit in 2005.^[78]

Malaysia's foreign policy is officially based on the principle of neutrality and maintaining peaceful relations with all countries, regardless of their political system.^[79] The government attaches a high priority to the security and stability of Southeast Asia,^[78] and seeks to further develop relations with other countries in the region. Historically the government has tried to portray Malaysia as a progressive Islamic nation^[79] while strengthening relations with other Islamic states.^[78] A strong tenet of Malaysia's policy is national sovereignty and the right of a country to control its domestic affairs.^[57]

The policy towards territorial disputes by the government is one of pragmatism, with the government solving disputes in a number of ways, such as bringing the case to the International Court of Justice.^[80] The Spratly Islands are disputed by many states in the area, and the entirety of the South China Sea is claimed by China. Nevertheless, unlike its neighbours of Vietnam and the Philippines, Malaysia has avoided any conflicts with China.^[81] Brunei and Malaysia in 2009 announced an end to claims of each other's land, and to resolve issues related to their maritime borders.^[82] The Philippines has a dormant claim to the eastern part of Sabah. Singapore's land reclamation has caused tensions, and maritime border disputes exist with Indonesia.^[83]

An examples of Malaysian Armed Forces main weaponry assets. Clockwise from top right: Scorpène class submarine, PT-91M MBT tank, Malaysian Army paratrooper with M-16, and Su-30MKM fighter aircraft.

Malaysia has never recognised Israel and has no diplomatic ties with it.^[84] It has remained a strong supporter of the State of Palestine,^[85] and has called for Israel to be taken to the International Criminal Court over the Gaza flotilla raid.^[86] Malaysian peacekeeping forces are present in Lebanon^[87] and have contributed to many other UN peacekeeping missions.^[3]^[88]

The Malaysian Armed Forces have three branches, the Royal Malaysian Navy, the Malaysian Army, and the Royal Malaysian Air Force. There is no conscription, and the required age for voluntary military service is 18. The military uses 1.5% of the country's GDP, and employs 1.23% of Malaysia's manpower.^[89] Currently, Malaysia is undergoing major program to expand and modernise all three branches of its armed forces.

The Five Power Defence Arrangements is a regional security initiative which has been in place for almost 40 years. It involves joint military exercises held among Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom.^[90] Joint exercises and war games also been held with Brunei,^[91] China,^[92] Indonesia^[93] and the United States.^[94] Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand have agreed to host joint security force exercises to secure their maritime border and tackle issues such as illegal immigration and smuggling.^[95]^[96] There are fears that unrest in the Muslim areas of the Mindanao, Philippines^[97] and southern Thailand^[98] could spill over into Malaysia.

Subdivisions

Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and three federal territories. These are divided between two regions, with 11 states and two federal territories on Peninsular Malaysia and the other two states and one federal territory in East Malaysia. Each state is divided into districts, which are then divided into mukim. In Sabah and Sarawak districts are grouped into divisions.

A Medley of Potpourri

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Sunday, March 1, 2015

Malaysia

Etymology

History

Government and politics

Foreign relations and military

Subdivisions

1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine

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